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To Thi nk Represent at i vel y :
Arendt on Judgment and t he
Imagi nat i on
Maur i zi o Passer i n d'Ent r ves
a
a
Uni ver si t y of Cape Town
Ver si on of r ecor d f i r st publ i shed: 01 Jun 2010.
To ci t e t hi s art i cl e: Maur i zi o Passer i n d'Ent r ves ( 2006) : To Thi nk
Repr esent at i vel y : Ar endt on Judgment and t he Imagi nat i on, Phi l osophi cal Paper s,
35: 3, 367- 385
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P/|/oo/|/ Pr
VoI. 3b, No. 3 (Novcmbci 2006): 367-3Sb
`1o 1hinI RcicscntativcIy': Aicnut on ]uugmcnt
anu thc magination
Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
Abstract: n this aiticIc icconstiuct Hannah Aicnut's thcoiy ol |uugmcnt aiounu a
numbci ol Icy thcmcs. Altci having uistinguishcu two moucIs ol |uugmcnt, onc bascu on
thc stanuoint ol thc actoi, thc othci on thc stanuoint ol thc scctatoi, go on to
cxaminc thcii most uistinctivc lcatuics, in aiticuIai thc IinI bctwccn |uugmcnt, thc
imagination, anu thc abiIity to thinI `icicscntativcIy.' aIso cxaminc thc hiIosohicaI
souiccs ol Aicnut's thcoiy ol |uugmcnt, namcIy, Kant's thcoiy ol acsthctic |uugmcnt anu
AiistotIc's notion ol /ron|. n thc linaI scction auuicss thc qucstion ol |uugmcnt anu
its ciitciia ol vaIiuity.
1

Onc ol thc most oiiginaI cxIoiations ol thc ioIc ol thc imagination in
loiming oIiticaI |uugmcnts is to bc lounu in thc wiitings that Hannah
Aicnut ubIishcu towaiu thc cnu ol hci Iilc. 1ogcthci with hci thcoiy
ol action, hci iclIcctions on thc natuic ol |uugmcnt icicscnt hci
ccntiaI Icgacy to twcnticth ccntuiy oIiticaI thought. n what loIIows
shaII cxIoic somc ol thc Icy asccts ol hci thcoiy ol |uugmcnt, in
aiticuIai thc IinI bctwccn |uugmcnt, thc imagination, anu thc abiIity
to thinI `icicscntativcIy.' shaII aIso cxaminc thc two iinciaI
hiIosohicaI souiccs ol Aicnut's thcoiy ol |uugmcnt, namcIy, Kant's
thcoiy ol acsthctic |uugmcnt anu AiistotIc's notion ol /ron|. n thc
concIusion wiII auuicss thc qucstion ol |uugmcnt anu its sccilic
ciitciia ol vaIiuity.

1 1hc loIIowing abbicviations wiII bc uscu loi Aicnut's wiitings:
BPF: B/on P/ nJ Fu/ur. Ncw YoiI: ViIing Picss, 196S.
MDT: Mn |n Dr/ 1|m. Ncw YoiI: Haicouit Biacc ]ovanovich, 196S.
LM: 1/ L| o // M|nJ. Ncw YoiI: Haicouit Biacc ]ovanovich, 197S.
LKPP: L/ur on Kn/` Po/|/|/ P/|/oo/y. cu. R. Bcinci, Chicago: 1hc !nivcisity ol
Chicago Picss, 19S2.
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36S Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
I. judgment: Two ModeIs
Aicnut's thcoiy ol |uugmcnt was ncvci ucvcIocu as systcmaticaIIy oi
cxtcnsivcIy as hci thcoiy ol action. Shc intcnucu to comIctc hci stuuy
ol thc Iilc ol thc minu by ucvoting thc thiiu voIumc to thc lacuIty ol
|uugmcnt, but was not abIc to uo so bccausc ol hci untimcIy ucath in
197b. What shc Iclt was a numbci ol iclIcctions scattcicu in thc liist two
voIumcs on 1/|n/|ng anu W|//|ng,
2
a sciics ol Icctuics on Kant's oIiticaI
hiIosohy ucIivcicu at thc Ncw SchooI loi SociaI Rcscaich in thc aII ol
1970,
3
an cssay cntitIcu `1hinIing anu MoiaI Consiuciations' wiittcn at
thc timc shc was comosing 1/ L| o // M|nJ,
4
anu two aiticIcs
incIuucu in B/on P/ nJ Fu/ur whcic |uugmcnt anu oinion aic
ticatcu in icIation to cuItuic anu tastc (`1hc Ciisis in CuItuic') anu with
icscct to thc qucstion ol tiuth (`1iuth anu PoIitics').
b
Howcvci, thcsc
wiitings uo not icscnt a unilicu thcoiy ol |uugmcnt but, iathci, two
uistinct moucIs, onc bascu on thc stanuoint ol thc actoi, thc othci on
thc stanuoint ol thc scctatoi. Aicnut's wiitings on thc thcmc ol
|uugmcnt can, in this icscct, bc sccn to laII into two moic oi Icss
uistinct hascs, an caiIy onc in which |uugmcnt is thc lacuIty ol oIiticaI
actois acting in thc ubIic icaIm, anu a Iatci onc in which it is thc
iiviIcgc ol non-aiticiating scctatois, iimaiiIy octs anu histoiians,
who sccI to unucistanu thc mcaning ol thc ast anu to icconciIc us to
what has hacncu. n this Iatci loimuIation Aicnut is no Iongci
conccincu with |uuging as a lcatuic ol oIiticaI Iilc as such, as thc lacuIty
which is cxciciscu by actois in oiuci to ucciuc how to act in thc ubIic
icaIm, but, iathci, with |uugmcnt as a comoncnt in thc Iilc ol thc minu,
thc lacuIty thiough which thc iiviIcgcu scctatois can iccovci mcaning

