EOR-1c: GENERAL SCREENING CRITERIA Basic Criteria 1) Current Oil-in-Place A reliable estimate of the current Sor is probably the

most important criterion to decide whether to go for an EOR process. Obviously, a high Sor is often desirable, although such is usually not the case! As a rule-of-thumb, an Sor$0.35 is desirable for most EOR processes. 2) Past Performance History The past is a good judge of the future. A good "background check" is essential as such check will reveal whether reservoir will offer favorable characteristics for EOR applications. Moreover, it will help develop a better understanding of the reservoir geology and flow mechanisms. The general expectation is that a reservoir with a trouble-some past is likely to have a trouble-some EOR future as well !

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 1

3) Avoid extremes Cautions must be applied in the following types of reservoirs: -very high gross-to-pay ratio. -small areal extent. -highly heterogeneous, fractured/faulted reservoirs. -thin pay with an extensive active aquifer. -very high and low API gravity oils -very deep and hot (for chemical processes) reservoirs.

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 2

4) Economic, geo-political and management policy criteria Current oil prices and future geo-political scenarios will most likely dictate management's decision to go ahead with EOR investments. For example, if the oil price remains at its current low level, there is less chance of any chemical flooding getting widespread field applications. However, government incentives such as tax and royalty holidays may "entice"or change the view of the management. Thus, in essence, the screening criteria include both technical and policy considerations.

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 3

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 4

Table 1: "Rule-of-Thumb" EOR Screening Criteria

EOR PROCESS CRITERIA POLYMER ALKALINE POLYMER SURFACTAN T POLYMER A-S-P CO2 MISCIBLE HC MISCIBLE NITROGEN MISCIBLE IMMISCIBLE GAS CO2 IMMISCIBLE CYCLIC STEAM STEAM FLOODING SAGD IN SITU COMBUSTIO N HOR-WELL HOR-WELL With Bottom Water

Formation type Depth, m

Sand Limited by reservoir temperature

Sand Limited by pressure < 82 > 50 > 100 > 20 >6 > 100 > 20 >6 > 100 > 20 >6 > 10 > 15 >3 >3 > 4.6 > 457 Limited by pressure > 1370 > 305 < 1220 < 1220 < 1220 >150 Limited by pressure

Temperature, 1C Permeability, md Porosity, % Net Pay Thickness, m Oil Saturation, % Initial Pressure, kPa Current Pressure, kPa Water Salinity, ppm Water Hardness, ppm Oil Density, kg/m
3

< 82 > 10

< 82 > 20

< 82 > 20

> 40

> 40

> 30 > MMP > MMP

> 30

> 30

> 50

> 50 > 6900 > 6900

> 50 < 17240 < 17240 < 17240 < 17240 < 17240 < 17240

< 100,000 < 5000

< 100,000 < 3000 > 850

< 100,000 < 3000

< 100,000 < 3000 > 850 < 904 < 10 < 904 < 10 < 850 < 10 < 965 < 3000 < 1000 > 825 > 50 > 0.5 > 0.5 > 0.5 825-1000 825-1000 > 800

O @Reservoir, mPaAs Vertical Permeability, md Clays Present Gas Cap Present Bottom Water Present Fractures Present Active Water Drive Oil Mobility, md/mPaAs Oil Content, fraction Transmissibility, mdAm/mPaAs

< 20

< 50

< 20

< 50

No No No No No

No No No

No No No No No No No No No No

No No

No No

No No No No No No

No No > 0.1 No > 0.1 No > 0.1 No > 0.1 No No > 0.02 > 0.065 > 16 > 16

No

> 0.065 > 16

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 5

TABLE 2 - SUMMARY OF SCREENING CRITERIA FOR EOR METHODS

Oil Properties Detail Table in Ref. 16 1 Oil Saturation Formation (% PV) Type Composition Gas Injection Methods (Miscible) High percent >40_75_ Sandstone of C1 to C7 or carbonate High percent >30_80_ Sandstone of C2 to C7 or carbonate High percent >20_55_ Sandstone of C5 to C12 or carbonate NC >35_70_ NC Reservoir Characteristics Net Thickness (ft) Thin unless dipping Thin unless dipping Wide range Average Permeability (md) NC Temperatur e (oF) NC

