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The Inflow Performance Relationship, or IPR, defines a wells flowing production potential: q = PI (Pavg - Pwf) where q = production rate, B/D PI = productivity index, B/D/psi Pavg, or = average reservoir pressure, psi Pwf = flowing bottomhole pressure, psi (Figure 1) illustrates this relationship for a solution gas drive reservoir. Note that for a given average reservoir pressure and productivity index, P wf determines the wells production potential. The lower the flowing bottomhole pressure, the higher the production rate. The wells maximum or absolute flow potential would correspond to a P wf of zero.
(1)
Figure 1
A well never actually attains its absolute flow potential, because in order for it to flow, P wf must exceed the backpressure that the producing fluid exerts on the formation as it moves through the production system. This backpressure or bottomhole pressure has the following components:
Hydrostatic pressure of the producing fluid column Friction pressure caused by fluid movement through the tubing, wellhead and surface equipment Kinetic or potential losses due to diameter restrictions, pipe bends or elevation changes. In most production systems, these are not of the same magnitude as hydrostatic or friction pressures; in others, however, they may be significant.
Artificial lift is a means of overcoming bottomhole pressure so that a well can produce at some desired rate, either by injecting gas into the producing fluid column to reduce its hydrostatic pressure, or using a downhole pump to provide additional lift pressure downhole. We tend to associate artificial lift with mature, depleted fields, where Pavg has declined such that the reservoir can no longer produce under its natural energy. But these methods are also used in younger fields to increase production rates and improve project economics.
GAS LIFT
Gas lift involves injecting high-pressure gas from the surface into the producing fluid column through one or more subsurface valves set at predetermined depths (Figure 2: Gas lift system. Courtesy Weatherford International Ltd).
Figure 2
Continuous gas lift, where gas is injected in a constant, uninterrupted stream. This lowers the overall density of the fluid column and reduces the hydrostatic component of the flowing bottomhole pressure. Thus, for a given average reservoir pressure and productivity index, the well is able to flow at a higher rate. This method is generally applied to wells with high productivity indexes and high bottomhole pressures relative to their depths. Intermittent gas lift, which is designed for lower-productivity wells. In this type of gas lift installation, a volume of formation fluid accumulates inside the production tubing. A highpressure slug of gas is then injected below the liquid, physically displacing it to the surface. As soon as the fluid is produced, gas injection is interrupted, and the cycle of liquid accumulationgas injection-liquid production is repeated.
The availability of gas and the costs for compression and injection are major considerations in planning a gas lift installation. Where these gas injection requirements can be satisfied, gas lift offers a flexible means of optimizing production. It can be used in deviated or crooked wellbores, and in hightemperature environments that might adversely affect other lift methods, and it is conducive to maximizing lift efficiency in high-GOR wells. Wireline-retrievable gas lift valves can be pulled and reinstalled without pulling the tubing, making it relatively easy and economical to modify the design. On the negative side, gas lift system costs can adversely impact profitability if the source gas requires additional processing or surface compression. Lift efficiency can be reduced by corrosion and paraffin, which increase friction and backpressure. Tubing size and surface flowline length also affect system efficiency. Another disadvantage of gas lift is its difficulty in fully depleting low-pressure, lowproductivity wells. Also, the start-and-stop nature of intermittent gas lift may cause downhole pressure surges and lead to increased sand production.
PUMP-ASSISTED LIFT
Downhole pumps are used to increase pressure at the bottom of the tubing string by an amount sufficient to lift fluid to the surface. These pumps fall into two basic categories: positive displacement pumps and dynamic displacement pumps. A positive displacement pump works by moving fluid from a suction chamber to a discharge chamber. The suction chamber volume increases as the discharge chamber volume decreases, causing fluid to enter the suction chamber. As the cycle reverses, the suction volume decreases and the discharge volume increases, forcing the fluid to the discharge end of the pump. This basic operating principle applies to reciprocating rod pumps, hydraulic piston pumps and progressive cavity pumps (PCPs). A dynamic displacement pump works by causing fluid to move from inlet to outlet under its own momentum, as is the case with a centrifugal pump. Dynamic displacement pumps commonly used in artificial lift include electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) and hydraulic jet pumps.
Figure 3
A beam pumping unit, operated by an electric motor or gas engine. A string of steel or fiberglass sucker rods that connect the beam pumping unit to the downhole pump. A subsurface pump, which consists of a barrel, plunger and valve assembly that moves fluid through the tubing and up to the surface.
Beam pumping is the most common and arguably the most recognizable artificial lift method. It can be used for a wide range of production rates and operating conditions, and rod pump systems are relatively simple to operate and maintain. However, the volumetric efficiency (capacity) of a rod pump is lower in wells with high gas-liquid ratios, small tubing diameters or deep producing intervals. Surface equipment requires a large amount of space compared with other lift methods, and its initial installation may involve relatively high capital costs.