2 IM, 1/|n/|ng, . b-6, 69-70, 76, 92-9S, 111, 129-30, 140, 192-93, 207-9, 213-16;
W|//|ng, . b9-62, 217.
3 IKPP: thcsc Icctuics havc bccn cuitcu anu intiouuccu by Robcit Bcinci.
4 `1hinIing anu MoiaI Consiuciations: A Icctuic' acaicu in So|/ Fr/, voI. 3S, no.
3 (Autumn 1971), anu was iciintcu in So|/ Fr/, voI. b1, no. 1 (Siing 19S4); aII
citations wiII bc liom thc iciintcu vcision.
b `1hc Ciisis in CuItuic' anu `1iuth anu PoIitics' aic incIuucu in BP, at . 197-226 anu
. 227-264, icscctivcIy.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 369
liom thc ast anu thcicby icconciIc thcmscIvcs to timc anu,
ictioscctivcIy, to tiagcuy.
6
II. judgment and the Vita ContempIativa
Aicnut's conccin with |uugmcnt as thc lacuIty ol ictioscctivc
asscssmcnt that aIIows mcaning to bc icuccmcu liom thc ast
oiiginatcu in hci attcmt to comc to tcims with thc twin oIiticaI
tiagcuics ol thc twcnticth ccntuiy, Nazism anu StaIinism. accu with
thc hoiiois ol thc cxtcimination cams anu what is now tcimcu thc
GuIag, Aicnut stiovc to unucistanu thcsc hcnomcna in thcii own
tcims, ncithci ucuucing thcm liom icccucnts noi Iacing thcm in
somc ovciaiching schcmc ol histoiicaI ncccssity. 1his nccu to comc to
tcims with thc tiaumatic cvcnts ol thc twcnticth ccntuiy, anu to
unucistanu thcm in a mannci that uocs not cxIain thcm away but
laccs thcm in aII thcii staiIncss anu unicccucntcuncss, is a ccntiaI
motil ol Aicnut's thought. n onc ol hci caiIy cssays cntitIcu
`!nucistanuing anu PoIitics,' shc cIaimcu that oui inhciitcu liamcwoiI
loi |uugmcnt laiIs us `as soon as wc tiy to aIy it honcstIy to thc
ccntiaI oIiticaI cxciicnccs ol oui own timc.'
7
Evcn oui oiuinaiy
common-scnsc |uugmcnt is icnucicu incllcctivc, sincc `wc aic Iiving in
a tosy-tuivy woiIu, a woiIu whcic wc cannot linu oui way by abiuing
by thc iuIcs ol what oncc was common scnsc.'
S
oi Aicnut, thc ciisis in unucistanuing is cocvaI with a ciisis in
|uugmcnt, insolai as unucistanuing is `so cIoscIy icIatcu to anu
intciicIatcu with |uuging that onc must ucsciibc both as thc
subsumtion ol somcthing aiticuIai unuci a univcisaI iuIc.'
9
Oncc thcsc
iuIcs havc Iost thcii vaIiuity wc aic no Iongci abIc to unucistanu anu to
|uugc thc aiticuIais, that is, wc aic no Iongci abIc to subsumc thcm

6 Cl. R. Bcinstcin, `]uuging-thc Actoi anu thc Scctatoi,' in P/|/oo/|/ Pro|/
(Cambiiugc: PoIity Picss, 19S6).
7 `!nucistanuing anu PoIitics,' Pr/|n F.|o, 20, 19b3, . 379.
S biu., . 3S3.
9 biu., . 3S3.
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370 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
unuci oui accctcu catcgoiics ol moiaI anu oIiticaI thought. Aicnut,
howcvci, uocs not bcIicvc that thc Ioss ol thcsc catcgoiics has biought to
an cnu oui caacity to |uugc; on thc contiaiy, sincc human bcings aic
uistinguishcu by thcii caacity to bcgin ancw, thcy aic abIc to lashion
ncw catcgoiics anu to loimuIatc ncw stanuaius ol |uugmcnt loi thc
cvcnts that havc comc to ass anu loi thosc that may cmcigc in thc
lutuic. As shc ut it:
n thc Iight ol thcsc iclIcctions, oui cnucavoiing to unucistanu somcthing
which has iuincu oui catcgoiics ol thought anu oui stanuaius ol |uugmcnt
acais Icss liightcning. Evcn though wc havc Iost yaiusticIs by which to
mcasuic, anu iuIcs unuci which to subsumc thc aiticuIai, a bcing whosc
csscncc is bcginning may havc cnough ol oiigin within himscIl to unucistanu
without icconccivcu catcgoiics anu to |uugc without thc sct ol customaiy
iuIcs which is moiaIity.
10

oi Aicnut, thcicloic, thc cnoimity anu unicccucntcuncss ol
totaIitaiianism havc not ucstioycu, stiictIy scaIing, oui abiIity to |uugc;
iathci, thcy havc ucstioycu oui accctcu stanuaius ol |uugmcnt anu oui
convcntionaI catcgoiics ol intciictation anu asscssmcnt, bc thcy moiaI
oi oIiticaI. Anu in this situation thc onIy iccouisc is to acaI to thc
|mg|n/|on, which aIIows us to vicw things in thcii ioci ciscctivc
anu to |uugc thcm without thc bcnclit ol a ic-givcn iuIc oi univcisaI.
As Aicnut uts it:
magination aIonc cnabIcs us to scc things in thcii ioci ciscctivc, to ut
that which is too cIosc at a ccitain uistancc so that wc can scc anu unucistanu
it without bias anu ic|uuicc, to biiugc abysscs ol icmotcncss untiI wc can scc
anu unucistanu cvciything that is too lai away liom us as though it wcic oui
own allaii. 1his `uistancing' ol somc things anu biiuging thc abysscs to
othcis is ait ol thc uiaIoguc ol unucistanuing.
11
oi Aicnut, thc imagination cnabIcs us to cicatc thc uistancc which is
ncccssaiy loi an imaitiaI |uugmcnt, whiIc at thc samc timc aIIowing loi
thc cIoscncss that maIcs unucistanuing ossibIc. n this way it maIcs

10 biu., . 391.
11 biu., . 392.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 371
ossibIc oui icconciIiation with icaIity, cvcn with thc tiagic icaIity ol thc
twcnticth ccntuiy.
Aicnut's aiticiation at thc tiiaI ol Eichmann in thc caiIy sixtics
mauc hci oncc moic awaic ol thc nccu to comc to tcims with a icaIity
that initiaIIy uclicu human comichcnsion. How couIu such an oiuinaiy,
Iaw-abiuing, anu aII-too-human inuiviuuaI havc committcu such
atiocitics. 1hc imact ol thc tiiaI aIso loiccu hci to iaisc anothci
iobIcm conccining |uugmcnt, namcIy, whcthci wc aic cntitIcu to
icsuosc `an inuccnucnt human lacuIty, unsuoitcu by Iaw anu
ubIic oinion, that |uugcs ancw in luII sontancity cvciy uccu anu
intcnt whcncvci thc occasion aiiscs.'
12
III. judgment and the Wind of Thought
Aicnut ictuincu to this issuc in 1/ L| o // M|nJ, a woiI which was
mcant to cncomass thc thicc lacuItics ol thinIing, wiIIing, anu |uuging.
n thc intiouuction to thc liist voIumc shc uccIaicu that thc immcuiatc
imuIsc to wiitc it camc liom attcnuing thc Eichmann tiiaI in
]ciusaIcm,
13
whiIc thc scconu, cquaIIy imoitant motivc, was to ioviuc
an account ol oui mcntaI activitics that was missing liom hci icvious
woiI on thc .|/ /|.. t was Eichmann's abscncc ol thinIing, his
`thoughtIcssncss,' that stiucI hci most, bccausc it was icsonsibIc in hci
vicw loi his inabiIity to |uugc in thosc ciicumstanccs whcic |uugmcnt was
most nccucu. `t was this abscncc ol thinIing,' shc wiotc,
that awaIcncu my intcicst. s cviI-uoing (thc sins ol omission, as wcII as thc sins ol
commission) ossibIc in uclauIt ol not |ust `basc motivcs' . but ol any motivcs
whatcvci, ol any aiticuIai iomting ol intcicst oi voIition. s wicIcuncss . no/
a ncccssaiy conuition loi cviI uoing. Might thc iobIcm ol goou anu cviI, oui
lacuIty loi tcIIing iight liom wiong, bc conncctcu with oui lacuIty ol thought.
14
Aicnut attcmtcu a icIy by connccting thc activity ol thinIing to
that ol |uuging in a twoloIu mannci. iist, thinIing-thc siIcnt

