Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies (for example, CAT, PET, fMRI) in investigating the relationship between

biological factors and behaviour

Background: In the past the study of the brain was limited to people suffering from head injuries and the effects of accidental damage. It was only possible to study the brain scientifically by carrying out a post-mortem. Laboratory research with animals eventually resulted in important discoveries about causes and possible treatments of neurological and mental disorders. Research using live animals must now follow ethical rules (BPS 2007). Today, physiological psychologists have a range of research techniques to study the function of the brain and body that could not have been imagined fifty years ago - for example, ways to identify specific neurotransmitters and taking pictures (Carl Schoonover show the tools that let us see inside our brains. http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/carl_schoonover_how_to_look_inside_the_brain.html). For this specific topic we are studying the activity of the brain through brain imaging and EEG technologies, which are non-invasive methods of measuring brain activity and viewing brain structures. These methods are useful to psychologists because they can explore the inside of the brain avoiding physically opening up or tampering with human or animal brains which represents major advances and also avoids some of the major ethical issues that previous methods evoke. Specific technologies covered here: CT; MRI; PET: fMRI; EEG.

Web research and tutorials on this topic:

(1) Brain imaging Tutorial Washington: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/image.html (2) PBS the secret life of the brain scanning techniques: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/scanning/index.html (3) Background to BLOA: http://www.psychologyinthinking.co.uk/files/psychology/files/Brain%20research%20techniques.pdf

Youtube Introduction to Topic from Davidson Films: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RREoQJUHSYE

Command Term:

Discuss = Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.

Ideas for specific research studies:

Technology Research
Corkin et al. (1997) H.M.'s medial temporal lobe lesion: findings from magnetic resonance imaging. Ashtari et al. (2009) Substance abuse and brain functioning. Draganski et al. (2004) Changes in the brain due to juggling. Maguire et al. (2000) Navigation-related structural changes in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Raine et al. (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007. The effects of meditation on the brain. Harris & Fiske (2006) brain processes in response to extreme out-groups. Hoffman et al. (2001) EEG Study of the effects of Psychedelic Tea

Source
Link: H.M. can also be used for localization of function. Law et al. (2010) pages xx. These notes. In Hannibal (2012) Draganski et al. (2004) in Law et al. (2010), page 47. Link: Maguire et al. (2000) see word document also for next topic Law et al. (2010) page 48 These notes. These notes & Law et al. (2010) & see word document with more details. Hannibal (2012) These notes.

CT MRI

PET fMRI

EEG

CT

Overview: Computerized Axial Tomography was developed in the 1970s, CAT (or CT) scanning is a process that combines many 2-dimensional x-ray images to generate cross-sections or 3-dimensional images of internal organs and body structures (including the brain).

Doing a CAT scan involves putting the subject in a special, donut-shaped x-ray machine that moves around the person and takes many x-rays. Then, a computer combines the 2-dimensional x-ray images to make the cross-sections or 3-dimensional images. CAT scans of the brain can detect brain damage and also highlight local changes in cerebral blood flow (a measure of brain activity) as the subjects perform a task.
The Discovery (background) Wilhelm Roentgen (1895): - Accidentally left photographic film next to the cathode-ray tubes he was working with. - Realised it was magically exposed! - Therefore realized the potential of the cathode-ray tubes The Technology Godfrey Hounsfield (1972): - Developed Computer Assisted x-ray Tomography (CAT Scans) - Essentially these function by rotating a rapidly firing x-ray gun around the circular tube that represents the main body of the machine. - Detecting the rays on the other side much like in an X-ray. - 3D images produced.

A CT Scanner & Transverse Section CT Scan of a human head

Use/Importance: - Can identify brain abnormalities in patients physical lesions (as opposed to post-mortem autopsy Broca, 1861). - Highly detailed 3D/cross section images of brain = better study of anatomy. - No need for interference or need for patient to be dead (used on the living brain).

