Module 2 Load Flow Analysis

AC power ow analysis is basically a steady-state analysis of the AC transmission and distribution grid. Essentially, AC power ow method computes the steady state values of bus voltages and line power ows from the knowledge of electric loads and generations at di erent buses of the system under study. In this module, we will look into the power ow solution of the AC transmission grid only (the solution methodology of AC distribution grid will not be covered). Further, we will also study the power ow solution technique when an HVDC link is embedded into an AC transmission grid. Also, we will be considering only a balanced system in which the transmission lines and loads are balanced (the impedances are equal in all the three phases) and the generator produces balanced three phase voltages (magnitudes are equal in all the phases while the angular di erence between any two phases is 120 degree).

2.1

Modeling of power system components

Basically, an AC transmission grid consists of, i) synchronous generator, ii) loads, iii) transformer and iv) transmission lines. For the purpose of power ow solution, synchronous generators are not represented explicitly, rather their presence in implicitly modeled. We will look into the implicit representation of synchronous generators a little later. However, the other three components are modeled explicitly and their representations are discussed below.

2.1.1

Loads

As we all know, loads can be classied into three categories; i) constant power, ii) constant impedance and iii) constant current. However, within the normal operating range of the voltage almost all the loads behave as constant power loads. As the objective of the AC power ow analysis is to compute the normal steady-state values of the bus voltages, the loads are always represented as constant power loads. Hence, at any bus k (say), the real and reactive power loads are specied as 100 MW and 50 MVAR (say) respectively. An important point needs to be mentioned here. As the loads are always varying with time (the customers are always switching ON and OFF the loads), any specic value of load (MW and/or MVAR) is valid only at a particular time instant. Hence, AC 11

power ow analysis is always carried out for the load and generator values at a particular instant.

2.1.2

Transmission line

In a transmission grid, the transmission lines are generally of medium length or of long length. A line of medium length is always represented by the nominal- model as shown in Fig. 2.1, where z is the total series impedance of the line and Bc is the total shunt charging susceptance of the line. On the other hand, a long transmission line is most accurately represented by its distributed parameter model. However, for steady-state analysis, a long line can be accurately represented by the equivalent- model, which predicts accurate behavior of the line with respect to its terminal measurements taken at its two ends. The equivalent- model is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.1: Normal model of a line connected between buses i and j

Figure 2.2: Equivalent model of a long transmission line connected between buses i and j In Fig. 2.2, 12

z is the characteristic impedance of the line y = z y is the propagation constant z = series impedance of the line per unit length y = shunt admittance of the line per unit length L = length of the line zc =
Hence, for power system analysis, a transmission line (medium or long) is always represented by a circuit.

2.1.3

Transformer

For power system steady-state and fault studies, generally the exciting current of the transformer is neglected as it is quite low compared to the normal load current owing through the transformer. Therefore, a two winding transformer connected between buses i and j is represented by its per unit leakage impedance as shown in Fig. 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Equivalent Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer It is to be noted that in Fig. 2.3, the transformer tap ratio is 1:1. For a regulating transformer with transformation ratio 1:t, the equivalent circuit of the transformer is shown in Fig. 2.4. Sometimes the transformer ratio is also represented as a:1. In that case, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 2.5. Please note that in Figs. 2.4 and 2.5, the quantities t and a are real (i.e. the transformer is changing only the voltage magnitude, not its angle). Further, in these two gures, the quantity y is the per unit admittance of the transformer. Also, Fig. 2.5 can be derived from Fig. 2.4 by noting t = 1a and by interchanging the buses i and j. With the models of above components in place, we are now in a position to start systematic study of an n bus power system. Towards that goal, we rst must understand the concept of injected power and injected current, which is our next topic.

2.2

Concept of injected power and current

As the name suggests, the injected power (current) indicates the power (current) which is fed in to a bus. To understand this concept, let us consider Fig. 2.6. In part (a) of this gure, a generator is connected at bus k supplying both real and reactive power to the bus and thus, the injected real and reactive power are taken to be equal to the real (reactive) power supplied by the generator. The 13

Figure 2.4: Equivalent circuit of a regulating transformer with transformation ratio 1:t

Figure 2.5: Equivalent circuit of a regulating transformer with transformation ratio a:1 corresponding injected current is also taken to be equal to the current supplied by the generator. On the other hand, for a load connected to bus k (as shown in Fig. 2.6(b)), physically the real (reactive) power consumed by the load ows away from the bus and thus, the injected real (reactive) power is taken to be the negative of the real (reactive) power consumed by the load. Similarly, the corresponding injected current Ik is also taken as the negative of the load current. If both a generator 14

and a load are connected at a particular bus (as depicted in Fig. 2.6(c)), then the net injected real (reactive) power supplied to the bus is equal to the generator real (reactive) power minus the real (reactive) power consumed by the load. Similarly, the net injected current in this case is taken to be the di erence of the generator current and the load current.

