Optimal load flow for electrical power systems with multiterminal HVDC links

U . D e Martinis
F. Gagliardi A. Losi V. Mangoni F. Rossi

Indexing termJ. Convertors, Load and voltage regulation, Power elecrronics

Abstract: A modcl for obtaining the optimal operating point of electrical power systems with multiterminal HVDC links is drawn. The modcl takes into account all the boundary conditions on AC and DC quantities, and can describe both series and parallel configurations of the convertors. Numerical applications to a test network are carried out.

List of symbols

In this paper, vector-matrix notation is used; all vectors are defined to be column vectors. The symbol T denotes transposition of vector or matrix. Let D denote a diagonal matrix. The symbol D(xi) denotes the n x n diagonal matrix whose elements along the principal diagonal are x,, x 2 , ..., x,. Let g(x,) denote a scalar function of the scalar argument I,; the symbol D [ g ( x , ) ] denotes the n x n diagonal matrix whose elements along the principal diagonal are g(xl),y(x,), . . . , g(x,). Moreover : N,, = number of AC network nodes (besides the neutral node) N,, = number of nodes of the network made of the links between the convertors (besides the reference node) N , = number of active generation nodes N ; = number of reactive generation nodes N , = number of converters A = No,x N active generation connection matrix; its , elements a,, are chosen with the following rule: uij = 1 if the ith A C network node is the jth active generation node; aij = 0,otherwise A = N , , x Ni reactive generation connection matrix; its elements a:j are chosen with the following rule: a:, = 1 if the ith AC network node is the jth reactive generation node; ai, = 0. otherwise B = N,, x N , convertors AC connection matrix; its elements are chosen with the following rule: b,j = 1, if the j t h convertor is at the ith AC network node; bij = 0, otherwise
Paper 6926C (P9). reccived 30th January 1989 Prof. De Martinis II with the Electronic Institute, Univenity of Salerno, 84100 Salerno (Baronissi),Italy Prof. Gagliardi and Prof. Mangoni are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Naples, Via Claudio, 21-80125 Napoli, Italy Dr. Losi and Prof. Row are with the Engineering Faculty, University of Cassino, Via Zamosch, 03043 Cassino (FR), Italy I E E P R O C E E D I N G S , Vol. 137, PI. C, N o . 2, M A R C H I990

convertors-DC connection matrix; its elements cij are chosen with the following rule: cij = 1, if the jth convertor is at the ith DC network node and its current is oriented towards the network; cij = - 1, if the jth convertor is at the ith D C network node and its current is oriented leaving the network; c , = 0, otherwise ~ K = N , x N, converter kind diagonal matrix; its elements are chosen with the following rule: kii = 1, if the ith convertor is a rectifier; kii = -1, if the ith convertor is an inverter P , = N , vector of active productions Q, = N$vector of reactive productions P , = N o , vector of nodal active demands Q, = N vector of nodal reactive demands , V = N,, vector of magnitudes of the AC nodal voltages 6 = (Nac 1) vector of arguments of the AC nodal voltages Y = No, x N , , matrix whose elements are the magnitudes of the elements of the complex nodal admittance matrix 0 = N,, x N,, matrix whose elements are the arguments of the elements of the complex nodal admittance matrix k , = 3J2/n U = N, vector of tap ratios of convertor transformer U = N , vector of convertor angles (ignition angle for rectifiers; n - y for inverters, y being the extinction angle) U = N , vector of overlap angles R, = N, vector of equivalent commutation resistances I, = N , vector of convertor currents P , = N , vector of convertor active powers Q, = N , vector of convertor reactive powers E , = N,, vector of D C nodal voltages I, = N,, vector of D C nodal currents G = N,, x N D C nodal admittance matrix , X = vector of lower bounds for the generic vector X X M = vector of upper bounds for the generic vector X f = objective function cp = equality constraints U = equality constraints deriving from the transformation of direct inequality constraints n(11)= functional inequality constraints ( E : active ones) I = Lagrange multipliers associated with equality constraints cp p ( F ) = Lagrange multipliers associated with functional inequality constraints n (6: with active ones, E ) p = Lagrange multipliers associated with equality constraints U F = Lagrangian function
= N,, x N,
~