Figure 4
As the rotor turns, cavities between the threads of the pump rotor and stator move upward. The rotor is most often powered by rods connected to a motor on the surface, although some assemblies are driven by subsurface electric motors. Progressive cavity pumps are commonly used for dewatering coalbed methane gas wells, for production and injection applications in waterflood projects and for producing heavy or high-solids oil. They are versatile, generally very efficient, and excellent for handling fluids with high solids content. However, because of the torsional stresses placed on rod strings and temperature limitations on the stator elastomers, they are not used in deeper wells.
Figure 5
With a reciprocating hydraulic pump, the injected power fluid operates a downhole fluid engine, which drives a piston to pump formation fluid and spent power fluid to the surface. A jet pump is a type of hydraulic pump with no moving parts. Power fluid is injected into the pump body and into a small-diameter nozzle, where it becomes a low-pressure, high-velocity jet. Formation fluid mixes with the power fluid, and then passes into an expanding-diameter diffuser. This reduces the velocity of the fluid mixture, while causing its pressure to increase to a level that is sufficient to lift it to the surface
Hydraulic pumps can be used at depths from 1000 to 17,000 feet and are capable of producing at rates from 100 to 10,000 B/D. They can be hydraulically circulated in and out of the well, thus eliminating the need for wireline or rig operations to replace pumps and making this system adaptable to changing field conditions. Another advantage is that heavy, viscous fluids are easier to lift after mixing with the lighter power fluid. Disadvantages of hydraulic pump systems include the potential fire hazards if oil is used as a power fluid, the difficulty in pumping produced fluids with high solids content, the effects of gas on pump efficiency and the need for dual strings of tubing on some installations.
Figure 6
The pump and motor assembly, which may be several hundred feet long, is connected to the surface by an armored cable that provides electric power and control. On a cost-per-barrel basis, ESP systems are among the most efficient and economical of lift methods. Fluid volumes ranging from 100 to 60,000 B/D, including high water-cut fluids, can be handled by ESP systems. These systems can be installed in high-temperature wells (above 350F) using high-temperature motors and cables. The pumps can be modified to lift corrosive fluids and sand. ESP systems can be used in high-angle and horizontal wells if placed in straight or vertical sections of the well. ESP pumps can be damaged from gas lock. In wells producing high GOR fluids, a downhole gas separator must be installed. Another disadvantage is that ESP pumps have limited production ranges determined by the number and type of pump stages; changing production rates requires either a pump change or installation of a variable-speed surface drive. The tubing must be pulled for pump repairs or replacement.
PLUNGER LIFT
Plunger lift is the only artificial lift method that relies solely on the wells natural energy to lift fluids. The plunger, traveling inside the tubing, moves upward when the pressure of the gas below it is greater than the pressure of the liquid above it (Figure 7: Plunger lift system. Courtesy Weatherford International Ltd ) .
Figure 7
As the plunger travels to the surface, it creates a solid interface between the lifted gas below and produced fluid above to maximize lifting energy. Any gas that bypasses the plunger during the lifting cycle flows up the production tubing and sweeps the area to minimize liquid fallback. Plunger lift provides a cost-effective method of artificial lift that can be used to efficiently produce both gas wells with fluid loads and high GOR oil wells.
Hole Characteristics: Well depth The well depth dictates how much surface energy is needed to move fluids to surface, and may place limits on sucker rods and other equipment. Completion and perforation skin factors affect inflow performance. Small-diameter casing limits the production tubing size and constrains multiple options. Small-diameter tubing will limit production rates, but larger tubing may allow excessive fluid fallback. Highly deviated wells may limit applications of beam pumping or PCP systems because of drag, compressive forces and potential for rod and tubing wear.
Wellbore deviation
Table 2 Surface and Field Operating Considerations in Selecting an Artificial Lift Method (after Brown, 1980) Surface Characteristics: Flow rates Flow rates are governed by wellhead pressures and backpressures in surface production equipment (i.e., separators, chokes and flowlines). Flowline length and diameter determines wellhead pressure requirements and affects the overall performance of the production system. Scale, paraffin or salt can increase the backpressure on a well. The availability of electricity or natural gas governs the type of artificial lift selected. Diesel, propane or other sources may also be considered. In offshore fields, the availability of platform space and placement of directional wells are primary considerations. In onshore fields, such factors as noise limits, safety, environmental, pollution concerns, surface access and well spacing must be considered. Affect the performance of surface equipment.
