Chapter 2 Maps: Geography’s Basic Tools

Map projection: transferring features of the globe onto the flat surface of a map
Mercator projection: type of projection where the compass bearings are
correct, but the land masses, distances and areas are distorted.
(marine charts)
Equal-area projection: map projection where all land masses are accurate
in relation to each other.
Winkel Tripel projection: best map projection for providing balance of
shape and size.
Basic features of a map: Title, legend, scale, date of publication, direction,
borders.
Scale: measurement on a map that represents an actual distance on the Earth’s
surface.
Large-scale maps: large amount of detail in a small area; < 1:50 000; used
for planning, hiking, and military purposes.
Small-scale maps: small amount of detail in a small area; > 1:250 000;
used for political, physical, and economic information.
Types of Maps
General-purpose maps: provides many types of information on one map.
Such as bodies of water, roads, parks, elevations, railway lines, towns
and cities.
Thematic maps: designed to show information on a particular topic.
Topographic maps: use symbols to represent a variety of features.
Area symbols: represent an area through shading and coloured
patterns.
Line symbols: represent features which are linear, like roads.
Point symbols: represent features which occupy a single point.

Special interest!
Interpreting the map: know how to measure and convert a scale into real
distance and how to follow lines of elevation.

Chapter 3 Locating Places on a Map

Compass rose: diagram showing directions and bearings.

Compass points: direction on a compass.
Cardinal points: N, S, E, W.
Ordinal points: NE, NW, SE, SW.
Compass bearings: degrees on a compass measured in a clockwise
direction from 0° to 360°.
Grid systems
Alphanumeric grid: uses letters and numbers to identify squares on a grid
pattern. When writing, write the letter and then the number.
 Map /military grid: blue lines on a topographic map used to locate places.
Easting: vertical line running from top to bottom of a map and
refers to the column on the right of the line.
Northing: horizontal line running from side to side of a map and
refers to the row above the line.
“Read right up”: refers to the way you should read a map grid,
first read the number to the right (of the easting line) and then read the
numbers up (above the northing line)
**Remember that the squares can be subdivided and you may
need to record a 6 digit grid reference (point), rather then a 4 digit grid
reference (square) (see Fig. 3-4).
***Practise with page 33.
Latitude and Longitude
Latitude: measures north and south of the equator; LAT is FLAT! The lines
are parallel and are 111 km apart from each other.
Longitude: measures east and west of the prime meridian. All lines meet
at the poles.
Global positioning system (GPS): satellite navigation system used to pinpoint the
latitude and longitude of any place on earth.
How it works: orbiting satellites send radio signals that are picked up by
GPS units. Each satellite’s signal contains the exact time it was sent,
the GPS needs at least three signals to be able to triangulate the
longitude and latitude.
Longitude and time zones
Time zones: one of twenty-four zones spanning 15° and being one hour
apart during standard time (360° / 24 hours = 15°/hour). Countries
modify the shape of time zones for political and convenience reasons.
Standard time: invented by Sir Sandford Fleming.
Universal time (Greenwich Mean Time): the time zone that extends 7.5°
on either side of the prime meridian. Time zones west of UT are
behind UT, time zones east of UT are ahead of UT.
Canada’s time zones
Time Zone +/- hours Cities
Pacific -8 hours Vancouver, Los Angeles
Mountain -7 hours Edmonton, Calgary
Central -6 hours Winnipeg, Regina
Eastern -5 hours Toronto, Montreal
Atlantic -4 hours Fredericton, Halifax
Newfoundland -3.5 hours St. John’s
International Date Line: the line of longitude (180°) where one day ends
and another begins, it zigzags to avoid land masses.
Daylight-saving time: used to extend daylight hours in the evening in
summertime (spring forward, fall back).
Marine chronometer: a device made by John Harrison which kept time
accurately on ships.
 To find longitude: Subtract UT time from the exact local time. If
the answer is negative, you are west of the prime meridian. Multiply
the absolute value of that number by 15° to find the longitude.

Special Interest!
Straight line distance: If the directions are the same, subtract, then
multiply by 111 km; if the directions are different, add, then multiply by
111 km.