12 `PcisonaI RcsonsibiIity unuci Dictatoishi,' 1/ L|/nr, August 6, 1964, . 1S7.
13 IM, 1/|n/|ng, . 3.
14 IM, 1/|n/|ng, . 4-b.
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372 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
uiaIoguc ol mc anu myscIl-uissoIvcs oui lixcu habits ol thought anu
thc accctcu iuIcs ol conuuct, anu thus icaics thc way loi thc
activity ol |uuging aiticuIais without thc aiu ol ic-cstabIishcu
univcisaIs. t is not that thinIing ioviucs |uugmcnt with ncw iuIcs
loi subsuming thc aiticuIai unuci thc univcisaI. Rathci, it Iooscns
thc gii ol thc univcisaI ovci thc aiticuIai, thcicby icIcasing
|uugmcnt liom ossilicu catcgoiics ol thought anu convcntionaI
stanuaius ol asscssmcnt. t is in timcs ol histoiicaI ciisis that thinIing
ccascs to bc a maiginaI allaii, bccausc by unucimining aII cstabIishcu
ciitciia anu vaIucs, it icaics thc inuiviuuaI to |uugc loi him oi
hciscIl instcau ol bcing caiiicu away by thc actions anu oinions ol
thc ma|oiity.
1hc scconu way in which Aicnut conncctcu thc activity ol thinIing
with that ol |uuging is by showing that thinIing, by actuaIizing thc
uiaIoguc ol mc anu myscIl which is givcn in consciousncss, iouuccs
on|n as a by-iouuct. 1his conscicncc, unIiIc thc voicc ol Gou oi
what Iatci thinIcis caIIcu /umn n/ur/, givcs no ositivc
icsciitions; it onIy tcIIs us what no/ to uo, what to avoiu in oui
actions anu ucaIings with othcis, as wcII as what to iccnt ol. Aicnut
notcs in this contcxt that Sociatcs' uictum `t is bcttci to sullci wiong
than to uo wiong,' anu his ioosition that `t wouIu bc bcttci loi mc
that my Iyic oi a choius uiicctcu shouIu bc out ol tunc anu Iouu
with uiscoiu, anu that muItituucs ol mcn shouIu uisagicc with mc,
iathci than that , ||ng on, shouIu bc out ol haimony with myscIl
anu contiauict mc,' uciivc thcii vaIiuity liom thc iuca that thcic is a
siIcnt aitnci within ouiscIvcs to whom wc icnuci account ol oui
actions.
1b
What wc lcai most is thc anticiation ol thc icscncc ol this
aitnci (i.c., oui conscicncc) who awaits us at thc cnu ol thc uay.
1hus,
a cison who uocs not Inow that siIcnt intcicouisc (in which wc cxaminc
what wc say anu what wc uo) wiII not minu contiauicting himscIl, anu this

1b `1hinIing anu MoiaI Consiuciations,' o. cit., . 29-30, 3b.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 373
mcans hc wiII ncvci bc cithci abIc oi wiIIing to account loi what hc says oi
uocs; noi wiII hc minu committing any ciimc, sincc hc can count on its bcing
loigottcn thc ncxt momcnt. Bau coIc . aic no/ `luII ol icgicts.'
16

Aicnut aIso icmaiIs that thinIing, as thc actuaIization ol thc uillcicncc
givcn in consciousncss, `is not a iciogativc ol thc lcw but an cvci-
icscnt lacuIty in cvciybouy; by thc samc toIcn, inabiIity to thinI is not
a laiIing ol thc many who IacI biain owci, but an cvci-icscnt
ossibiIity loi cvciybouy.'
17
oi thosc who uo cngagc in thinIing,
howcvci, conscicncc cmcigcs as an incvitabIc by-iouuct. As thc siuc-
cllcct ol thinIing, conscicncc has its countciait in |uugmcnt as thc by-
iouuct ol thc Iibciating activity ol thought. l conscicncc icicscnts thc
innci chccI by which wc cvaIuatc oui actions, |uugmcnt icicscnts thc
outci manilcstation ol oui caacity to thinI ciiticaIIy. Both lacuItics
icIatc to thc qucstion ol iight anu wiong, but whiIc conscicncc uiiccts
attcntion to thc scIl, |uugmcnt uiiccts attcntion to thc woiIu.
1S
n this
icscct, |uugmcnt maIcs ossibIc what Aicnut caIIs `thc manilcstation ol
thc winu ol thought' in thc shcic ol acaiancc.
IV. judgment and Kant`s Aesthetics
1hc loicgoing account has cxIoicu thc way in which Aicnut
attcmtcu to conncct thc activity ol thinIing to oui caacity to |uugc.
1o bc suic, this conncction ol thinIing anu |uuging sccms to ociatc
onIy in cmcigcncics, in thosc cxcctionaI momcnts whcic
inuiviuuaIs, laccu with thc coIIasc ol tiauitionaI stanuaius, must
comc u with ncw oncs anu |uugc accoiuing to thcii own autonomous
vaIucs. 1hcic is, howcvci, a scconu, moic cIaboiatcu vicw ol
|uugmcnt which uocs not icstiict it to momcnts ol ciisis, but which
iucntilics it with thc caacity to thinI icicscntativcIy, that is, liom
thc stanuoint ol cvciyonc cIsc. Aicnut caIIcu this caacity to thinI

16 IM, 1/|n/|ng, . 191.
17 biu., . 191.
1S Cl. `CoIIcctivc RcsonsibiIity,' in ]amcs W. Bcinauci (cu.), +mor MunJ|. E\/or/|on |n //
F|// nJ 1/oug// o Hnn/ +rnJ/ (Doiuiccht: Maitinus Ni|holl PubIishcis, 19S7), . 43-b0.
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374 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
icicscntativcIy an `cnIaigcu mcntaIity,' auoting thc samc tcims
that Kant cmIoycu in his 1hiiu Ciitiquc to chaiactciizc acsthctic
|uugmcnt. t is to this woiI that wc must now tuin oui attcntion, sincc
Aicnut bascu hci thcoiy ol oIiticaI |uugmcnt on Kant's acsthctics
iathci than on his moiaI hiIosohy.
At liist sight this might sccm a uzzIing choicc, sincc Kant himscIl
bascu his moiaI anu oIiticaI hiIosohy on iacticaI icason anu not on
oui acsthctic lacuItics. Aicnut, howcvci, cIaimcu that thc Cr|/|u o
[uJgmn/ containcu Kant's unwiittcn oIiticaI hiIosohy, anu that thc
liist ait ol it, thc `Ciitiquc ol Acsthctic ]uugmcnt,' was thc most liuitluI
basis on which to buiIu a thcoiy ol oIiticaI |uugmcnt, sincc it ucaIt with
thc woiIu ol acaianccs liom thc oint ol vicw ol thc |uuging scctatoi
anu tooI as its staiting oint thc lacuIty ol tastc, unucistoou as a lacuIty
ol concictc anu cmbouicu sub|ccts.
19
oi Aicnut thc caacity to |uugc is a sccilicaIIy oIiticaI abiIity
insolai as it cnabIcs inuiviuuaIs to oiicnt thcmscIvcs in thc ubIic
icaIm anu to |uugc thc hcnomcna that aic uiscIoscu within it liom a
stanuoint that is icIativcIy uctachcu anu imaitiaI. Shc cicuits Kant
with having uisIougcu thc ic|uuicc that |uugmcnts ol tastc Iic
aItogcthci outsiuc thc oIiticaI icaIm, sincc thcy suoscuIy conccin
onIy acsthctic mattcis. Shc bcIicvcs, in lact, that by IinIing tastc to
that wiuci mannci ol thinIing which Kant caIIcu an `cnIaigcu
mcntaIity' thc way was ocncu to a icvaIuation ol |uugmcnt as a
sccilic oIiticaI abiIity, namcIy, as thc abiIity to thinI in thc Iacc ol
cvciybouy cIsc. As shc ut it in onc ol thc caiIy cssays ucvotcu to this
toic:
Kant cxounus two oIiticaI hiIosohics which uillci shaiIy liom onc
anothci-thc liist bcing that which is gcnciaIIy accctcu as such in his
Cr|/|u o Pr/|/ Fon anu thc scconu that containcu in his Cr|/|u o
[uJgmn/ . n thc Cr|/|u o [uJgmn/ liccuom is oitiaycu as a icuicatc ol
thc owci ol thc imagination anu not ol thc wiII, anu thc owci ol thc
imagination is IinIcu most cIoscIy with that wiuci mannci ol thinIing which