How does an CT Scanner work?

Youtube Open University: CT Scan images in medicine: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tx-0emi4m8s&feature=player_embedded

MRI

Isidor I. Rabi (1937): - Discovered phenomenon of (nuclear magnetic resonance NMR). - Found that atoms emit radio waves when subjected to strong magnetic field.

MRI Scanner - Dr. Raymond Damadian (1977) developed a use for NMR, creating the first MRI machine. - MRI machines detect the radio waves emitted by atoms when they are subjected to different magnetic field strengths. - Different atom arrangements in tissues emit different radio waves, allowing researchers to distinguish between them.

A MRI Scanner & A Sagital Section MRI Scan of a Human Head USE/Importance: - Very similar high-resolution images to CT scans. - Does not involve potentially harmful radiation used in CT and PET scans and is thus one of the most widely used technologies in psychological research today. - fMRI, like PET scans, generates real-time images that allow activity of areas in the brain to be linked with tasks performed.

How does an MRI Scanner work?

Youtube Dr Howard Hart - pioneer in MRI design describes how the MRI works. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGZM_y502vc&feature=player_embedded

Possible research studies: H.M.: Corkin et al. (1997) H. M.'s medial temporal lobe lesion: findings from magnetic resonance imaging. See details later in file.
General Strengths - It provides the opportunity to see inside the working brain as it operates by mapping brain areas. - It is useful in diagnosing brain disease or damage. General Limitations - Scanning takes place in a highly artificial environment and some scanners are extremely noisy. This affects the ecological validity. - Scanner studies map brain areas involved in various cognitive processes but it is not possible to say anything about what these pictures actually mean. - The MRI scanner, deals with the structure of the brain and does not address how the brain functions.

Positron Emission Tomography was also developed in the 1970s. PET scans allow observation of blood flow or metabolism in any part of the brain. In a PET scan, the individual is injected with a very small quantity of radioactive glucose. The PET then scans the absorption of the radioactivity from outside the scalp. Brain cells use glucose as fuel, and PET works on the theory that if brain cells are more active, they will consume more of the radioactive glucose, and if less active, they will consume less of it. A computer uses the absorption data to show the levels of activity as a colour-coded brain map, with one colour (usually red) indicating more active brain areas, and another colour (usually blue) indicating the less active areas. PET imaging software allows researchers to look at cross-sectional "slices" of the brain, and therefore observe deep brain structures, which earlier techniques like EEGs cannot do. It is suggested that PET is one of the most popular scanning techniques in current neuroscience research. Fluorine-18-2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) First developed by Phelps, Hoffman and discovered (1976): TerPogossion (1981):

PET

- A radioactively labeled glucose with a half-life of 110 minutes was discovered in 1976. - This allowed for a low enough patient radiation exposure for it to be used in humans.

- Radioactively labelled glucose (FDG) is injected into the bloodstream. - The radiation emitted by this glucose is used to detect areas in the brain where glucose is most concentrated (is being most used). - This allows researchers to detect areas of the brain that are most active.

Example PET Scans: Red blue gradient presents areas with the highest - least activity (or glucose concentrations). USE/Importance: - Allows for real-time imaging of brain activity. - Thus immediate cognitive processes or actions can be related to specific areas of the brain.

Possible research studies: Raine et al. (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. See details later in file. General Strengths General Limitations

- -

Produces images of brain with activation of specific areas (Localization of Function) and to find cognitive processes and culture. Images of the active brain are live Can be alternatively used to diagnose degenerative neurological diseases.