139

Introduction

Over the past years, the study of the direct current links in an AC network has received increasing attention: this is due to the possibility of building HVDC links, at first between two nodes and then among many nodes of the network. A basic step in the study of such systems is the formulation of models for the steady-state operation of the whole system. Load-flow problems have been studied to a great extent [l, 21, while optimal load-flow studies have been carried out to a lesser extent [ 3 ] . The aim of this paper then is to extend the optimisation studies which are usually carried out on purely AC power systems to systems with multiterminal HVDC links. To do this, a model is derived which can describe both series and parallel configurations of the convertors. The model treats the equalities and the inequalities on the AC and DC parts of the system simultaneously; this is because we think that the DC part always weights on the optimality, even if the objective does not concern that part directly. As regards the solution technique, we think the global approach has to be adopted; this, in comparison with decoupling approaches, has the undeniable advantages of greater convergence reliability and of convergence to the true optimal point. As regards the optimisation algorithm, we adopt a first-order algorithm, which has already shown good characteristics of robustness. In the last part of the paper, examples are given which illustrate the features of the model and the validity of the solution technique.
2 Optimisation model

The representation of the whole system is carried out after having described the AC network, the convertors and the DC links among the convertors.

2.1 AC network The AC network I S described, as usual, in terms of nodal voltages and powers:
AP,
A'Q,
~

P,

P( v. (5) = 0

(1)

Q,

Q(V, 4

(3
(3)
(4)

Here, the ith terms of P( V , 6) and Q ( V , 6) are Pi(I/, 6) = ZkG k;,

CO5 ( T ,
~

Tk

eLk)

Q,( V , 6) = V,Z k G y k sin

( T ~
~

T~ T

0,)
=

where T denotes the N,, vector terms P , and Q, are given by P, = P,

[0, hTIT and the

+ BP,

(5)
(6)

Q, = Q d + B Q c

Moreover, one also has to take into account the boundary conditions on nodal and branch quantities, the former being

vy G y < v;"
P; 4 Pgi< P;

(7)

(8)

QG:

Q,, G QZ
Qji)4 SE

(9)
(10)

J ( P j L+

In an electrical power system with multiterminal HVDC links, the convertors can be either series or parallel connected. In the first case, only the configuration of Fig. 1 is
m
n

In eqn. 10, it is assumed that the first N , reactive generation nodes have the same numeration as the N , active generation nodes. The constraints on the branch quantities are:

I T; - T t I < AE
J[V:

(11)

+ vi

21/;b ( T i COS

- Tk)]/Zik

< 1:

(12)

where i and k refer to the nodes to which the branch is incident and ztkis the modulus of its impedance.

2.2 Convertors The convertors are described in terms of DC voltages and currents, active and reactive powers, transformer tap ratios, convertor angles and overlap angles:
Fig. 1
rn. n a n d p

P Series conjiyurarion
are AC network nodes

P,

D(I,,)CTEd D(P,i)tgV

(13)
(14)

Q,

possible; on the contrary, in the second case, many configurations, such as those in Fig. 2, are possible. In the following, a model for optimal load-flow studies is derived which is indifferently valid for series and parallel configurations.
m n

CTEd= k,D(ai)D[cos ( a i ) ] B T V- K D ( R , , ) I ,
tgcp = D [ ( h , ) ] - ' J [ l

(15) (16) (17)

- h2]
~

U = K { a COS [COS U

(2/kI)KD(R,i)

{ D I ( ~ T ~ ) i l } ~ l C D ( ~ i )--.l ~ , I lI

In eqns. 15, 17 and 18, the value of k , derives from the choice of the same values on AC and DC sides of the convertors for basis voltage and power of p.u. systems. In eqn. 16, the term h is expressed by
h
=

( 1 / k , ) { D [ ( B T V ) , ]-}' [ D ( u J ]-'CTEd

(18)

P
Fig. 2 Parallel configurations m,nand p are AC network nodes

I_
P

Also, for the convertors, some inequality constraints have to be satisfied 14, 51 :
1,- G
E:

I, < I," < 1 C T E , I < &?