19 Scc BP, . 219-220.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 37b
is oIiticaI thinIing ai cxccIIcncc, bccausc it cnabIcs us to `ut ouiscIvcs in
thc minus ol othci mcn.'
20
Moicovci, Aicnut sticsscs thc lact that it is onIy in Kant's Cr|/|u o
[uJgmn/ that wc linu a concction ol |uugmcnt as thc abiIity to ucaI
with aiticuIais in thcii aiticuIaiity, that is, without subsuming thcm
unuci a ic-givcn univcisaI, but activcIy scaiching thc univcisaI out ol
thc aiticuIai.
21
Kant loimuIatcu this uistinction as that bctwccn
J/rm|nn/ anu r//|. |uugmcnts. oi him |uugmcnt in gcnciaI is thc
lacuIty ol thinIing thc aiticuIai as containcu unuci thc univcisaI. l
thc univcisaI, (thc iuIc, iinciIc, oi Iaw) is givcn, thcn thc |uugmcnt
which subsumcs thc aiticuIai unuci it is uctciminant. l, howcvci,
onIy thc aiticuIai is givcn anu thc univcisaI has to bc lounu loi it,
thcn thc |uugmcnt is iclIcctivc.
22
oi Kant uctciminant |uugmcnts
wcic cognitivc, whiIc iclIcctivc |uugmcnts wcic non-cognitivc.
RclIcctivc |uugmcnt is sccn as thc caacity to asccnu liom thc
aiticuIai to thc univcisaI without thc mcuiation ol uctciminatc
conccts givcn in auvancc; it is icasoning about aiticuIais in thcii
icIation to thc univcisaI iathci than icasoning about univcisaIs in thcii
icIation to thc aiticuIai. n thc casc ol acsthctic |uugmcnt this mcans
that can unucistanu anu aIy thc univcisaI icuicatc ol bcauty onIy
thiough cxciicncing a aiticuIai ob|cct that cxcmIilics it. 1hus,
uon cncountciing a lIowci, a uniquc Ianuscac, oi a aiticuIai
ainting, am abIc to say that it is an cxamIc ol bcauty, that it
osscsscs `cxcmIaiy vaIiuity.'

20 `iccuom anu PoIitics,' in A. HunoIu (cu.), FrJom nJ SrJom. +n +n//o/ogy o W/rn
1/oug// (Doiuiccht: D. RciucI, 1961), . 207.
21 Aicnut sticsscs that this caacity to |uugc thc aiticuIai qua aiticuIai is not to bc
lounu in Kant's moiaI hiIosohy. As shc uts it: `oi |uugmcnt ol thc aiticuIai-1/| is
bcautiluI, 1/| is ugIy; 1/| is iight, 1/| is wiong-has no Iacc in Kant's moiaI hiIosohy.
]uugmcnt is not iacticaI icason; iacticaI icason icasons' anu tcIIs mc what to uo anu
what not to uo; it Iays uown thc Iaw anu is iucnticaI with thc wiII, anu thc wiII uttcis
commanus; it scaIs in imciativcs. ]uugmcnt, on thc contiaiy, aiiscs liom a mcicIy
contcmIativc Icasuic oi inactivc ucIight.'' (IKPP, . 1b).
22 mmanucI Kant, Cr|/|u o [uJgmn/, tiansIatcu with anaIyticaI inucx by ]. C. Mcicuith
(Oxloiu: CIaicnuon Picss, 19b2), . 1S.
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376 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
oi Aicnut this notion ol cxcmIaiy vaIiuity is not icstiictcu to
acsthctic ob|ccts oi to inuiviuuaIs who cxcmIilicu ccitain viitucs.
Rathci, shc wants to cxtcnu this notion to cvcnts in thc ast that caiiy a
mcaning bcyonu thcii shcci cnactmcnt, that is, to cvcnts that couIu bc
sccn as cxcmIaiy loi thosc who camc altci. t is hcic that acsthctic
|uugmcnt |oins with thc ictioscctivc |uugmcnt ol thc histoiian. 1hc
Amciican anu icnch RcvoIutions, thc Paiis Communc, thc Russian
sovicts, thc Gciman icvoIutionaiy counciIs ol 191S-19, thc Hungaiian
uiising ol 19b6, aII thcsc cvcnts osscss thc Iinu ol cxcmIaiy vaIiuity
that maIcs thcm ol univcisaI signilicancc, whiIc stiII ictaining thcii own
sccilicity anu uniqucncss. 1hus, by attcnuing to thcsc cvcnts in thcii
aiticuIaiity thc histoiian oi |uuging scctatoi is abIc to iIIuminatc thcii
univcisaI imoit anu thcicby icscivc thcm as `cxamIcs' loi ostciity.
oi Aicnut it is thc scctatois who havc thc iiviIcgc ol |uuging
imaitiaIIy anu uisintcicstcuIy, anu in uoing so thcy cxcicisc two ciuciaI
lacuItics, |mg|n/|on anu ommon n. magination is thc lacuIty ol
icicscnting in onc's minu that which has aIicauy acaicu to onc's
scnscs. 1hiough thc imagination onc can icicscnt ob|ccts that aic no
Iongci icscnt anu thus cstabIish thc uistancc ncccssaiy loi an imaitiaI
|uugmcnt. Oncc this uistancing has occuiicu, onc is in a osition to
iclIcct uon thcsc icicscntations liom a numbci ol uillcicnt
ciscctivcs, anu thcicby to icach a |uugmcnt about thc ioci vaIuc ol
an ob|cct. As Aicnut says:
OnIy what touchcs, allccts, onc in icicscntation, whcn onc can no Iongci bc
allcctcu by immcuiatc icscncc . can bc |uugcu to bc iight oi wiong,
imoitant oi iiicIcvant, bcautiluI oi ugIy, oi somcthing in bctwccn. Onc thcn
scaIs ol |uugmcnt anu no Iongci ol tastc bccausc, though it stiII allccts onc
IiIc a mattci ol tastc, onc now has, by mcans ol icicscntation, cstabIishcu
thc ioci uistancc, thc icmotcncss oi uninvoIvcuncss oi uisintcicstcuncss,
that is icquisitc loi aiobation anu uisaiobation, loi cvaIuating
somcthing at its ioci woith. By icmoving thc ob|cct, onc has cstabIishcu
thc conuitions loi imaitiaIity.
23

