Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures - Part 1

Control of Smart Structures
3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures
3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures -- Part 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor
Outline
Vibration Damping Active Damping Passive Damping Vibration Isolation Applications in Aircraft and Spacecraft Active Shape Control Space applications Applications in fixed wing aircraft Applications in rotary wing aircraft Acoustic Control Smart Skin for Aerospace Applications A New Smart Actuator for Aerospace Applications Health Monitoring Using Smart Materials
Vibration Damping
Damping refers to the dissipation of vibrational energy. All physical systems have some inherent damping, but the level of damping can be augmented to increase energy dissipation in particular vibration modes. In this way, the response of a structure driven at a resonant frequency can be greatly decreased. This in turn can significantly reduce overall motion or acceleration of the structure. Active damping is sometimes necessary to achieve greater performance, or to produce system properties that are controllable electronically.
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Active Vibration Damping- An Overview
Overview of Active Vibration Damping Source: SPIE Smart Materials and Structures Conference, 2001

Smart structures have emerged as a result of effective integration of materials technology, control system theory and electronic processing with the structures to achieve adaptability to environmental changes while ensuring maximum possible performance. Structures consisting of distributed sensors and controllers that are capable of self adaptation, self-monitoring and adaptability to variable ambient stimuli are called smart structures. These structures consist of controllers that are highly integrated and hierarchical in architecture. The smart structures are distinguished from the actively controlled structures by the presence of highly distributed nature of the control system. They are made of active members that are also load carrying elements with sensors and actuators of distributed nature. Generic applications of smart structural technology include vibration isolation, vibration suppression, active noise cancellation and shape control. The applications have been in many areas of engineering such as aerospace, automotive, civil infrastructure as well as in consumer applications.

CONTROLLER DESIGN FOR SMART STRUCTURES Control law designed for smart structural systems must be in accordance with the sensors and actuators under consideration. The control law must account for range of linearity, potential nonlinearities, hysteresis, phase shifts and any other properties of the smart material sensors and actuators in order to obtain the desired performance. Apart from these requirements, we have to consider uncertainties in the modeling for control system design. In general, it is a problem of controlling a large dimensional system with smaller dimensional control system. In flexible structures, the controllers are designed using a lower order system of the structure considering only the significant dynamics involving a few critical modes of the system.
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The interaction of the rest of the dynamics known as residual modes with the lower order modes leads to the problem of observation and control spill over. The observation spill over is a result of contribution of the residual modes to the sensor input of the controller where as control spill over is an effect of the residual modes being excited by the control input. The undesirable effect of the spill over problem is that it can degrade the performance of the closed loop system or even cause instability. With collocated direct velocity feedback the closed loop stability is independent of the spill over problem thus simplifying the design procedure for flexible structures and large space structures.

Positive position feedback (PPF) To guarantee unconditional stability of the actively controlled structure, Goh et.al. proposed a design procedure called positive position feedback (PPF) control which relies on collocated force actuators and position sensors. Fanson et. al. applied the PPF control procedure on an experimental cantilever beam.
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Active Vibration Damping- An Overview Independent modal space control (IMSC)

In the late 70's and early 80's the concept of a control design named Independent Modal-Space Control (IMSC) using uncoupled modal equations was developed. The principal advantage of IMSC was the ability to perform the design in modal- space leading to uncoupled second-order equations. This allowed the control design to be based on single-inputsingle-output subsystems instead of a multi-input-multi-output system. The control effect can be specified individually for each mode of the system so that the on-line computational power required to implement the controller can be reduced. The disadvantages of standard IMSC are the requirements of one actuator for each controlled mode and also the need for full state feedback which leads to demanding sensor requirements.
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Dissipative Positive real control synthesis

When appropriate actuators and sensors are collocated on a flexible structure, the input / output maps passively. (for example, collocated force actuator and rate sensors). Based on the well known Passivity theorem which states that the negative feedback interconnection of a positive real (PR) system with a strictly positive real (SPR) system is input/output stable and internally asymptotically stable if the plant is stabilizable and detectable, a large class of PR (SPR) stabilizing controllers can be constructed for SPR (PR) plant. This property also has the interpretation that a SPR controller can tolerate any PR perturbation of a nominal PR plant, i.e the system has at least +/- 90 degrees phase margin and (0, ) gain margin.
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Joshi et. al. proposed the design of robust dissipative compensators for flexible structures using positive real synthesis. They claim that with compatible actuators and sensors, the plant becomes positive real and any strictly positive real or dissipative controller will make the closed loop system stable to parametric variations as well as unmodeled dynamics typically present in flexible structural models. In their paper, they formulate an optimal control synthesis approach for designing general dissipative controllers. Though the procedure provides robust stability to the variations in the flexible structural system, it does not guarantee robust performance as the performance may vary widely over the range of parameter variations in the system.
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Robust control for non-collocated structural systems