(19)

(20)

I40

IEE P R O C E E D I N G S , Vol. 137, Pt. C , No. 2, M A R C H 1990

Jrn

urn
U

<J <EM < U g uM < !AM

(21)

Solution technique

(22)
(23)

3.1 Solution approach

In eqn. 20, the lower limit is intended to express in a simplified way the voltage dependent current limit [4].
2.3 DC links

The DC links are described in terms of nodal voltages and injected currents, looking at them as a network. Under the hypothesis that there are no direct current loads, the injected currents can be expressed against the convertor currents. This is

I,

= GE,

(24)

I , = CI, (25) Also, for the network of the DC links, the operation is correct if some nodal and branch constraints are met. The nodal inequalities are upper bounds for the absolute value of the node-to-ground voltages. In the case of parallel configuration, that value is not always greater than the corresponding maximum value for the nodes in which the convertors are installed. Now, the absolute value of the voltage across the convertors have already been bounded with eqn. 20; then, and if the upper bounds for the absolute values of the internal node-toground voltages are not less than the upper bounds for the convertor nodes, those constraints would be unnecessary. O n the contrary, this is not true for series configuration, and the following constraint has to be considered:

The model described in Section 2 can be solved with a decoupling approach or with a global approach. The decoupling approach would require the formulation of two (or more) optimisation subproblems. In such a case, the first trouble to overcome would be finding suitable objectives for each subproblem, with the aim of obtaining a true optimal point. For instance, in the case of AC/DC decoupling [l], the influence of the DC part on the objective assumed for the AC subproblem should be correctly taken into account, and vice urrsu, aiming at the global optimisation. Even if this problem could be overcome, troubles of convergence and satisfaction of some inequalities could arise, like the ones observed in Reference 9 for the AC decoupled optimal load flows. Then, we believe that the approach which should be adopted is the global one. Obviously, this can lead to great computer memory requirements; but the greater convergence reliability and the better determination of the optimality conditions should not be sacrificed.

3.2 Solution algorithm

IE,I<Ly
The branch inequalities concern the line currents:

(26)
(27)

I E,

E , I ,'rtk< 1;

where rik is the resistance of the i, k branch. Following the description of the three subsystems, the compacted representation of the whole system is
AP,
A'Q,
-

P,

BP,

P ( V . 6) = 0
Q ( V ,6 ) = 0

(28)
(29)

Qd -

BQ,

P,

D(I,,)C'E,

0 0

(30) (31)
=

Q, - D(p,i)l~c~ 0 =
C'E,
-

~ID(UJD[COS (cii)]BTl' + KD(R,,)I,

-

(32)
(33)

tg9 - D[(h,)]-'J[I

h2]

=0

The solution algorithm we adopt is the latest version of the sequential gradient-restoration algorithm (SGRA) [lo, 1 I]. Let f denote the objective function, 9 denote the equality constraints of eqns. 28-35 and 71 the functional inequalities of eqns. 1@ 12, 20 and 27. Moreover, let the constraints of eqns. 7 9, 19, 21-23 and 26 be referred to as direct inequalities; in the SGRA the direct inequality constraints are transformed into equality constraints through suitable transformations; let CJ denote these equality constraints. Due to the structure of U , it is possible to obtain the associated Lagrange multipliers p in an easy way which we are going to describe. Active functional inequalities % arc kept as equalities and, in each iteration, the set of active inequalities is updated. The SGRA basically consists of a sequence of twophase cycles. each composed of a gradient phase and a restoration phase. Here, we report the basics of the equations for each phase; more details can be found in References I O and 11. The gradient phase commences when all the constraints are satisfied; it involves one iteration and is characterised by

U - K { u cosKl[cos r - ( 2 / k l ) K D ( R , , ) ( D [ ( B 7 v ) , 7 i - '

x [D(ui)]-'l,] -

9)

0 (34)

Cf,

GE,

135)

together with the inequalities eqns. 7-12, 19 23 and 26-27. It is worth remembering that, for a parallel configuration, the constraint of eqn. 26 can be contained in the constraint of eqn. 20. In eqn. 33, h is still given by eqn. 18. As regards the objective function of the model, it can be chosen to reflect the operating costs or the power losses [6, 71. Also, in order to account for the quality of the supply in terms of nodal voltage values, it is possible to choose an objective function which depends on the voltage magnitudes themselves 181; or, it is possible that the presence of the DC part can lead to consideration of an objective function which concerns the DC part itself.
I E E P R O C E E D I N G S , V o l . 137. Pt. C. No 2>M A R C H 1990

The value of J is obtained through a one-dimensional search. The matrices M , and M , are diagonal; their form depends on the transformation of the direct inequalities into equalities.
141

The restoration phase involves one or more iterations: each of which is characterised by

Table 1 : Characteristics and limits of AC n e t w o r k , P.u.

