Holiday 1 Lauren Holiday Professor Leslie Wolcott ENC 3331-0002 20 November 2012 A View From the Chair: A Students

Definition of Rhetorical Citizenship Rhetoric: A Rhetorical Definition The new rhetorical study is characterized by the view that rhetoric (or language) is at the very base of human knowledge. In this view, rhetoric is not merely useful for the management of society, but rather necessary for the creation of the society itself. Stephen L. Johnson (1996) History has proven itself to be rather repetitive, especially in the field of rhetoric. From the ancient greats Isocrates and Aristotle to the more modern scholars Burke and Leith, rhetoric has had its fair share of debate and controversy. But, however unique each scholars definition of rhetoric may seem, there appears to be a great deal in common as well. Buried within each definition is one repeating factor: the human element. Whether the focus is on philosophy, trickery, symbols, or power, there exists the one link between them that no intellectual could deny. So when defining rhetoric, and especially rhetorical citizenship, one would be amiss to forget the heartbeat behind the words. Action

Holiday 2 The most important aspect of rhetoric is that it completes an action; it has to do something. For example, Patricia Bizzell says, *Rhetoric+ is the kind of study one has to perform (218). To perform rhetoric effectively, one must do so in a meaningful, communicative, and symbolic way. As it is commonly used today, rhetoric describes language that is empty, bombastic has no substance, and even flowery, ornamental (Foss 4). But this is not how rhetoric should be viewed, for rhetoric must accomplish an end in a meaningful way. C. J. Classen describes this meaningful action as the art of thinking clearly, the art of speaking responsibly, the art of listening and judging critically (Classen 38). Unless we listen, think, and speak in a responsible, clear, and critical way, no meaningful action will ever be realized. A word without meaning is no word at all, as is a human without meaning. And if rhetoric is at the very base of our human nature, rhetoric must have meaning to be called rhetoric in the first place. Another basic part of rhetoric as action is the idea of communication. Our entire species revolves around communicating with one another, whether it is through the traditional avenues of speaking and writing, alternatives like sign language and brail, and nontraditional ways such as mapping and bus tours. All of these styles of communication empower human beings to share ideas, enabling them to work together to make decisions about matters of common concern (Palczewski et. al 5). Thomas B. Farrell echoes this definition by commenting on rhetoric as the collaborative art of addressing and guiding decision and judgmentusually public judgment (1). Both of these definitions stress the importance of a public coming

Holiday 3 together to communicate, and that two must be involved for meaningful and communicative rhetoric to occur. Rhetoric can also be expressed symbolically to induc*e+ cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols (Palczewski et. al 7). As Kenneth Burke stresses here, humans are very receptive to symbols, and thus use them frequently to convey meaning and engage actions with clear consequences. These symbols can come in many forms, whether verbal or visual, and are always used with intent. Barry Brummett focuses on the importance of symbols when he defines rhetoric as the ways in which signs influence people. (The term signs refers to the countless meaningful items, images, and so on that surround us.) (6). These symbols are the way in which we give meaning to words, and how those words induce social action (Hauser 3). As the book Rhetoric in Civic Life explains, People act in the world through symbol use that induces cooperation, generates identification, produces division, enables persuasion, and constitutes identity (Palczewski et. al 7). All of these meaningful, communicative, and symbolic actions can be considered rhetoric in use. Power The idea that rhetoric is what gives words meaning through the use of symbols is especially true when considering the power that rhetoric welds when doing so. Put another way, rhetoric is the power behind every uttered word; it is the energy inherent in communication (Kennedy 2). Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Susan Schultz Huxman also pick up on the power innate within rhetoric when they define rhetoric as powerful, with the potential to prompt our participation, invite identification, alter our perceptions, and persuade us.