- Difficult to distinguish activity from occurring events and brain regions - Requires a lot of skill and is very expensive and needs to be interpreted carefully - Requires use of needles which could affect squeamish patients - Testing periods are very long - Correlation does not necessarily mean causation when interpreting relationship between structure and function. - Low ecological validity as the PET scan is in an artificial environment

fMRI

The development of fMRI in the 1990s, generally credited to Seiji Ogawa and Ken Kwong, is the latest in long line of innovations, including positron emission tomography (PET) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), which use blood flow and oxygen metabolism to infer brain activity. Functional magnetic resonance imaging, (fMRI), is a technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area. fMRI can be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process. How does an fMRI work? The cylindrical tube of an MRI scanner houses a very powerful electro-magnet. A typical research scanner has a field strength of 3 teslas (T), about 50,000 times greater than the Earths field. The magnetic field inside the scanner affects the magnetic nuclei of atoms. Normally atomic nuclei are randomly oriented but under the influence of a magnetic field the nuclei become aligned with the direction of the field. The stronger the field the greater the degree of alignment. When pointing in the same direction, the tiny magnetic signals from individual nuclei add up coherently resulting in a signal that is large enough to measure. In fMRI it is the magnetic signal from hydrogen nuclei in water (H2O) that is detected. When neuronal activity increases there is an increased demand for oxygen and the local response is an increase in blood flow to regions of increased neural activity. Haemoglobin is diamagnetic when oxygenated but paramagnetic when deoxygenated. This difference in magnetic properties leads to small differences in the MR signal of blood depending on the degree of oxygenation. Since blood oxygenation varies according to the levels of neural activity these differences can be used to detect brain activity. This form of MRI is known as blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) imaging.

Youtube video: Using fMRI to study Autism http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oyah6ntgR0&feature=player_embedded

The attractions of fMRI have made it a popular tool for imaging normal brain function especially for psychologists. Over the last decade it has provided new insight to the investigation of how memories are formed, language, pain, learning and emotion to name but a few areas of research. fMRI is also being applied in clinical and commercial settings. General Strengths General Limitations It is non-invasive and does not involve - Testing periods are very long radiation, making it safe for the individual. - Can be expensive - Correlation does not necessarily mean - It has excellent spatial and good temporal causation when interpreting relationship resolution. between structure and function. - It is easy for the experimenter to use. - Low ecological validity as the fMRI scan is in an artificial environment
-

http://sparkingtech.com/tech-sci-news/researchers-develop-mindreading-machine-that-knows-what-you-are-looking-at/#more-395

http://www.readingresearch.kennedykrieger.org/fMRIs.html

Extension task: Ted talks: Looking inside the teenage brain

http://www.ted.com/talks/sarah_jayne_blakemore_the_mysterious_workings_of_the_adolescent_brain.html?ut m_source=newsletter_weekly_2012-09-21&utm_campaign=newsletter_weekly&utm_medium=email

Possible fMRI research studies:

Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007. The effects of meditation on the brain See details later in file.

 Hans Berger developed the first electroencephalogram (EEG) in 1929. The EEG records impulses of larger neurons on surface of cortex.
The EEG (Electroencephalogram) is used to study how cognitive processes relate to brainwaves. The Print out the EEG produces was believed to be Brainwaves. When neurons transport information through the brain they have an electrical charge. The EEG registers patterns of voltage change in the brain, because of EEGs, psychologists have been able to gain a better understanding of behaviors as diverse as sleep, emotions, epilepsy and altered states of consciousness. However the EEG provides limited information it cannot reveal what is happening in deeper brain regions; nor can it show the actual functioning of the brain.

EEG (Electroencephalograph)

Differences in activity

Stages of Sleep

EEG Cap Suggested position of electrodes

How it Works...

1) Placing of Electrodes: Special metal sensors (electrodes) attached to the scalp and are connected by wires that are connected to a computer. 2) Recording: As neurons transport information through the brain, electrical charges are emitted through this transportation of information These electrical charges are picked up by the electrodes, and the electrical activity of the brain based on voltage fluctuations are measured and recorded These electrical impulses are then picked up by the electrodes and transmitted to the computer that uses statistics to detect patterns or changes in patterns that are referred to as brainwaves 3) Results of EEG: Based on the reading of the brainwaves, it is possible to identify distinct changes in brain activity (e.g. stages of sleep). Also certain conditions such as seizures or brain trauma can be diagnosed when there are abnormal patterns in the brains electrical activity.