Line

X
00575 01852 01737 00379 0 1983 01763 00414 0 2560 01160 00820 00420 0 2080 0 5560 00599 02000 0 2080 01100 0 0845 0 2090 0 0749 0 1499 0 1400 0 2559 0 1304 0 1987 0 1997 02185 0 2020 0 1923 0 1292 0 0680 0 0236 01790 0 2700 0 3292 0 3800 0 2087 0 3960 0 4253 0 6027 0 4533

wC2 00264 00204 00184 00042 00209 00187 00045

Off nom
tap ratio

/U

AM,
des!
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

{
1 1 2 3 2 2 4 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 14 15 15 16 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 27 27 29
~

I
2 3 4 4 5 6 6 12 7 7 8 9 10 28 28 11 10 17 20 21 22 13 14 15 16 15 18 23 17 19 20 22 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 30
=

(44)

0 01 92 0 0452 0 0570 00132 0 0472 0 0581 00119 0 0460 0 0267 0 01 20

(46)

0 932 00102 00085 00045 0 978 0 969 00065 00214

(47)
j.=,.+Ay

(48)
(49)

i=z+Az

0 01 69 0 0636

where x i s intended to force the constraint error in [i.'. 2'1' to be smaller than in [yr. z']'. Also, the matrices M , and M , are diagonal and have a form which depends on the transformation of the direct inequalities into equalities.
4 Applications

0 0324 0 0936 0 0348 0 0727

0 1231 0 0662 0 0945 0 2210 0 1070 0 1000 0 0824 0 0639 0 0340 00116 01150 0 1320 0 1885 0 2544 0 1093

The AEP 30-busbar network, modified as in Reference 12 with the addition of five convertors in parallel configuration and with two SVs in place of the capacitors in nodes I O and 24 (Fig. 3), is considered. The characteristics of the AC part of the system are given in Table 1 ; Table 2 reports the values of the equivalent commutation resistances. while the characteristics of the DC links are given in Table 3. The model described in Section 2 is adopted in order to find the optimal operating point relative to two operating strategies, each for two load conditions. The first operating strategy is an economical one; the cost of the active power production is minimised, while the constraints of eqns. 28- 35 and 7-12, 19--23. 26-27 are

1033

02198 0 3202 0 2399 100 M V A

130 130 065 130 1 30 065 090 065 070 130 065 065 032 032 032 065 065 032 032 032 032 065 032 032 032 016 016 016 016 016 032 032 016 016 016 016 016 065 016 016 016

P,,,,,

142

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, PI

c. No

M A R C H 1990

Table 2 : Equivalent c o m m u t a t i o n resistances, p.u.

Table 5 : Loads, P.U.

i Pd

Converter 1 2 3
4

R,

Q,

0.0474 0.0474 0.0237 0.0474 0.0602

P,,,, = 100 M W

Table 3 : Characteristics and limits o f D C links, D.U.

Line
i l

/M

1 2 2 4

5 3 5 5

00199 0.0228 0.0164 00173

=

1.48 1.11 1.85 1.11

P,,,,

100 M W

Table 4 : Coefficients o f economic objective function

i a

b 35.1 38.9

1 2

5.00 5.00

4.44 406
Table 6: Results

1 0000 2 0217 3 0024 4 0076 5 0942 6 0000 7 0228 8 0300 9 0000 10 0 0 5 8 11 0000 12 0 1 1 2 13 0000 14 0 0 6 2 15 0 0 8 2 16 0 0 3 5 17 0 0 9 0 18 0 0 3 2 19 0 0 9 5 20 0 0 2 2 21 0 1 7 5 22 0000 23 0 0 3 2 24 0 0 8 7 25 0000 26 0 0 3 5 27 0000 28 0000 29 0 0 2 4 30 0 1 0 6
P,,,,
=

0000 0127 0012 0016 0190 0000 0109 0300 0000 0020
0000 0075 0000 0016 0025 0018 0058 0009 0034 0007 0112