EOR Method Nitrogen and flue gas Hydrocarbon

Gravity (oAPI) >35_48_

Viscosity (cp) <0.4`0.2`

Depth (ft) >6,000

>23_41_ >22_36_a

<3`0.5`

NC

>4,000 >2,500a

NC

CO2

<10`1.5`

NC

NC

1-3

Immiscible gases

>12

<600

NC if dipping and/or good vertical permeability NC

NC

>1,800

NC

Micellar/ Polymer, ASP, and Alkaline Flooding Polymer Flooding Combustion

>20_35_

<35`13`

>15

<150,>10

>10_16P7

Steam

>8 to 13.5P7

Surface mining

7 to 11

<5,000 9 1,200 <200,000 9 4,700 Zero cold flow

(Enhanced) Waterflooding >35_53_ Light, Sandstone intermediate, preferred some organic acids for alkaline floods NC >50_80_ Sandstone preferred Thermal/ Mechanical >50_72_ Some High-porosity asphaltic sand/ components sandstone NC >40_66_ High-porosity sand/ sandstone NC >8 wt% Mineable sand tar sand

>10_450_

>9,000`3,250

>200`80

NC

>10_800_b >50c >200_2.540_d

<9,000

>200`140

>10

<11,500`3,500

>100_135

>20 >10e

<4,500`1,500

NC

NC

>3:1 overburden to sand ratio

NC

NC = not critical. Underlined values represent the approximate mean or average for current field projects. a See Table 3 of Ref. 16 b> 3md from some carbonate reservoirs if the intent is to sweep only the fracture system. C Transmissibility > 20 md-ft/cpd Transmissibility > 50 md-ft/cpe See depth.

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 6

TABLE 3 -HYDROCARBON-MISCIBLE FLOODING Description Hydrocarbon-miscible flooding consists of injecting light hydrocarbons through the reservoir to form a miscible flood. Three different methods have been used. The first-contact miscible method uses about 5% PV slug of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), such as propane, followed by natural gas or gas and water. A second method, called enriched (condensing) gasdrive, consists of injecting a 10 to 20% PV slug of natural gas that is enriched with ethane through hexane (C2 through C6), followed by lean gas (dry, mostly methane) and possibly water. The enriching components are transferred from the gas to the oil. The third and most common method, called high-pressure (vaporizing) gasdrive, consists of injecting lean gas at high pressure to vaporize C2 through C6 components from the crude oil being displaced. A combination of condensing/ vaporizing mechanisms also occurs at many reservoir conditions, even though we usually think that one process is dominant. Immiscible criteria are given in Table 3 of Ref 1. Mechanisms Hydrocarbon miscible flooding recovers crude oil by (1) generating miscibility (in the condensing and vaporizing gasdrive); (2) increasing the oil volume (swelling); (3) decreasing the oil viscosity; and (4) immiscible gas displacement, especially enhanced gravity drainage with the right reservoir conditions. Technical Screening Guides Recommended Crude Oil Gravity, oAPI Viscosity, cp Composition Reservoir Oil saturation, % PV Type of formation Net thickness Average permeability Depth, ft Temperature, F
o

Range of Current Projects 24 to 54 (miscible) 0.04 to 2.3

>23 <3 High percentage of light hydrocarbons >30 Sandstone or carbonate with a minimum of fractures and high-permeability streaks Relatively thin unless formation is dipping Not critical if uniform >4,000

30 to 98

4,040 to 15,900

Temperature can have a significant effect on the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP); it normally raises the pressure required. However, this is accounted for in the deeper reservoirs that are needed to contain the high pressures for the lean gasdrives.

Limitations The minimum depth is set by the pressure needed to maintain the generated miscibility. The required pressure ranges from about 1,200 psi for the LPG process to 4,000 to 5,000 psi for the high-pressure gasdrive, depending on the oil. A steeply dipping formation is very desirable to permit some gravity stabilization of the displacement, which normally has an unfavorable mobility ratio. Problems Viscous fingering results in poor vertical and horizontal sweep efficiency. Large quantities of valuable hydrocarbons are required. Solvent may be trapped and not recovered in the LPG method.