 Uses of EEG...

The EEG (Electroencephalogram) has been one of the most widely used techniques involved in the using technology for brain research. EEG is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp through electrodes placed on the head. It also measures voltage fluctuations that occur in the neurons of the brain Diagnosis or assessment of certain behavioral conditions such as seizures, amnesia, epilepsy, etc. as well as brain diseases like Alzheimers Investigate periods of unconsciousness Identification of abnormal changes in body chemistry that affect the brain The EEG can be combined with other brain imaging technologies to create a more holistic approach when understanding the relationship between the brain and human behaviour

Strengths
The EEG is now digitalized Non-invasive technology and it is cheaper than PETs and fMRIs EEG sensors are more mobile compared to PET and fMRIs The patients/participants can take part in normal activity (e.g. sleeping) or be mobile while being tested Can be combined with other brain imaging techniques EEG is silent; this gets better results auditory stimuli Does not aggravate Claustrophobia Information can be processed relatively easily Does not send off radioactive waves (like the PET scan) Effective in diagnosing disorders such as epilepsy and abnormal sleep behaviours Gives psychologists a more holistic view of human behaviour and brain activity Possible research studies:

Weaknesses
Does not pinpoint exact location of where brain activity is occurring Only information from the cortex is gathered Results are difficult to interpret Not accurate in determining the degree or the cause of the seizures Some individuals with abnormal readings may not have epilepsy at all Relatively low sensitivity and specificity Does not tell us about inner brain regions Rarely discloses its aetiology (cause) Does not show actual functioning in the brain

Hoffman et al. (2001) EEG Study of the effects of Psychedelic Tea See details later in file.

EEG: Research Study: EEG Study of the effects of Psychedelic Tea

Hoffmann, E., Keppel-Hesselink, J.M., Yatra,W.M, & Barbosa S. (2001) Effects of a Psychedelic, Tropical Tea, Ayahuasca, on the Electroencephalographic (EEG) Activity of the Human Brain During a Shamanistic Ritual. MAPS, Volume 11, number 1, pages 25-30.

PDF article: http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v11n1/pdf/11125hof.pdf

EEG Study of the Effects of Psychedelic Tea (Hoffman et al. 2001)

Aims: To investigate the effects of a psychedelic, tropical tea, Ayahuasca, on the EEG activity of the human brain during a shamanistic ritual. Procedure: 12 participants were taken and participated in a workshop in Brazil under field conditions before and after a shamanistic ritual. After this, psychoactive tea, Ayahuasca, was consumed. EEGs were then used in observing brain activity and changes in brain waves. Findings: After three doses of the tea, the participants showed strong and significant increases of both EEG alpha (8-13Hz) and theta (48Hz). The mean amplitudes compared to baseline amplitudes were unchanged. The strongest increases of alpha activity were in the occipital lobes, while alpha activity was unchanged in the frontal lobes. Conclusions: The findings of increased EEG alpha and theta activity after drinking Ayahuasca reflect an altered state of consciousness. In this state the subjects reported increased awareness of their subconscious processes. This is an altered state comparable to, however more profound than, the meditative state. Ayahuasca seems to open up the individual to his feelings and provide personal, psychological insights, and thus it may be a valuable adjunct to psychotherapy. General Evaluation Points: Validity: It has been suggested that this study had ecological validity because although it was as experiment, it was held in field conditions and people may traditionally drink this tea. However, it has low cross-cultural validity because the participants were locals who lived in Brazil all their life. It is also low in population validity - the results may not be generalizable because the sample size is too small (12 is too small to represent a population). Placebo effect: The brain activity could not only have been affected by the tea, but also because the participants expect that the tea would elicit such a psychological response, increase in cognitive activity could have had a correlation to the increase in brain activity. Specific Evaluation Points: The study shows the efficiency of the EEG system, as it was able to clearly see the effects of the teathe increase in brain activity. The study also showed that the increase in brain activity and the subconscious state of mind was the cause of the hallucinations and behavioural differences of the participants after the shamanistic ritual. Thus, this shows that there is indeed a relationship present between cognitive processes and behaviour