0000
0016 0067 0000 0023 0000 0000 0009 0019

100 MVA Light load economic voltage dispatch profile 08834 05529 01525 01587 0 0326 02215 02085 00702 00647 10152 10107 10000 10888 10360 10004 09965 09963 09946 09900 10465 10392 10404 10339 10327 1 0363 10357 10290 10283 10307 10337 10342 10304 1 0314 10260 10174 1 0268 09942 10172 10116 07499 07124 05875 04393 0 01 83 01210 04417

Limits low Generator active powers 00000 p, > 00000 pm Generator reactive powers Qm -05000 Qs2 -04000 as3 - 0 1000 Qm - 0 1500 %5 -08000 Static VAR sources QcI8 -04000 Qs7, -04000 Generator voltage magnitudes VI 10000 v2 10000 v 5 10000 v, 1 10000 VI 3 10000 Load voltage magnitudes v3 09500 v, 09500 V8 09500 v, 09500 v, 09500 v, 09500 v ,0 09500 VI 2 09500 VI 4 09500 v5 7 09500 v,6 09500 V ?I 09500 V ?8 09500 V ?9 09500 v*o 09500 v2 1 09500 v,, 09500 v23 09500 v2, 09500 v25 09500 v,, 09500 v2 7 09500 V28 09500 v29 09500 v 0 3 09500

high

Heavy load economic voltage dispatch profile 16213 1 2875 04766 05696 01407 0 2860 04496 0 1000 0 1000 1 0505 10451 1 0102 1 1000 10684 1 0120 10032 09950 09932 09808 10459 10338 10500 10349 10307 10361 10292 10196 10161 10198 10227 10237 10216 10179 10095 09917 10128 09880 09927 09811 14047 15187 05355 06598 00313 01287 07439 00487 00963 10610 10583 10460 10465 10303 10149 10046 09975 10094 09830 10209 10092 10260 10109 10068 10116 10045 09951 09914 09951 09985 09998 09988 09967 09965 09784 10050 09886 09848 09731

20000 20000 15000 15000 02000 03000 12000 0 1000 01000 1 1000 1 1000 1 1000 1 1000 1 1000 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500 10500

- 0 1195 -00482

10418 10388 10381 10416 10214 10103 10038 10013 10132 09942 10174 10016 10239 10137 10094 1 0109 10017 10005 09967 09976 09948 09950 09985 09883 09995 09906 10107 09952 10009 09952 143

IEE P R O C E E D I N G S , Vol 137, Pr C, N o 2. M A R C H I990

Table 6 (continued)
~

low

Limits high

Heavy load economic voltage dispatch profile

Light load economic voltage dispatch profile

Generator voltage angles, degrees

4 4 4,
6, 3

6, (slack)
-

0 00 0.82

0 00 0 60

- 7 74 - 5.47 - 7.1

- 7 a6 - 5 37

-692 139 - 1 59 -215 -503 -242 - 5 37 - 7 09 -692 -778 - 7 ao - 7 28 - 7 37 - a 30 - a 38 -a12 -757 -756
-

0 00 -079 - 4 22 -292 - 3 64
-099 - 1 14 - 127 - 2 76 - 141 - 2 92 - 3 78 -364 -406 -409 - 3 a4 - 3 90 -433 - 4 31 -425 -400 - 3 99 -422 - 4 22 - 3 55 -375 - 3 00 - 0 74 -360 -403 1 3179 13077 13054 1 3100 1 3139 0 2000 0 2776 0 1000 0 2251 0 4027 0 2636 - 0 3630 -01305 - 0 2949 0 5291 0 061 1 01172 0 0384 0 0933 o 1468 0 991 1 1 0214 10111 10234 0 9945 11 1 2 1 6 3 98 16397 16398 11 06 3 59 3 59 0 71 2 96 7 aa
66 446 00x2

0 00
0 42
- 2 34 -

Load voltage angles. degrees

o ao

0 32

-1 ai -210 -217 - 5 00 - 2 49 - 5 47 -718 -718

-

1 44 1 a3 1 a7 -013 1 a3 0 32 - 0 51
-

a 00

o ao

629

630
Direct voltages

-799 - 7 46 -747 - 8 41 - a 47 - a 20 - 7 64 - 7 64 -819 -811 - 6 94 - 7 37 - 5 95 - 1 4 2 - 7 21 -811 10000 10000 1 .oooo 10000 1 .oooo 14800 14800 14800 14800 14800 14800 07400 11100 11100 12400 13845 13695 13668 i 3747 13806 02000 05589 01160 03390 08139 0 2769 - 0 7653 -01585 - 0 4661 1 1236 0 0559 0 2703 0 0467 0 1530 0 3531 0.9000 0.9000 0.9000 0.9000 7.00 90.00 90.00 90.00 7 00 1 1000 i 1000 1 1000 1 1000 1 1000 9000 16400 16400 16400 9000 6000 6000
6000