Holiday 4 (Campbell et. al 6). If rhetoric is supposed to ordain an action, then a spark must be lit within each word, and that fire must spread to all those in which the word comes in contact with. That is real power. Contextual The effect that such power has on people when using rhetoric depends a great deal on the situation in which it is used. Whether it is the political situations, economical situations the libidinal situation, also, to use rhetoric one must take into account the cultural context (Derrida 16). William A. Covino and David A. Jolliffe call this aspect of rhetoric situationally contingent because without a sense of the environment, history, and circumstance in which the rhetoric is to be used, one cannot meaningfully, communicatively, and symbolically act to give power to words (Covino et. al 5). Where power is the spark behind the words, context is what keeps the flame going. This can be seen clearly in the countless examples of public writing that Paula Mathieu sets up in her book Tactics of Hope. She asserts that Writing alone is insufficient to change the world, but in a context of human organizing and community building, writing helps bring about and give voice to many changes (49). Persuasion When rhetoric was first given a name and studied, its definition was more align with the dictionary versions available today. The Oxford English Dictionary defines rhetoric as the art of using language so as to persuade or influence others (857). While this definition fit fine back when Isocrates and Aristotle were ruling the academic field, it has become too rigid as the idea of democracy grew, especially in western civilization. While rhetoric is used to persuade, the

Holiday 5 way of doing so is more important in the new form of rhetoric. Where historical rhetoric was seen only in speeches, it has now broken this mold and crept into more creative and expressive avenues. This turn in the use of rhetoric is seen in what is called tactical problem solving, as again discussed by Mathieu in Tactics of Hope. Instead of using more strategic, stiff, and severe measures like rhetoric once relied heavily upon, the idea is that spontaneous, creative, and symbolic forms of persuasion are better at connecting with public audiences and thus inspiring action within them. These sorts of tactical writings can be seen in the Grassroots movement by Diehl et. al, where mapping information becomes a means of persuasion and action more suitable to the public. It has become more than just knowing your audience, but capitalizing on the inadvertent ways in which our symbolic exchanges influence and are influenced by others, by the climate for communication, by the resources of language available to us, by the situation in which we communicate and the impulse for communication it contains, and by the myriad of conditioning factors that mark our human existence (Hauser 14). Resistance An interesting idea of rhetoric is the thought that it is a double-edged sword; not only does rhetoric arm one to persuade another, but also gives one the control to resist such persuasion. As Leith puts it, Knowledge, it has been said, is power. And rhetoric is what gives words power. So knowledge of rhetoric equips you, as a citizen, both to exercise power and resist it (Leith 15). This resistance is key to what it means to be an individual and a human. So, taking these eight factors into mind, one will come to the same conclusion as what the definition of rhetoric is: the meaningful, communicative, and symbolic action that gives

Holiday 6 power to words, with respect to cultural context, used to persuade a specific goal, or repel such persuasion. Citizen: A Conditional Definition Narrowed down to four conditions, this definition of what it takes to be a citizen is meant to be more inclusive and fair compared to other definitions found elsewhere. But the main premise of this definition is that a citizen is one who looks out for the betterment of the nation to which he/she ascribes. Without this consideration, someone normally called a terrorist could be measured as a citizen. Obviously, this is problematic; so the distinction of a national welfare state of mind must be made. Legal At the very base of citizenship is the idea that it is legal classification; ones standing and status is grounded in laws and policies only. This is the easiest and most common way of defining a citizen, and for the most part works well. Except in the cases of those who meet the other criteria discussed below, but are missing the legality of citizenship. Such people are still considered citizens when looking at the word in a more broad and accepting light. Participation To be more general and encompassing, a growth in the definition of citizenship must be taken into consideration, especially the idea of participatory action. Amy J. Wan points out that citizenship theorists have expanded thinking about citizenship beyond legal status to understanding citizenship as cultural identity, standing and status, civic virtue, everyday habits,