MRI: Research Study: H.M. H. M.'s medial temporal lobe lesion: findings from magnetic resonance imaging.
Corkin S, Amaral DG, Gonzlez RG, Johnson KA, Hyman BT. (1997) Journal of Neuroscience, Volume 17, number 10, pages 3964-79.

Full paper available pdf: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/10/3964.full.pdf+html Abstract

Although neuropsychological studies of the amnesic patient H. M. provide compelling evidence that normal memory function depends on the medial temporal lobe, the full extent of his surgical resection has not been elucidated. We conducted magnetic resonance imaging studies to specify precisely the extent of his bilateral resection and to document any other brain abnormalities. The MRI studies indicated that the lesion was bilaterally symmetrical and included the medial temporal polar cortex, most of the amygdaloid complex, most or all of the entorhinal cortex, and approximately half of the rostrocaudal extent of the intraventricular portion of the hippocampal formation (dentate gyrus, hippocampus, and subicular complex). The collateral sulcus was visible throughout much of the temporal lobe, indicating that portions of the ventral perirhinal cortex, located on the banks of the sulcus, were spared; the parahippocampal cortex (areas TF and TH) was largely intact. The rostrocaudal extent of the ablation was approximately 5.4 cm (left) and 5.1 cm (right). The caudal 2 cm, approximately, of the hippocampus body (normal length, approximately 4 cm) was intact, although atrophic. The temporal stem was intact. Outside the temporal lobes, the cerebellum demonstrated marked atrophy, and the mammillary nuclei were shrunken. The lateral temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital lobe cortices appeared normal for age 66 years. The mediodorsal thalamic nuclei showed no obvious radiological changes. These findings reinforce the view that lesions of the hippocampal formation and adjacent cortical structures can produce global and enduring amnesia and can exacerbate amnesia beyond that seen after more selective hippocampal lesions.

Summary of M.R.I. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) produces three-dimensional images of brain structures. It is used to detect structural changes in the brain in cases of brain damage or illness. H.M. suffered from amnesia and was not able to form new explicit memories. This case study demonstrated that explicit memory processes are dependent on the hippocampus and adjacent cortical structures, but the exact damage to H.M.s brain was not known before these researchers could use brain imaging. Corkin et al. (1997) used MRI to study H.M.s lesion in the first attempt to use modern technology to study the brain. The result of the MRI scan confirmed a relationship between damage to the medial temporal lobes (including the hippocampus) and H.M.s amnesia. Although a tiny part of the hippocampus remained it was not enough to support normal memory function.

Podcast H.M. Claudia Hammond, all in the mind Radio 4. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=utfv4SCDxtw Further information on H.M.: Liveleak information: http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fd0_1261475829 Video on H.M: http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fd0_1261475829

Possible fMRI research studies:

Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007. The effects of meditation on the brain

Source full paper: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/27/11483.full
See word hand-out on this study & see textbook (Law et al. 2010) page 46

Key Study: Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007. The effects of meditation on the brain
Abstract: Meditation refers to a family of mental training practices that are designed to familiarize the practitioner with specific types of mental processes. One of the most basic forms of meditation is concentration meditation, in which sustained attention is focused on an object such as a small visual stimulus or the breath. In age-matched participants, using functional MRI, we found that activation in a network of brain regions typically involved in sustained attention showed an inverted u-shaped curve in which expert meditators (EMs) with an average of 19,000 h of practice had more activation than novices, but EMs with an average of 44,000 h had less activation. In response to distracter sounds used to probe the meditation, EMs vs. novices had less brain activation in regions related to discursive thoughts and emotions and more activation in regions related to response inhibition and attention. Correlation with hours of practice suggests possible plasticity in these mechanisms.