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 7

TABLE 4 - CO2 FLOODING

Description CO2 flooding is carried out by injecting large quantities of CO2 (30% or more of the hydrocarbon PV) into the reservoir. Although CO2 is not first-contact miscible with the crude oil, the CO2 extracts the light-to-intermediate components from the oil and, if the pressure is high enough, develops miscibility to displace the crude oil from the reservoir (MMP). Immiscible displacement are less effective, but they recover oil better than waterflooding (see below and Table 3 of Ref. 1 for immiscible criteria). Mechanisms CO2 recovers crude oil by (1) swelling the crude oil (CO2 is very soluble in high-gravity oils); (2) lowering the viscosity of the oil (much more effectively than N2 or CH4); (3) lowering the interfacial tension between the oil and the CO2 oil phase in the near-miscible regions; and (4) generation of miscibility when pressure is high enough (see below). Technical Screening Guides Recommended Range of Current Projects Crude Oil Gravity, oAPI >22 27 to 44 Viscosity, cp <10 0.3 to 6 Composition High percentage of intermediate hydrocarbons (especially C5 to C12) Reservoir Oil saturation, %PV >20 15 to 70 Type of formation Sandstone or carbonate and relatively thin unless dipping. Average permeability Not critical if sufficient injection rates can be maintained. Depth and temperature For miscible displacement, depth must be great enough to allow injection pressures greater than the MMP, which increases with temperature (see Fig. 7 of Ref. 1) and for heavier oils. Recommended depths for CO2 floods of typical Permian Basin oils follow. Oil Gravity, oAPI Depth must be greater than (ft) For CO2-miscible flooding >40 2,500 32 to 39.9 2,800 28 to 31.9 3,300 22 to 27.9 4,000 <22 Fails miscible, screen for immiscible* For immiscible CO2 flooding (lower oil recovery) 13 to 21.9 1,800 <13 All oil reservoirs fail at any depth At < 1,800 ft, all reservoirs fail screening criteria for either miscible or immiscible flooding with supercritical CO2. Limitations A good source of low-cost CO2 is required. Problems Corrosion can cause problems, especially if there is early breakthrough of CO2 in producing wells. *All reservoirs with oils with gravities greater than 22oAPI can qualify for some immiscible displacement at pressures less than the MMP. In general, the reduced oil recovery will be proportional to the difference between the MMP and flooding pressure achieved. [These arbitrary criteria have been selected to provide a safety margin of approximately 500 feet above typical reservoir fracture depth for the required miscibility (MMP) pressures, and about 300 psi above the CO2 critical pressure for the immiscible floods at the shallow depths. Reservoir temperature is included and assumed from depth. See Fig. 7 of Ref. 1 and text for the depth/ temperature/ MMP relationship.]

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 8

TABLE 5 - NITROGEN AND FLUE-GAS FLOODING Description Nitrogen and flue gas are oil recovery methods that use these inexpensive nonhydrocarbon gases to displace oil in systems that may be either miscible or immiscible depending on the pressure and oil composition. Because of their low cost, large volumes of these gases may be injected. Nitrogen and flue gas are also considered for use as chase gases in hydrocarbon-miscible and CO2 floods. Mechanisms Nitrogen and flue gas flooding recover oil by (1) vaporizing the lighter components of the crude oil and generating miscibility if the pressure is high enough; (2) providing a gasdrive where a significant portion of the reservoir volume is filled with low-cost gases, and (3) enhancing gravity drainage in dipping reservoirs (miscible or immiscible). Technical Screening Guides Recommended Crude Oil Gravity, oAPI Viscosity, cp Composition Reservoir Oil saturation, % PV Type of formation Net thickness Average permeability Depth, ft Temperature, oF >35 <0.4 High percentage of light hydrocarbons

Range of Current Projects 38 to 54 (miscible) 0.07 to 0.3

>40 59 to 80 Sandstone or carbonate with few fractures and high permeability streaks Relatively thin unless formation is dipping Not critical >6,000 10,000 to 18,500 Not critical for screening purposes, even though the deep reservoirs required to accommodate the high pressure will have high temperatures.

Limitations Developed miscibility can only be achieved with light oils and at very high pressures; therefore, deep reservoirs are needed. A steeply dipping reservoir is desired to permit gravity stabilization of the displacement, which has an unfavorable mobility ratio. For miscible or immiscible enhanced gravity drainage, a dipping reservoir may be crucial to the success of the project. Problems Viscous fingering results in poor vertical and horizontal sweep efficiency. The non-hydrocarbon gases must be separated from the saleable produced gas. Injection of flue gas has caused corrosion problems in the past. At present, nitrogen is being injected into large successful projects that formerly used flue gas.

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 9

Group Exercise 5.1: (a)Make your choice for EOR method, with justification, for the following five reservoirs (b)What additional data will you ask for and why?
Type Depth, ft Temp, deg C Ca++,ppm Mg ++, ppm Salinity, ppm VDP API Viscosity, cP K, mD H, ft So Porosity Pi, psi Current P, psi WOR, bbl/bbl 1 Carbonate 9000 200 5000 1000 100000 0.8 38 1.2 10 150 0.45 0.1 3800 2500 0.5 2 Sandstone 600 70 500 50 9000 0.7 13 2000 3000 120 0.5 0.3 250 100 0 3 Sandstone 3000 85 1000 100 7000 06 20 150 2000 15 0.65 0.25 1500 1000 0.1 4 Sandstone 3500 95 75 25 1500 0.45 19 40 2100 25 0.65 0.25 1800 1200 0.4 5 Sandstone 2500 80 500 100 15000 0.55 30 10 500 30 0.3 0.21 1300 1200 10

Gas Processes: Principles and Field Applications ! Hemanta K. Sarma ! General Screening Criteria - 10