All the methods mentioned so far namely positive position feedback, positive real synthesis depend on collocated actuator and sensor pairs for designing controllers and ensure unconditional stability to unmodeled dynamics. In addition in positive real synthesis, the control system is robust to any positive realness preserving uncertainty in the plant. One common characteristic of all these methods is that robust stability conditions are not dependent on the size and type of the uncertainty and hence do not guarantee any kind of robust performance. In addition, in some cases the requirement of exact collocation may be restrictive making these methods less attractive for implementation of controllers for generic smart structures.
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Design of controllers for smart structures requires accurate modeling of the system. Two main approaches traditionally used for obtaining models are analytical techniques and identification based on experimental data. Both of these approaches have advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of analytical modeling is that the models developed are physically intuitive and will help in the control system design. Most of the times the mathematical models developed are dependent on approximate representation of the physical phenomenon. The accuracy will depend on the complexity of the model and the assumed physical parameters incorporated in the model. EulerBernoulli beam model is an example of analytical models used for structural systems such as cantilever beams etc. As the size and complexity of the structural system becomes larger, analytical modeling becomes difficult in which case approximate analytical modeling methods such as Finite Element Methods (FEM) are used. From the discussion above it is clear that the analytical modeling is prone to modeling errors due to the inaccurate physical parameters and approximation in the modeling process.
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In contrast to analytical modeling, identification methods are not dependent on the physical structure of the systems but are solely data dependent. Hence the models so obtained are prone to problems such as noise and errors in the measurements, inadequate information content in the input/output data, limited wordlengths of data acquisition system and phase delays introduced by the aliasing and reconstruction filters etc. But, with proper care accurate models of the system including the affects of the actuators, sensors and interface electronics can be developed. In addition to the errors described above, departure of the models from the physical system characteristics can occur due to changes in the environmental conditions or operating conditions and degradation of the system due to use, ageing and other detrimental affects. The aggregate errors in the modeling are termed as uncertainty in the control literature and robust control methods are available to incorporate the effect of the uncertainties in the design. The robust control methods need some kind of quantification and representation of the manner in which the uncertainty affects the models.
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Due to inherent trade-off in the size of the uncertainty and the performance achieved by the control system, it is necessary that the uncertainty be represented as compactly as possible utilizing the manner in which the uncertainty affects the nominal model. Thus uncertainty is categorized as unstructured and structured uncertainty. In smart structural models both kinds of uncertainties are present with the unstructured uncertainty arising from the unmodeled or neglected dynamics and the structured uncertainty arising from the physical parameter variations and modeling errors in the nominal model. Linear Fractional Representations (LFRs) are used widely to describe the interaction of the uncertainty and the nominal models.
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Robust control design methods

Balas and Doyle formulated the problem of disturbance rejection problem for a prototype space structural system. They used structured singular value synthesis approach considering uncertainties due to unmodeled dynamics and equivalent uncertainty formulations of the performance requirements on actuator limits, disturbance rejection and sensor noise by choosing appropriate weightings. Balas and Young have considered the design problem of NASA Langley Minimast structure for disturbance rejection performance. Uncertainties due to actuator variations, unmodeled dynamics and natural frequency and damping ratio variations for modes in the controller bandwidth are considered in the design. They used two different uncertainty representations to represent the natural frequency variations in the natural frequency and damping ratios the first one being the complex structured uncertainty and second one involves real-parametric structured uncertainty.
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Active Vibration Damping- An Overview Linear Matrix Inequalities