- 06 - 8 03 - 6 a7 - 7 31 -5

aa

- 1 12 -716 - 8 07 12888 12729 12658 12756 12832 0 281 0 03215 0 3079 o 4386 o 7871 0 3621
- 0 4093 - 3898 - 0 5595

- 1 17 - 1 07 - o a i -071 - 1 24 - 1 24 - 1 09 - 0 69 -066 -095 - 0 60 -009 -030 0 37 2 96 - 0 25 -069 12788 1 2618 12542 12663 1 2728 0 3021 0 3400 0 3328 o 3758 0 7465

6 n v e r t e r currents

/',
IC2

;..
/c,

0 2000 0 1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1 000

active powers

;inverter
D

o 3863
- 0 4290

1 0100

-04174 - 0 4759 0 9502 0 1250 o i 678 0 1643 01756 0 3474

01169 0 1457 o 1381 0 1929 o 3847 0 9476 10030 o 9899 1 0107 o 9582 1597 162 4 3 161 44 16390 14 29 3 68 3 a7 1 a7 5 47 11 55 13828 00045

a2

a3
a4
a5

1 oooa 1 oaog 10517 10845 10201 927 16398 16398 16398 a94 394 636 078 410 1411 136 92 00189

o 9581
10020 0 9943 10043 0 9633 1583 160 59 159 45 16206 1350 3 99 3 76 1 a3 4 39 11 53
66 883 00033

Converter angles, degrees

=I
02

03
04

0 5

Converter overlaps, degrees

"1

U2
"3
"4

U5

6000 6000

Performance functions Economic Voltage profile

144

I E E P R O C E E D I N G S , Vu1 137, Pi. C , N o . 2, M A R C H 1990

satisfied. The objective function has the form f = P;D(ai)P, + bTP, + uTc (50) where the symbol U denotes a vector whose components are equal to one; the values of a, b and c are given in Table 4 of Reference 13. The second operating strategy is a supply quality one; the AC nodal voltage magnitudes are kept as close as possible to their nominal values, while the constraints of eqns. 28-35 and 7-12, 19-23, 2&27 are satisfied. The objective function is [8]
f = ( V - V)T(V - V ) (51) in which V represents the N o , vector of nominal values of AC nodal voltage magnitudes; in the application, they are given the mean between the lower and the upper bounds of voltage magnitude. The first load condition is the nominal one, whose values are given in Table 5 ; the second load condition is a light one, where the loads have half the value of the nominal condition. Table 6 reports the results obtained with the technique of Section 3. The transformer tap ratios have been taken as continuous variables. Actually, there is no exact method for solving discrete nonlinear optimisation problems. Then, the discreteness of the tap ratios can be accounted for only in an heuristic way; for instance, with a two-step procedure. In the first step, the optimisation would be carried out by taking the transformer taps as continuous variables, while in the second step, the taps would be assigned the nearest value to the one found in the previous step and a new optimisation process would be carried out without changing the value of the taps.
5
Conclusion

In the last part of the paper, numerical applications to a test network have been made: four cases have been tested, which derive form the consideration of two different objectives (an economical objective and a quality one) for two load conditions. The results confirm the validity of the model which has been drawn and of the solution technique adopted. In particular, the flexibility of the model has been proven by the possibility of treating different optimisation problems characterised by different objective functions and this possibility, together with the capability of treating various load conditions, has confirmed the efficiency of the solution technique in terms of both approach and algorithm.

References

In order to extend the optimisation studies, which are usually carried out on purely AC systems, to electrical systems with multiterminal HVDC links, an optimisation model for these systems, which can describe both series and parallel configurations of the convertors, has been drawn. The model takes into account simultaneously the equalities and the inequalities on the AC and DC parts of the system. For the solution technique, it has been proposed that the global approach, with its undeniable advantages of great convergence reliability and of convergence to the true optimal point, is adopted. The optimisation algorithm proposed for solving the model is the SGRA, which has already shown good characteristics of robustness.

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