23 IKPP, . 67.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 377
1hc othci lacuIty that scctatois havc to acaI to is community scnsc oi
nu ommun|, sincc without it thcy couIu not shaic thcii |uugmcnts oi
ovcicomc thcii inuiviuuaI iuiosynciasics. Kant bcIicvcu that loi oui
|uugmcnts to bc vaIiu wc must tiansccnu oui iivatc oi sub|cctivc
conuitions in lavoi ol ubIic anu intcisub|cctivc oncs, anu wc aic abIc to
uo this by acaIing to oui community scnsc, oui nu ommun|. As
Kant uts it:
By thc namc nu ommun| is to bc unucistoou thc iuca ol a u|/| scnsc, i.c.
a ciiticaI lacuIty which in its iclIcctivc act taIcs account ( r|or|) ol thc mouc
ol icicscntation ol cvciyonc cIsc, in oiuci, as it wcic, to wcigh its |uugmcnt
with thc coIIcctivc icason ol manIinu . 1his is accomIishcu by wcighing
thc |uugmcnt, not so much with thc actuaI, as iathci with thc mcicIy ossibIc,
|uugmcnts ol othcis, anu by utting ouiscIvcs in thc osition ol cvciyonc
cIsc.
24
oi Kant |uugmcnts ol tastc aIways acaI to oui nu ommun|, anu it
is this acaI that givcs thcm thcii sccilic vaIiuity. 1hcy aic ncithci
mcicIy sub|cctivc noi cntiicIy ob|cctivc; iathci, thcii vaIiuity icsts on thc
conscnt thcy cIicit liom thc community within which onc |uugcs. As
Aicnut icmaiIs:
1hc vaIiuity ol thcsc |uugmcnts ncvci has thc vaIiuity ol cognitivc oi
scicntilic ioositions . onc can ncvci comcI anyonc to agicc with onc's
|uugmcnts-'1his is bcautiluI' oi `1his is wiong' . onc can onIy `woo' oi
`couit' thc agiccmcnt ol cvciyonc cIsc. Anu in this cisuasivc activity onc
actuaIIy acaIs to thc `community scnsc.' n othci woius, whcn onc |uugcs,
onc |uugcs as a mcmbci ol a community.
2b
Aicnut aIso notcs that it is this community scnsc oi nu ommun| that
cnabIcs inuiviuuaIs to acquiic an `cnIaigcu mcntaIity' anu thus to bc in a
osition to |uugc imaitiaIIy. `An cnIaigcu mcntaIity,'' shc wiitcs,
is thc conuition |n u non ol iight |uugmcnt; onc's community scnsc maIcs
it ossibIc to cnIaigc onc's mcntaIity. NcgativcIy scaIing, this mcans that
onc is abIc to abstiact liom iivatc conuitions anu ciicumstanccs, which, as
lai as |uugmcnt is conccincu, Iimit anu inhibit its cxcicisc. Piivatc conuitions

24 mmanucI Kant, Cr|/|u o [uJgmn/, o. cit., . 1b1.
2b IKPP, . 72.
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37S Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
conuition us; imagination anu iclIcction cnabIc us to /||r/ ouiscIvcs liom
thcm anu to attain that icIativc imaitiaIity that is thc sccilic viituc ol
|uugmcnt.
26
1hc vaIiuity ol |uugmcnt thus uccnus on its ucgicc ol imaitiaIity (oi
what Kant caIIcu `uisintcicstcuncss') anu to achicvc such imaitiaIity
what is icquiicu is thc activc cmIoymcnt ol thc imagination anu thc
ucvcIomcnt ol an `cnIaigcu mcntaIity' that incoioiatcs thc
stanuoints ol othcis.
n hci concIuuing iclIcctions on Kant's acsthctics Aicnut icmaiIs
that thc cmhasis on thc communicabiIity ol |uugmcnts ol tastc, anu thc
coiicIativc notion ol an cnIaigcu mcntaIity, IinI u clloitIcssIy with
Kant's iuca ol a unitcu manIinu Iiving in ctcinaI cacc. Shc aigucs that:
t is by viituc ol this iuca ol manIinu, icscnt in cvciy singIc man, that mcn
aic human, anu thcy can bc caIIcu civiIizcu oi humanc to thc cxtcnt that this
iuca bccomcs thc iinciIc not onIy ol thcii |uugmcnts but ol thcii actions. t
is at this oint that /or anu //or bccomc unitcu; thc maxim ol thc actoi
anu thc maxim, thc `stanuaiu,' accoiuing to which thc scctatoi |uugcs thc
scctacIc ol thc woiIu, bccomc onc.
27
n hci iclIcctions on Kant's 1hiiu Ciitiquc Aicnut acInowIcugcs thc
IinIs bctwccn thc stanuoint ol thc actoi anu that ol thc scctatoi. Ict
us now cxaminc thc way in which |uugmcnt ociatcs liom thc
stanuoint ol thc actoi.
V. judgment and the Vita Activa
Aicnut icscntcu a moucI ol |uugmcnt in thc cssays `1hc Ciisis in
CuItuic' anu `1iuth anu PoIitics' which couIu bc chaiactciizcu as lai
moic `oIiticaI' than thc onc icscntcu so lai. n thcsc cssays, in lact, shc
ticatcu |uugmcnt as a lacuIty that cnabIcs oIiticaI actois to ucciuc what
couiscs ol action to unucitaIc in thc ubIic icaIm, what Iinu ol
ob|cctivcs aic most aioiiatc oi woith uisuing, as wcII as who to
iaisc oi bIamc loi ast actions oi loi thc conscqucnccs ol ast