Iwasaki and Skelton, have formulated Linear matrix Inequality existence conditions and state space formulas for H , control problem. These reformulations have several advantages other than the efficient numerical solutions available for LMIs and simpler derivations. Firstly, these formulations are applicable to all plants without restrictions on infinite or pure imaginary invariant zeros. Secondly, the LMI parameterization results in a finite dimensional parameterization of all H controllers with a clear connection between the free parameters and the closed-loop Lyapunov function. Hence, this parameterization offers numerically tractable means of exploiting the remaining degrees of freedom to achieve additional performance requirements such as pole placement constraints.
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Linear matrix inequalities(LMIs) have been shown to be useful for formulation of multi-objective output-feedback control. All the performance requirements are formulated using quadratic Lyapunov functions. When applying these constraints in the output feedback controller synthesis procedure, these matrix inequalities become nonlinear in the controller parameters and the Lyapunov matrix. Because of the nonlinear terms involving the Lyapunov matrix and the controller variables appearing in the matrix inequalities the design problem is not convex and the controller parameters can not be solved directly. This problem is alleviated by the use of the Lyapunov shaping paradigm and a linearizing change of variables.
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The Lyapunov shaping paradigm involves the use of a single Lyapunov function to describe and formulate all the performance and robustness requirements. Then the linearizing change of variables converts the nonlinear matrix inequalities into a set of LMIs in a new set of variables facilitating the use of convex optimization algorithms to solve the design problem. Because of the many constraints that the controllers being integrated in smart structures need to satisfy, the multi-objective optimization formulation using LMI provides as an useful tool that can eliminate the time consuming iterations involved in the traditional design while inherently achieving the desired trade-offs.
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Active Vibration Damping- Buffet Loads
Active Vibration Damping of Vertical Tails of Fighter Aircrafts Source: SPIE Smart Materials and Structures Conference, 2001
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For high performance aircraft, such as the F/A-18, at high angles of attack, vortices emanating from wing leading edge extensions (LEX) on both sides of the aircraft often burst, immersing the vertical tails in their wake. Although these vortices create lift, the resulting buffet loads on the vertical tails are a concern from airframe fatigue and maintenance points of view. Wind-tunnel and flight tests have been conducted to quantify the buffet loads on the vertical tails of the F-15, F/A-18, and F-22. These tests were designed to characterize the flow mechanism and to quantify the buffet (unsteady differential pressures) acting on the vertical tails during high-angle-of-attack conditions. With the intent of lowering fin buffet loads, and thereby increasing fatigue life, a limited amount of research has been aimed at modifying the vortices.
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However, because the vortices are needed to provide lift at high angles of attack, modifying them may solve one problem but may create another. Instead, efforts have been focused on controlling the structural response. Three wind-tunnel tests have been implemented under a variety of rudder and piezoelectric actuator concepts for buffet loads alleviation (BLA). Results of these tests illustrated the capabilities of the rudder to alleviate buffeting in the fin first bending mode and the piezoelectric actuators to alleviate buffeting in both the fin first bending and fin first torsion modes.
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A full-scale ground test was conducted to assess the capabilities of piezoelectric actuators bonded to the outer surfaces of the fin to alleviate "buffeting" due to simulated unsteady differential pressures. The actuators chosen for this investigation are the Macro-Fiber Composite actuator developed at the NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC-MFCTM) and the Active Fiber Composite actuator developed at the Continuum Control Corporation (C3 AFC). The main objectives of this investigation were 1) to obtain data for verifying mathematical models and analyses of these actuators when embedded in the fin model, and 2) to study these actuators as components of a BLA system for providing guidance during the design phase of the systems-level study mentioned above.
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Illustrated in Figure, the LaRC-MFCTM actuator consists of three primary components: 1) a sheet of aligned piezoceramic fibers, 2) a pair of thin polymer films etched with a conductive copper electrode pattern on the surface facing the piezoceramic fibers, and 3) an adhesive matrix material, typically structural epoxy. Nominally, a peak-to-peak actuation strain of approximately 2000 microns in the longitudinal direction is possible for a 4 kV peak-to-peak (4OOOVpp) voltage cycle, the nominal maximum used with the MFCTM.
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Illustrated in Figure, active Fiber Composite actuators are comprised of piezoelectric fibers, polymer matrix, and electrodes. PZT fibers are unidirectionally aligned in order to sense and actuate in-plane stresses and strains for structural actuation applications.
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To evaluate these new actuator technologies in a buffet loads environment, an existing F/A-18 model was refurbished for testing in the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel at the NASA Langley Research Center. Two new fins were manufactured. The fin skins consisted of 2 plies of 0.0015-inch thick white fiberglass cloth and an epoxy resin. The actuators were placed on the inside surface of the inner ply and cured with the skins using molds and in vacuum.