Holiday 7 and participatory action (33). The idea that having an identity with your nation, instead of, or just, a legal status, is an important distinction to make. Mainly because those who actually feel connected to their country in some form will participate and facilitate the welfare of their country. Wan also drives home the idea of participatory citizenship when she states: a good citizen is one who participates, who is engaged that one only needs to participat[ate] in a community or society in order to become a citizen (33). This is a fuller view of citizenship, and makes no discrimination on the basis of legal standing. It is more subjective, and thus comprehensive. Political Some like to define citizenship in terms of those who engage in political action. For example, Judith N. Shklar views participation as political participation, engagement in public affairs; her definition of a good citizen is a political agent who takes part regularly in politics locally and nationally, not just on primary and election day (Wan 36). This can be considered another form of citizenship, and is just as valid as the concepts of legal status and community involvement; but it is not the sole requirement for citizenship. Literacy Citizenship can also been considered not simply a conferred legal status, but cultivated through a number of civil, political, and social rights and obligations (Wan 37). Here citizenship is educated through literacy skills that help one achieve such rights and obligations. This view that literacy is intertwined with the status as citizen is interesting because one is taught how to read and write. Thus, in this view, citizenship is taught in the classroom and acted upon outside

Holiday 8 the institution. If one is not born into the right of citizenship, he/she can still become a citizen by learning it in school, mainly through English classes. Adding this factor to the definition brings those who are not legal citizens or politically active into the equation. Going off of these criteria it can be said that to be a citizen, one must be one of the following: a legal inhabitant, a participant in the community, a political agent, or a literate activist; a person who has the welfare of the nation in mind when engaging in everyday life. What Rhetorical Citizenship Looks Like Rhetorical citizenship is defined as a status based on ones legal inhabitancy, participation in the community, political agency, and/or literate advocacy, especially through the use of meaningful, communicative, and symbolic action that gives power to words, with respect to cultural context, to persuade a specific goal, or repel such persuasion. Using this definition, I have examined my own status as a rhetorical citizen and have come to the conclusion that my collaborative work on mapping UCFs bike racks can be seen as an example of rhetorical citizenship. As a literate activist, I engaged in meaningful action by writing on a topic that was both significant and relevant. I communicated to my audience the positive and negative aspects of the bike racks on campus, and used symbolic methods, such as pictures, to give power to my words. By incorporating different clubs and committees on campus, I made the work both contextual and appropriate. My goal was specific in that I wanted to persuade my audience that this immortal issue of bike rack difficulties was an urgent and ongoing reality that needed attention and a call to action. And I did all this with the hope

Holiday 9 that one day the welfare of our campus would be bettered through a more efficient and smart bike rack system.

Holiday 10 Works Cited Bizzell, Patricia. Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1992. Print. Brummett, Barry. Rhetoric in Popular Culture. New York: St. Martin's, 1994. Print. Campbell, Karlyn Kohrs., and Susan Schultz. Huxman. The Rhetorical Act: Thinking, Speaking, and Writing Critically. Belmont, CA, USA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2003. Print. Classen, C. J. "The Role of Rhetoric Today." Renaissances of Rhetoric. N.p.: Leuven UP, 1994. 38. Print. Covino, William A., and David A. Jolliffe. Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, Boundaries. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. Print. Farrell, Thomas. Norms of Rhetorical Culture. New Haven: Yale Univ, 1993. Print. Foss, Sonja K. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. Long Grove, IL: Waveland, 1996. Print. Hauser, Gerard A. Introduction to Rhetorical Theory. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 2002. Print. Johnson, Stephen L. "On New Systems of Rhetoric." Philosophy and Rhetoric. N.p.: n.p., 1996. 78. Print. Kennedy, George A. "A Hoot in the Dark: The Evolution of General Rhetoric." Philosophy and Rhetoric. N.p.: n.p., 1992. 2. Print.

Holiday 11 Leith, Sam. Words like Loaded Pistols: Rhetoric from Aristotle to Obama. New York: Basic, 2012. Print. Mathieu, Paula. Tactics of Hope: The Public Turn in English Composition. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 2005. Print. Palczewski, Catherine Helen., Richard Ice, and John Fritch. Rhetoric in Civic Life. State College, PA: Strata Pub., 2012. Print. Wan, Amy J. "In the Name of Citizenship: The Writing Classroom and the Promise of Citizenship." College English 74 (2011): 28-49. Print.