26 IKPP, . 73.
27 IKPP, . 7b (cmhasis auucu).
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 379
uccisions. n this moucI |uugmcnt is vicwcu as a sccilicaIIy o/|/|/
abiIity, namcIy, as `thc abiIity to scc things not onIy liom onc's own oint
ol vicw but liom thc ciscctivc ol aII thosc who hacn to bc icscnt,'
anu as bcing `onc ol thc lunuamcntaI abiIitics ol man as a oIiticaI bcing
insolai as it cnabIcs him to oiicnt himscIl in thc ubIic icaIm, in thc
common woiIu.'
2S
Aicnut cIaims that
thc GiccIs caIIcu this abiIity |to |uugc] /ron|, oi insight, anu thcy
consiucicu it thc iinciaI viituc oi cxccIIcncc ol thc statcsman in uistinction
liom thc wisuom ol thc hiIosohci. 1hc uillcicncc bctwccn this |uuging
insight anu sccuIativc thought Iics in that thc loimci has its ioots in what wc
usuaIIy caII common scnsc, which thc Iattci constantIy tiansccnus. Common
scnsc . uiscIoscs to us thc natuic ol thc woiIu insolai as it is a common
woiIu; wc owc to it thc lact that oui stiictIy iivatc anu `sub|cctivc' livc scnscs
anu thcii scnsoiy uata can au|ust thcmscIvcs to a non-sub|cctivc anu
`ob|cctivc' woiIu which wc havc in common anu shaic with othcis. ]uuging is
onc, il not thc most, imoitant activity in which this shaiing-thc-woiIu-with-
othcis comcs to ass.
29
Moicovci, in uiscussing thc non-cocicivc chaiactci ol |uugmcnt, thc lact
that it can onIy acaI to but ncvci loicc thc agiccmcnt ol othcis, shc
cIaims that `this wooing' oi cisuauing coiicsonus cIoscIy to what thc
GiccIs caIIcu |//|n, thc convincing anu cisuauing sccch which thcy
icgaiucu as thc tyicaIIy oIiticaI loim ol coIc taIIing with onc
anothci.'
30
Somc commcntatois havc cIaimcu that thcic is a
contiauiction in Aicnut's cmIoymcnt ol thc AiistotcIian notion ol
/ron| aIongsiuc Kant's iuca ol an `cnIaigcu mcntaIity,' sincc thcy
suoscuIy uII in oositc uiicctions, thc loimci towaiu a conccin with
thc aiticuIai, thc Iattci towaiu univcisaIity anu imaitiaIity.
31
Howcvci,
this contiauiction is moic aaicnt than icaI, sincc Kant's thcoiy ol

2S BP, . 221.
29 BP, . 221.
30 BP, . 222.
31 Scc C. Iasch, `ntiouuction,' S/mgunJ|, no. 60 (Siing-Summci 19S3); R. Bcinstcin,
`]uuging-thc Actoi anu thc Scctatoi,' in P/|/oo/|/ Pro|/ (Cambiiugc: PoIity Picss,
19S6); loi a ic|oinuci, scc S. Bcnhabib, `]uugmcnt anu thc MoiaI ounuations ol PoIitics
in Hannah Aicnut's 1hought,' in S|/u/|ng // S/ (Cambiiugc: PoIity Picss, 1992).
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3S0 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
acsthctic |uugmcnt is a thcoiy ol r//|. |uugmcnt, that is, ol thosc
|uugmcnts whcic thc univcisaI is not givcn but must bc scaichcu out ol
thc aiticuIai. n this icscct thc thcoiy ol acsthctic |uugmcnt to which
Aicnut acaIs uocs havc cIosc allinitics with AiistotIc's notion ol
/ron|: both aic conccincu with thc |uugmcnt ol aiticuIais qua
aiticuIais, not with thcii subsumtion unuci univcisaI iuIcs. l a
uistinction is to bc mauc, it has moic to uo with thc mouc ol r/|ng
./|J|/y: n AiistotIc /ron| is thc iiviIcgc ol a lcw cxciicnccu
inuiviuuaIs (thc /ron|mo|) who, ovci timc, havc shown thcmscIvcs to bc
wisc in iacticaI mattcis; thc onIy ciitciion ol vaIiuity is thcii cxciicncc
anu thcii ast iccoiu ol |uuicious actions. n thc casc ol |uugmcnts ol
tastc, on thc othci hanu, inuiviuuaIs havc to acaI to thc |uugmcnts
anu oinions ol othcis, anu thus thc vaIiuity ol thcii |uugmcnts icsts on
thc conscnt thcy can cIicit liom a community ol uillcicntIy situatcu
sub|ccts.
oi Aicnut thc vaIiuity ol oIiticaI |uugmcnt uccnus on oui abiIity
to thinI `icicscntativcIy,' that is, liom thc stanuoint ol cvciyonc cIsc,
so that wc aic abIc to IooI at thc woiIu liom a numbci ol uillcicnt
ciscctivcs. Anu this abiIity, in tuin, can onIy bc acquiicu anu tcstcu in
a ubIic loium whcic inuiviuuaIs havc thc ooitunity to cxchangc thcii
oinions on aiticuIai mattcis anu scc whcthci thcy accoiu with thc
oinions ol othcis. n this icscct thc ioccss ol oinion loimation is
ncvci a soIitaiy activity; iathci, it icquiics a gcnuinc cncountci with
uillcicnt oinions so that a aiticuIai issuc may bc cxamincu liom cvciy
ossibIc stanuoint untiI, as shc uts it, `it is lIooucu anu mauc
tiansaicnt by thc luII Iight ol human comichcnsion.'
32
Dcbatc anu
uiscussion, anu thc caacity to cnIaigc onc's ciscctivc, aic inuccu
ciuciaI to thc loimation ol oinions that can cIaim moic than sub|cctivc
vaIiuity; inuiviuuaIs may hoIu cisonaI oinions on many sub|cct
mattcis, but thcy can loim rrn//|. oinions onIy by cnIaiging thcii
stanuoint to incoioiatc thosc ol othcis. As Aicnut says:

32 BP, . 242.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 3S1
PoIiticaI thought is icicscntativc. loim an oinion by consiuciing a givcn
issuc liom uillcicnt vicwoints, by maIing icscnt to my minu thc
stanuoints ol thosc who aic abscnt; that is, icicscnt thcm . 1hc moic
coIc's stanuoints havc icscnt in my minu whiIc am onuciing a givcn
issuc, anu thc bcttci can imaginc how wouIu lccI anu thinI il wcic in
thcii Iacc, thc stiongci wiII bc my caacity loi icicscntativc thinIing anu
thc moic vaIiu my linaI concIusions, my oinion.
33

Oinions, in lact, aic ncvci scIl-cviucnt. n mattcis ol oinion, but not
in mattcis ol tiuth, `oui thinIing is tiuIy uiscuisivc, iunning, as it wcic,
liom Iacc to Iacc, liom onc ait ol thc woiIu to anothci, thiough aII
Iinus ol conlIicting vicws, untiI it linaIIy asccnus liom thcsc
aiticuIaiitics to somc imaitiaI gcnciaIity.'
34
n this icscct onc is ncvci
aIonc whiIc loiming an oinion; as Aicnut notcs,
cvcn il shun aII comany oi am comIctcIy isoIatcu whiIc loiming an
oinion, am not simIy togcthci onIy with myscIl in thc soIituuc ol
hiIosohicaI thought; icmain in this woiIu ol univcisaI intciuccnucncc,
whcic can maIc myscIl thc icicscntativc ol cvciybouy cIsc.
3b
VI. judgment and VaIidity
1hc icicscntativc chaiactci ol |uugmcnt anu oinion has imoitant
imIications loi thc qucstion ol vaIiuity. Aicnut aIways sticsscu that thc
loimation ol vaIiu oinions icquiics a ubIic sacc whcic inuiviuuaIs can
tcst anu uiily thcii vicws thiough a ioccss ol mutuaI ucbatc anu
cnIightcnmcnt. Shc was, howcvci, quitc ooscu to thc iuca that
oinions shouIu bc mcasuicu by thc stanuaiu ol tiuth, oi that ucbatc
shouIu bc conuuctcu accoiuing to stiict scicntilic stanuaius ol vaIiuity. n
hci vicw, tiuth bcIongs to thc icaIm ol cognition, thc icaIm ol Iogic,
mathcmatics anu thc stiict scicnccs, anu caiiics aIways an cIcmcnt ol
cocicion, sincc it iccIuucs ucbatc anu must bc accctcu by cvciy
inuiviuuaI in osscssion ol hci iationaI lacuItics. Sct against thc IuiaIity
ol oinions, tiuth has a ucsotic chaiactci: it comcIs univcisaI asscnt,