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Buffet Load Alleviation System: Starting with the fin, the measured output of each fin was the strain near the root and two accelerations (gl and g2) at the tip. The strain near the root served as an additional metric for system identification, control law performance, and buffeting alleviation effectiveness of the actuators. After passing through signal conditioners, tip accelerations were fed back through the controller to the control laws (CLaw1, and CLaw2). The control law gains (K1 and K2) could be set separately. When the switches were closed (i.e., feedback is on), the output of the controller (cl and c2) was sent to the summing junction where it was combined with additional commands (vl and V2), which were used for system identification. As a precaution to prevent damage to the actuators, the input to the voltage amplifiers (l1 and 12) was limited to 1 volt ( 2 Vpp) using limit switches. The voltage amplifiers having fixed internal gains of 1000 were used to drive the piezoelectric actuators. Since the actuators cause motion of the fin through strain actuation, the input to the fin by the actuators is defined by strains. The other input to the fin is the buffet or unsteady surface pressures.
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System identification: System identification of the fins was conducted for the purpose of control law design.
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Using the shown frequency response functions, control laws were designed using frequency domain methods to alleviate buffeting in the first bending and first torsion modes of the fins. Since these modes were well separated, single-input single-output (SISO) controllers could be implemented using some filtering within the control law. Low pass filtering (in CLaw1,) and band-pass filtering (in CLaw2) are used so that other modes are not excited when feedback is turned on as well as to concentrate the amplifier energy near the modal frequencies of interest.
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BUFFETING ALLEVIATION AND ACTUATOR PERFORMANCE RESULTS
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Passive Vibration Damping-Piezos
Passive Vibration Damping using Piezos Source: SPIE Smart Materials and Structures Conference, 2001
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Piezoelectric shunting has been known as a simple, low-cost, lightweight, and easy-to-implement method for passive damping control of structural vibration. This damping control approach utilizes the piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric ceramic materials such as lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT). The ceramic materials are bonded or embedded in high strain areas of the structure to be controlled. Because of the piezoelectric nature of the material, it can transform mechanical vibration energy of the structure to electrical energy or vice versa. If the PZT transducer converts the mechanical energy to electrical energy and forces the energy to flow as an electric current through the resistor in the external circuit, it can be dissipated in Joule heat. The structural vibration is then reduced. This is the basic principle of the passive piezoelectric shunting for structural vibration control.
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One of the challenges on the piezoelectric shunting is how to design an effective and efficient shunt circuit to be connected across the two contact terminals of the ceramic PZT transducer that is bonded at a high strain area of the vibrating structure. There have been several designs reported in the literature on the shunt circuit. It depends on the application purpose of the shunt circuit. The single-mode shunt circuit is designed to control a specific vibration mode. The shunt circuit consists of an inductor and a resistor. They are connected either in a series or parallel arrangement. The latter arrangement avoids the time-consuming iterative operation of the former between the shunt circuit inductance and resistance for optimum frequency tuning.
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To control several modes simultaneously using a single PZT transducer, one can use the multiple-mode shunt circuit. The multiple-mode shunt circuit is built with several single-mode shunt circuits. The inputs of the circuits are tied together and connected to the two PZT transducer terminals. These tied circuits, however, would interfere with one another, which would cause the operation for tuning and damping of various modes very time consuming during adjustment of the shunt circuit inductance and resistance. To avoid the interference among the individual circuit branches, there exists multiple-mode shunt circuit. This uses a blocking or filter circuit in series with each branch of the shunt circuit. The blocking circuit consists of one parallel capacitance-inductor (C-L) anti-resonant circuit or a series of them. The number of the C-L anti-resonant circuits in each branch depends on the number of the structural modes to be controlled simultaneously.
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Another advanced piezoelectric shunt circuit called broadband shunt circuit is discussed here. The circuit is intended to control structural vibration modes over a wide frequency band. It does not use the series or parallel inductor and resistor shunt circuit as used in the single-mode shunt circuit nor the multiple-mode shunt circuit which combines several singlemode shunt circuits incorporated with C-L blocking circuits in each branch circuit. Therefore, its design and operation are much simpler. Since the shunt circuit does not use inductors to tune to a specific mode or modes, a slight change in the mode frequency due to structural or environmental variations would not affect the controllability of the shunt circuit. It is more robust. It also eliminates the need of an automatic frequency tracking circuit' which can provide automatic matching of the shunt circuit resonant frequency with the natural frequency of the mode to be controlled.