Chapter 4 Using Map Scales

Scale: measurement on a map that represents an actual distance on the Earth’s
surface.
Direct statement scale: words are used to describe the relationship
between a distance on a map and a specific distance on Earth (ex. 1
cm to 10 km).
Distance between here and there is 3 cm on the map.
1 cm = 10 km
(3 x 1) cm = (3 x 10) km
3 cm = 30 km
Therefore, the actual distance between here and there is 30 km.
Line scale: a line divided into units that represent actual units on the
ground.
1. Mark the locations of two places on the edge of a piece of
paper.
2. Place the edge of the piece of paper in line with the line
scale.
3. Mark the right side of the line scale on the piece of paper.
4. Move the line over and measure the remaining distance.
Representative fraction scale: ratio of distance on the map to distance on
the ground using the same units (ex. 1:50 000).
The first term of the ratio is always one and represents the
distance on the map.
The second term represents the distance on earth and is in the
same units as the first term.
Scale conversion
R.F. scale to a direct statement scale
Convert 1:50 000 into a direct statement.
1 cm = (50 000 / 100 000) km
1 cm = 0.5 km
1 cm to 500 m
Direct statement scale to R.F. scale
Convert 1 cm to 2.5 km into an R.F. scale
1 cm = 2.5 km
1 cm = (2.5 x 100 000) cm
1 cm = 250 000 cm
 1:250 000

Chapter 5 GIS: Where Geography is Going

Geographic information system (GIS): integrated software package for the input,
management, analysis, and display of spatial information
Three purposes:
1. to organize great masses of data that have geographic basis
2. to present this kind of data in a clear way
3. to use the data to answer questions
GIS gives you a base map to add layers of information from a dual
database and drawing program
Different tools: identifying, labeling, charting, graduated colour mapping,
single-symbol mapping, zooming, querying, measuring

Chapter 6 Air Photos: The View from Above

Aerial photo: photograph taken from the sky
Stereo pair: pair of aerial photos that, when looked at through a stereoscope,
appear to be three-dimensional.
These photographs can tell a lot about the area and land use (commercial,
transportation, and recreational).

Chapter 7 Remote Sensing: Views from Space

Remote Sensing: study of characteristics of the earth using photographs and
electronic images from aircrafts and satellites.
Satellite: manufactured object launched by a rocket to circle the earth, for
communicating, studying Earth’s resources, and helping the military
Aerial photos are more detailed, but satellite images show a larger area.
Weather satellites are in geostationary orbit (satellite orbiting 36 000 km
above the Earth at a speed so that the satellite stays exactly above
that same spot on Earth) and provide continuous observations of
Earth’s weather.
North-south orbit: combined with the rotation of the earth west to east, the
north-south rotation makes it possible for a satellite to have complete
coverage of Earth’s surface.
False colour: colour artificially added to satellite images to make patterns
more visible.
1. Numerical data is sent from the satellite to the receiving station.
2. A computer separates the data into black and white images.
3. Filters or a computer add colour to make the image easier to
interpret.
Canada has receiving stations in Gatineau, Quebec and in Prince Albert,
Saskatchewan.
Radarsat
• Launched in 1995, it had a planned lifespan of 5 years.
 • Two liquid-fuel engines to control path and altitude.
• Uses solar energy as electricity.
• Circles Earth at 7 km/s at 800 km above.
• Covers Canada in three days.
• Sends microwaves to Earth, then records them when reflected back,
and then transmits data to the receiving station for processing.
• Swath, resolution, and angle can be changed.
Swath: area imaged on Earth’s surface.
Resolution: the size of the object visible in the image.
Radar Uses:
• Study weather and climate
• Agricultural management
• Land-cover classification and forest management
• For map-making and updating
• Geology and mineral exploration
• Mapping sea ice patterns
• Monitoring environment
• Analyzing water resources
• Study impacts of geologic events

Chapter 8 Graph It!

Stacked bar graph: bar graph where each stacked bar is used to represent
several closely related values.
It can have horizontal or vertical bars and needs a legend.
X/Y scattergraph: simple graph showing the relationship between two sets of
values.
Independent variables go on the x-axis, while dependant variables go on
the y-axis.
Pie graph: graph that uses section of a circle to represent values of a whole.
Proportional area graph: type of graph produced in circles, often combined with
pie graphs to show the amount and how much is divided.
Line graph: like an x/y scattergraph, but with lines.
Double line graph: a line graph comparing two sets of information.
Double bar graph: a bar graph comparing two sets of information.