33 BP, . 241.
34 BP, . 242.
3b BP, . 242.
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3S2 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
Icavcs thc minu IittIc liccuom ol movcmcnt, cIiminatcs thc uivcisity ol
vicws anu icuuccs thc iichncss ol human uiscouisc. n this icscct, tiuth
is anti-oIiticaI, sincc by cIiminating ucbatc anu uivcisity it cIiminatcs
thc vciy iinciIcs ol oIiticaI Iilc. As Aicnut wiitcs,
1hc tioubIc is that lactuaI tiuth, IiIc aII othci tiuth, cicmtoiiIy cIaims to
bc acInowIcugcu anu iccIuucs ucbatc, anu ucbatc constitutcs thc vciy
csscncc ol oIiticaI Iilc. 1hc moucs ol thought anu communication that ucaI
with tiuth, il sccn liom thc oIiticaI ciscctivc, aic ncccssaiiIy uomincciing;
thcy uon't taIc into account othci coIc's oinions, anu taIing thcsc into
account is thc haIImaiI ol aII stiictIy oIiticaI thinIing.
36
Aicnut's uclcnsc ol oinion is motivatcu not |ust by hci bcIicl that tiuth
Icavcs no ioom loi ucbatc oi uisscnt, oi loi thc acInowIcugmcnt ol
uillcicncc, but aIso by hci conviction that oui icasoning lacuItics can
onIy lIouiish in a uiaIogic contcxt. Shc citcs Kant's icmaiI that `thc
cxtcinaI owci that uciivcs man ol thc liccuom to communicatc his
thoughts ubIicIy uciivcs him at thc samc timc ol his liccuom to thinI,'
anu unuciIincs thc lact that loi Kant thc onIy guaiantcc ol thc
coiicctncss ol oui thinIing is that `wc thinI, as it wcic, in community
with othcis to whom wc communicatc oui thoughts as thcy communicatc
thciis to us.'
37
Shc aIso quotcs Mauison's statcmcnt that `thc icason ol
man, IiIc man himscIl, is timiu anu cautious whcn Iclt aIonc, anu
acquiics liimncss anu conliucncc in iooition to thc numbci with
which it is associatcu.'
3S
1hc acaI to Kant anu Mauison is mcant to vinuicatc thc owci anu
uignity ol oinion against thosc thinIcis, liom PIato to Hobbcs, who saw
it as mcic iIIusion, as a conluscu oi inaucquatc gias ol thc tiuth. oi

36 BP, . 241.
37 BP, . 234-3b. oi citincnt uiscussions on thc Kantian thcmcs ol ubIicity anu thc
licc usc ol icason in ubIic, scc Onoia O'NciII, `1hc PubIic !sc ol Rcason,' Po/|/|/ 1/ory,
voI. 14, no. 4 (Novcmbci 19S6), . b23-bb1; iciintcu in Onoia O'NciII, Con/ru/|on o
Fon (Cambiiugc: Cambiiugc !nivcisity Picss, 19S9); ]ohn Chiistian Iauiscn, `1hc
Subvcisivc Kant: 1hc VocabuIaiy ol PubIic anu PubIicity,' Po/|/|/ 1/ory, voI. 14, no. 4
(Novcmbci 19S6), . bS4-603; ]ohn RawIs, `1hc uca ol PubIic Rcason,' Icctuic V ol
Po/|/|/ L||r/|m (Ncw YoiI: CoIumbia !nivcisity Picss, 1993).
3S BP, . 234.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 3S3
Aicnut oinion is not a uclcctivc loim ol InowIcugc that shouIu bc
tiansccnucu oi Iclt bchinu as soon as onc is in osscssion ol thc tiuth.
Rathci, it is a uistinct loim ol InowIcugc which aiiscs out ol thc
coIIcctivc ucIibciation ol citizcns, anu which icquiics thc usc ol thc
imagination anu thc caacity to thinI `icicscntativcIy.' By ucIibciating
in common anu cngaging in `icicscntativc thinIing' citizcns aic in lact
abIc to loim oinions that can cIaim intcisub|cctivc vaIiuity. t is
imoitant to sticss that Aicnut uocs not want to uismiss thc
hiIosohcis' attcmt to linu univcisaI oi absoIutc stanuaius ol
InowIcugc anu cognition, but to chccI thcii ucsiic to imosc thosc
stanuaius uon thc shcic ol human allaiis, sincc thcy wouIu cIiminatc
its IuiaIity anu csscntiaI icIativity.
39
1hc imosition ol a singIc oi
absoIutc stanuaiu into thc uomain ol r\| wouIu uo away with thc nccu
to cisuauc othcis ol thc icIativc mciits ol an oinion, to cIicit thcii
conscnt to a sccilic ioosaI, oi to obtain thcii agiccmcnt with icscct
to a aiticuIai oIicy. nuccu, loi Aicnut thc imosition ol such a
stanuaiu wouIu mcan that inuiviuuaIs wouIu no Iongci bc icquiicu to
cxcicisc thcii |uugmcnt, ucvcIo thcii imagination, oi cuItivatc an
`cnIaigcu mcntaIity,' sincc thcy wouIu no Iongci nccu to ucIibciatc in
common. Stiict ucmonstiation, iathci than cisuasivc aigumcntation,
wouIu thcn bccomc thc onIy Icgitimatc loim ol uiscouisc.
40