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To explain the principle of the broadband shunt circuit, we will start with the single-mode shunt circuit. The circuit consists of a PZT transducer, a shunt inductor and a resistor. Shown on the left of the dotted line are the circuit components associated with the mechanical vibrating structure. These are the current source i, source resistance rs and source reactance xs. The current source represents the energy of the vibrating structure, which is converted from the mechanical energy to the electrical energy by the PZT transducer. On the right of the dotted line are the electrical circuit components, which include the PZT transducer, the shunt resistor RL and inductor XL. The PZT transducer is represented with a capacitive element CPZT. The resistance of the PZT transducer is assumed very large and, therefore, is omitted.
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To extract the electrical energy out and dissipate it in the shunt resistor, one has to eliminate the reactive components in the equivalent circuit, because they do not dissipate the energy but store it only. To do this, adjust the shunt circuit to an antiresonant condition such that the total reactance, Xtotal , which includes the PZT capacitance, source reactance xs, and the shunt inductance XL, approaches infinity at the frequency of the mode to be controlled. Under this condition, the reactance Xtotal can be dropped out from the circuit. This leaves the resistive components only in the equivalent circuit.
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The technique known as resistance matching is used between the source resistance rs and the shunt resistance RL to adjust the latter to the optimum value so that the maximum amount of energy can be transferred from the source to the shunt resistance and be dissipated. Using the similar idea, if one can design a shunt circuit such that the total reactance of the circuit approaches infinity or becomes antiresonant over a broad frequency band, then in principle, the shunt circuit can reduce structural vibration modes in the wide frequency band. Instead of using an inductor to tune the resonant frequency of the shunt circuit to match the mode natural frequency , in the broadband shunt circuit, we use a reactance neutralizing circuit designed with operational amplifier circuits.
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The circuit is connected between the PZT transducer and the shunt resistance as shown in Figure. The reactance neutralizing circuit provides a negative capacitance to cancel out other capacitance in the circuit so that the shunt circuit can become antiresonant over the wide frequency band.
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The input impedance of the circuit, Zin, which is a negative value, is given by Z in = R1 / jC1 R2 If the values of the resistance R1, R2 and the capacitance C1 are properly selected, one can make Zin over a wide frequency range equal to the negative value of the PZT reactance, 1/jCPZT, plus the source reactance XS. Therefore, the circuit reactance can be neutralized and the antiresonant condition can be reached. After this, one uses the resistance matching method, as described earlier, to adjust the shunt resistance and to transfer the maximum amount of energy to it for dissipation. This is the principle mechanism of the broadband shunt circuit.
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To demonstrate the broadband shunting technique, shunting experiments were performed on three structures: a thin aluminum cantilever beam, a two-wing aluminum cantilever beam, and a small- scale thermoplastic composite fairing. Thin aluminum cantilever beam results
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Two-wing aluminum cantilever beam results
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Small-scale thermoplastic composite fairing results: Four ACX QuickPack transducers with 2 in. x 0.75 in. x 0.030 in. in size were bonded on the fairing.
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Conclusions: An advanced passive damping technique called broadband piezoelectric shunting was demonstrated. This technique uses a reactance neutralizing circuit designed with operational amplifier circuits to eliminate the total parallel reactance of the shunt circuit and to reduce structural vibration modes over a wide frequency band. Experimentally damping reduction of structural vibration modes on three structures: a thin aluminum cantilever beam, a two-wing aluminum cantilever beam, and a small-scale thermoplastic composite fairing was demonstrated. This technique is easier to operate than the multiple-mode shunting technique. It also eliminates the need of an automatic frequency tracking circuit that provides automatic matching of the shunt circuit resonant frequency with the natural frequency of the mode to be controlled.
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Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures - Part 1

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Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures -- Part 1

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview Independent modal space control (IMSC)

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Dissipative Positive real control synthesis

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Robust control for non-collocated structural systems

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Department of Mechanical Engineering Dr. G. Song, Associate Professor

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview

Robust control design methods

Control of Smart Structures

3. Aerospace Applications of Control of Smart Structures

Active Vibration Damping- An Overview Linear Matrix Inequalities

Control of Smart Structures