Field location
Climate and Physical environment Field Operating Characteristics: Long-range recovery plans Pressure maintenance operations Enhanced oil recovery projects Field automation
Field conditions may change over time. Water or gas injection may change the artificial lift requirements for a field. EOR processes may change fluid properties and require changes in the artificial lift system. If the surface control equipment will be electrically powered, an electrically powered artificial lift system should be considered. Some artificial lift systems are relatively low-maintenance; others require regular monitoring and adjustment. Servicing requirements (e.g., workover rig versus wireline unit) should be considered. Familiarity of field personnel with equipment should also be taken into account.
Clegg, Bucaram and Hein (1993), in a piece written for the SPE Distinguished Author Series, observe that selecting the proper artificial lift method is critical to the long-term profitability of most producing oil and gas wells. They list 31attributes for comparing the eight most common artificial lift techniques (continuous and intermittent gas lift, beam pumping, progressing cavity pumping, hydraulic pumping, electric submersible pumping, jet pumping and plunger lift), and provide practical guidelines for assessing each methods capabilities. These are summarized as follows: Design considerations and overall comparisons:
Usage/outlook
Casing size limits Depth limits Intake capabilities Noise level Obtrusiveness
Prime mover flexibility Surveillance Testing Time cycle and pump-off controllers application
Corrosive/scale handling ability Crooked/deviated holes Multiple completions Gas-handling ability Offshore application Paraffin-handling capability
Slim-hole completions Solids/sand-handling ability Temperature limitations High-viscosity fluid handling High-volume lift capabilities Low-volume lift capabilities
Finally, Table 3 (from Weatherford International Ltd., 2005) summarizes typical characteristics and applications for each form of artificial lift. These are general guidelines, which vary among manufacturers and researchers. Each application needs to be evaluated on a well-by-well basis. Table 3: Artificial Lift MethodsCharacteristics and Areas of Application (after Weatherford, 2005) Operatin g Paramete rs Positive displacement pumps Dynamic displacement pumps ESP Hydrau lic Jet 5000 to 10000 ft 15000 ft 15000 ft 5000 to 10000 ft To 8000 ft Gas lift Plung er lift
PCP
Typical Operating Depth (TVD) Maximum Operating Depth (TVD) Typical Operating Volume Maximum Operating Volume Typical Operating Temperat ure
2000 to 4500 ft
6000 ft
15000 ft
20000 ft
100 10000 BFPD 30000 BFPD 100 - 250 F [40-120 C] 400 F [205 C]
400 F [205 C]
500 F [260 C]
500 F [260 C]
Table 3: Artificial Lift MethodsCharacteristics and Areas of Application (after Weatherford, 2005) Operatin g Paramete rs Positive displacement pumps Dynamic displacement pumps ESP Hydrau lic Jet 0 - 20 deg hole angle 0 - 90 deg 0 - 90 deg < 24 deg/10 0 ft Good Excelle nt 0 - 50 deg N/A Gas lift Plung er lift
PCP
Hydrau lic Piston 0 - 20 deg landed pump 0 - 90 deg < 15 deg/10 0 ft Good
N/A
80 deg
Corrosion handling
Good to excellent
Excelle nt
Excelle nt Poor to Fair GLR = 300 SCF/B bl per 1000 ft of depth Wellhe ad catcher or wirelin e Wells natural energy N/A
Servicing
Prime mover
Gas or electric
Gas or electric
Electric motor
Compres sor
Limited
Good
Excellent
45% 60%
40% 70%
45% 55%
10% 30%
N/A
Initial capital cost Monthly operating expense Equipment life Number of wells to be lifted Surplus equipment availability Expected producing life of well(s)
Capital cost considerations may favor one type of system over another, particularly when there is significant uncertainty regarding well performance characteristics or reserve volumes. Gas lift is not likely to be a good option for a one or two-well system, for exampleparticularly if it requires adding surface compression facilities. For multiple wells, however, it may be a very economical choice. Hydraulic pumping is likewise less costly when multiple wells are operated from a central injection facility. Projected operating costs also figure into the selection of an artificial lift method. High gas prices will reduce the profitability of gas lift, particularly if it becomes necessary to purchase additional gas for injection. But gas lift may be an attractive option in a remote field where there is no market for produced gas. In the same way, in places where electricity is not readily available, submersible pumps will be less attractive compared to gas lift or other forms of pump-assisted lift. System reliability and easy access to repair equipment and services must also be considered. Sometimes, the prevalence of a particular type of lift equipment in a given area will make that system more attractive. If a well is expected to have a short producing life, capital and operating costs will play an important role in the overall field economics and will affect the choice of an artificial lift system. It is clear that for each well or field situation, a number of factors will affect the choice of artificial lift system. Equipment manufacturers can explain important advantages and disadvantages of different systems. Each type of artificial lift method has economic and operating limitations that can make it more or less desirable when compared to others. Similarly, one artificial lift system will usually have at least one advantage over all others for a given set of operating conditions.