Preparing Buddhist monk Matthieu Ricard for a functional MRI test are (from left) technician M. Anderle and principal investigators Richard J. Davidson and Antoine Lutz. University of Wisconsin-Madison) http://articles.philly.com/2011-07-23/news/29806696_1_neuroplasticitypractice-meditation-mindfulness-meditation

Evaluation Points:
Though MRIs can indicate brain activity, they do not reveal the nature of the activity, nor how the parts of the brain are interacting. Studies of meditation are not able to guarantee that the person is actually meditating or the extent they may be meditating. In spite of the use of such technology, psychologists are still highly dependent on self-reporting. Since many of the studies on meditation are not longitudinal studies, only correlational data is obtained. This raises the problem of bi-directional ambiguity. For example, in the study above, did meditation affect their brain activity or is it because of these brain traits that they chose meditation?

Possible PET scan research studies: Raine, A. Buchsbaum, M. and LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry, Volume 42, No. 6, pages 495-508. PDF: http://www.box.com/shared/static/tgzpsa12g2.pdf
Summary of research: Hill, G. (2009) AS & A Level Psychology through diagrams. Oxford University Press - page 219 Abstract Murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) are thought to have brain dysfunction, but there have been no previous studies reporting direct measures of both cortical and subcortical brain functioning in this specific group. Positron emission tomography brain imaging using a continuous performance challenge task was conducted on 41 murderer's pleading not guilty by reason of insanity and 41 age- and sex-matched controls. Murderer's were characterized by reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, superior parietal gyrus, left angular gyrus, and the corpus callosum, while abnormal asymmetries of activity (left hemisphere lower than right) were also found in the amygdala, thalamus, and medial temporal lobe. These preliminary findings provide initial indications of a network of abnormal cortical and subcortical brain processes that may predispose to violence in murderers pleading NGRI.

Brain scan normal left, murderer right http://www.dana.org/news/cerebrum/detail.aspx?id=3066

Method: As above, 41 prisoners charged with murder or manslaughter in California. Each murderer was
matched carefully with a normal control.

Results: As above, reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, areas of the gyrus, corpus callosum, and abnormal asymmetries of functioning in the amygdala, thalamus and temporal lobe. Conclusions: These murderers may have abnormal brain processes that may predispose them to pleading NGRI. Strengths Limitations - A large sample was used with many controls - Brain scans can be difficult to interpret. to reduce alternative effects on brain activity. The PET scan method may lack precision; the findings only apply to a subgroup of - Previous findings on brain structures involved in violence are supported and new violent offenders (not to other types of violence or crime). findings revealed. - The findings do not mean that violence is caused by biology alone, other factors (e.g. social, psychological and situational factors are involved, do not demonstrate that the murders are not responsible for their actions, do not mean PET can diagnose murderers and do not say whether the brain abnormalities are a cause or effect of behavior. - Method: No control in level of violence used in the murder.

Youtube Dr. Adrian Raine talking about his research. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzGfZaI6itg

Sources/Resources

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BPS (2007) Ethical guidelines for working with non-human animals from: http://www.distancelearningcentre.com/resources/BPS_ethics_working_with_animals.pdf Crane, J., & Hannibal, J. (2009). IB Psychology Course Companion, Oxford: Oxford Publications. Plus. (May 2011). EEG: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopaedia. National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Retrieved August 2012, from: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/ 003931.htm WebMD. (2010, July 26). Electroencephalogram (EEG) Test to Measure Brain Electrical Activity. WebMD - Better information. Better health. Retrieved August 2012, from: http://www.webmd.com/ epilepsy/electroencephalogram-eeg-21508