39 Aicnut icioachcs Kant loi having iooscu an absoIutc stanuaiu loi moiaIity in thc
loim ol thc catcgoiicaI imciativc. 1his stanuaiu loi Aicnut is inhuman, bccausc it `is
ostuIatcu as absoIutc anu |n |/ |o/u/n |n/roJu |n/o // |n/r/umn r/m-which by its
natuic consists ol icIationshis-om//|ng /// run oun/r /o |/ unJmn// r//|.|/y.'
(MD1, . 27, cmhascs auucu).
40 t is imoitant to notc that loi Aicnut cisuasion is thc onIy tiuIy o/|/|/ loim ol
sccch. t is that loim ol sccch ucsigncu to `woo thc conscnt ol cvciyonc cIsc in thc hoc
ol coming to an agiccmcnt with him cvcntuaIIy.' (BP, . 222). Bccausc ol this it is vciy
uillcicnt liom ucmonstiation oi IogicaI iool, which icsts on comcIIing aigumcnts that
icquiic thc asscnt ol cvciy iationaI bcing. oi thc uistinction bctwccn cisuasivc
aigumcntation anu stiict ucmonstiation, scc Cham PcicIman, 1/ F/m o F//or| (Notic
Damc: !nivcisity ol Notic Damc Picss, 19S2); PcicIman anu OIbicchts-1ytcca, 1/ ^o
F//or|. + 1r/| on +rgumn//|on (Notic Damc: !nivcisity ol Notic Damc Picss, 1969);
PcicIman, 1/ IJ o [u/| nJ // Pro|/m o +rgumn/ (Ionuon: RoutIcugc 8 Kcgan PauI,
1963).
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3S4 Mur|:|o Pr|n J`En/r.
Now, wc must bc caicluI not to imutc to Aicnut thc vicw that tiuth
has no Icgitimatc ioIc to Iay in oIitics oi in thc shcic ol human
allaiis. Shc uocs inuccu asscit that `AII tiuths-not onIy thc vaiious
Iinus ol iationaI tiuth but aIso lactuaI tiuth-aic ooscu to oinion in
thcii mouc ol assciting vaIiuity,'
41
sincc thcy aII caiiy an cIcmcnt ol
comuIsion. Howcvci, shc is onIy icoccuicu with thc ncgativc
conscqucnccs ol r/|on/ tiuth whcn aIicu to thc shcic ol oIitics anu
coIIcctivc ucIibciation, whiIc shc uclcnus thc imoitancc ol /u/ tiuth
loi thc icscivation ol an accuiatc account ol thc ast anu loi thc vciy
cxistcncc ol oIiticaI communitics. actuaI tiuth, shc wiitcs, `is aIways
icIatcu to othci coIc: it conccins cvcnts anu ciicumstanccs in which
many aic invoIvcu; it is cstabIishcu by witncsscs anu uccnus uon
tcstimony . t is oIiticaI by natuic.'
42
t loIIows, thcicloic, that
lacts anu oinions, though thcy must bc Ict aait, aic not antagonistic to
cach othci; thcy bcIong to thc samc icaIm. acts inloim oinions, anu
oinions, insiicu by uillcicnt intcicsts anu assions, can uillci wiucIy anu
stiII bc Icgitimatc as Iong as thcy icscct lactuaI tiuth. iccuom ol oinion is
a laicc unIcss lactuaI inloimation is guaiantccu anu thc lacts thcmscIvcs aic
not in uisutc. n othci woius, /u/ /ru// |norm o/|/|/ //oug// ju/
r/|on/ /ru// |norm /|/oo/|/ u//|on.
43
1hc icIationshi bctwccn lacts anu oinions is thus onc ol mutuaI
cntaiImcnt: il oinions wcic not bascu on coiicct inloimation anu thc
licc acccss to aII icIcvant lacts thcy couIu scaiccIy cIaim any vaIiuity. Anu
il thcy wcic to bc bascu on lantasy, scIl-uccction, oi ucIibciatc
laIschoou, thcn no ossibiIity ol gcnuinc ucbatc anu aigumcntation

41 BP, . 239. 1hc uistinction bctwccn iationaI tiuth anu lactuaI tiuth is uciivcu liom
Icibniz. n thc MonJo/ogy hc uistinguishcu /ru// o ron|ng liom /ru// o /, anu statcu
that thc loimci `aic ncccssaiy anu thcii oositc is imossibIc,' whiIc thc Iattci `aic
contingcnt anu thcii oositc is ossibIc.' G. W. Icibniz, P/|/oo/|/ Wr|/|ng, cuitcu by G.
H. R. PaiIinson (Ionuon: Dcnt, 1973), . 1S4.
42 BP, . 23S.
43 BP, . 23S (cmhascs auucu). Aicnut is luIIy awaic that lacts aic thcoiy-Iaucn anu that
histoiicaI inquiiy is aIways liamcu by intciictivc catcgoiics. NcvcithcIcss, shc bcIicvcs
that lacts cannot bc changcu at wiII anu that thc histoiian must aIways icscct thc Iinc
scaiating thc intciictation ol lacts liom thcii maniuIation oi uistoition. Scc hci
commcnts on this issuc in BP, . 23S-39.
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Aicnut on ]uugmcnt anu thc magination 3Sb
couIu bc sustaincu. Both lactuaI tiuth anu thc gcnciaI habit ol tiuth-
tcIIing aic thcicloic basic to thc loimation ol sounu oinions anu to thc
lIouiishing ol oIiticaI ucbatc.
44
Moicovci, il thc iccoiu ol thc ast wcic
to bc ucstioycu by oiganizcu Iying, oi bc uistoitcu by an attcmt to
icwiitc histoiy, oIiticaI Iilc wouIu bc uciivcu ol onc ol its csscntiaI anu
stabiIizing cIcmcnts. n sum, both lactuaI tiuth anu thc iacticc ol tiuth-
tcIIing aic csscntiaI to oIiticaI Iilc. 1hc antagonism loi Aicnut is
bctwccn r/|on/ tiuth anu wcII-giounucu oinion, sincc thc loimci uocs
not aIIow loi ucbatc anu uisscnt, whiIc thc Iattci thiivcs on it. Aicnut's
uclcnsc ol oinion must thcicloic bc unucistoou as a uclcnsc ol oIiticaI
ucIibciation, anu ol thc ioIc that cisuasion anu uissuasion Iay in aII
mattcis allccting thc oIiticaI community. Against PIato anu Hobbcs,
who ucnigiatcu thc ioIc ol oinion in oIiticaI mattcis, Aicnut icasscits
thc vaIuc anu imoitancc ol oIiticaI uiscouisc, ol ucIibciation anu
cisuasion, anu thus ol a oIitics that acInowIcugcs uillcicncc anu thc
IuiaIity ol oinions.
4b
Un|.r|/y o C 1oon

44 nuccu, thcy aic thc basic icconuitions loi thc cstabIishmcnt ol scIl-iucntity anu ol an
aucquatc scnsc ol icaIity. As Aicnut obscivcs: `1hc icsuIt ol a consistcnt anu totaI
substitution ol Iics loi lactuaI tiuth is not that thc Iics wiII now bc accctcu as tiuth, anu thc
tiuth bc uclamcu as Iics, but that thc scnsc by which wc taIc oui bcaiings in thc icaI
woiIu-anu thc catcgoiy ol tiuth vs. laIschoou is among thc mcntaI mcans to this cnu-is
bcing ucstioycu.' (BP, . 2b7).
4b On thc imoitancc ol ucIibciation loi a thcoiy ol ucmociatic Icgitimacy, scc B. Manin,
`On Icgitimacy anu PoIiticaI DcIibciation,' Po/|/|/ 1/ory, voI. 1b, no. 3 (August 19S7), .
33S-36S, at . 3b1-3b9, anu ]. Cohcn, `DcIibciation anu Dcmociatic Icgitimacy,' in 1/
CooJ Po/|/y, cus. A. HamIin anu P. Pcttit (Oxloiu: BIacIwcII, 19S9), . 17-34. oi thc
imoitancc ol cisuasion anu ucIibciation as ways to auuicss thc conlIict aiising out ol thc
IuiaIity ol intcicsts anu oinions, scc Hanna PitIin anu Saia Shumci, `On Paiticiation,'
Dmory, voI. 2, no. 4 (aII 19S2), . 43-b4, cs. . 47-4S.
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