Figure 2.6: Illustration of injected power

To summarize, if Pk , Qk , and Ik denote the injected real power, reactive power and complex current at bus k respectively, Pk = PG ; Qk = QG and Ik = IG if only a generator is connected to the bus k. Pk = PG PL ; Qk = QG QL and Ik = IG IL if both generator and load are connected to the bus k.
With this concept of injected power and current, we are now in a position to start analysis of any general n bus power system. The rst step towards this goal is to derive the bus admittance matrix, which we will take up next.

Pk = PL ; Qk = QL and Ik = IL if only a load is connected to the bus k.

Pk = 0 ; Qk = 0 ; Ik = 0 If neither generator nor load is connected to the bus k.

2.3

Formation of bus admittance matrix (YBUS)

Let us consider a 5 bus network as shown in Fig. 2.7. In this network, all the transmissions are represented by models. Therefore, the equivalent circuit of the above network is shown in Fig. 2.8. In Fig. 2.8, Ik ; k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the injected currents at bus k. Further, the quantity yij denotes the series admittance of the line i-j whereas the quantity yijs denotes the half line charging susceptance of the line i-j. Now applying KCL at each bus k one obtains,

I1 = yT 1 (V1 V2 ) = yT 1 V1 yT 1 V2
15

(2.1)

Figure 2.7: A sample 5 bus network

Figure 2.8: Equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.7

y y I2 = yT 1 (V2 V1 ) + V2 y23s + (V2 V3 )23 + V2 y24s + (V2 V4 )24 = T 1 V1 + (T 1 + y23s + y23 + y24s + y24 )V2 y23 V3 y24 V4 y y
16

(2.2)

 y y y I3 = (V3 V2 )23 + V3 y23s + (V3 V5 )tT 2 + t(t 1)T 2 V3 + (V3 V4 )34 + V3 y34s y = V2 y23 + {23 + y23s + tT 2 + t(t 1)T 2 + y34 + y34s } V3 y34 V4 tT 2 V5 y y y y y y I4 = (V4 V2 )24 + y24s V4 + (V4 V3 )34 + y34s V4 = V2 y24 V3 y34 + (24 + y24s + y34 + y34s )V4 y y I5 = (V5 V3 )tT 2 + (1 t)T 2 V5 y y = V3 tT 2 + {tT 2 + (1 t)T 2 } V5 y y I1 Y11 I2 Y21 I3 = Y31 I Y 4 41 I5 Y51 Y12 Y22 Y32 Y42 Y52 Y13 Y23 Y33 Y43 Y53 Y14 Y24 Y34 Y44 Y54 Y15 V1 Y25 V2 35 V3 Y Y45 V4 Y55 V5

(2.3)

(2.4)

(2.5)

Equations (2.1) - (2.5) can be represented in a matrix form as,

(2.6)

Y12 = T 1 ; Y13 = Y14 = Y15 = 0; Y21 = T 1 ; y y 22 = (T 1 + y23s + y23 + y24s + y24 ); Y23 = 23 ; Y24 = 24 ; Y25 = 0; Y y y y Y31 = 0; Y32 = 23 ; Y33 = {23 + y23s + tT 2 + t(t 1)T 2 + y34 + y34s } ; y y y y 34 = 34 ; Y35 = tT 2 ; Y41 = 0; Y42 = 24 ; Y43 = 34 ; Y y y y y Y44 = (24 + y24s + y34 + y34s ); Y45 = 0; Y51 = Y52 = 0; y Y53 = tT 2 ; Y54 = 0; Y55 = {tT 2 + (1 t)T 2 } y y y
Equation (2.6) can be written as,

Where, Y11 = yT 1 ;

Where,

ground

BUS = I1 , I2 I5 T (5 1) is the vector of bus injection currents I T VBUS = V1 , V2 V5 (5 1) is the vector of bus voltages measured with respect to the YBUS (5 5) is the bus admittance matrix Furthermore, from the elements of the YBUS it can be observed that for i = 1, 2, 5; Yii = sum total of all the admittances connected at bus i Yij = negative of the admittance connected between bus i and j (if these two buses are physi-

BUS = YBUS VBUS I

(2.7)

cally connected with each other) Yij = 0; if there is no physical connection between buses i and j 17

 T VBUS = V1 , V2 Vn (n 1) is the vector of bus voltages YBUS (n n) is the bus admittance matrix Furthermore, the elements of the YBUS matrix are calculated in the same way as described above. So far, we have considered the formation of the YBUS matrix when there is no mutual coupling among the elements of the network. In the next lecture, we will look into the procedure for forming the YBUS matrix in the presence of mutual coupling between the elements.

Similarly, for a n bus power system, the relation given in equation (2.7) holds good, where, BUS = I1 , I2 In T (n 1) is the vector of bus injection currents I

18

2.4

Formation of YBUS matrix in the presence of mutually coupled elements

Let us consider Fig. 2.9. In this gure, the impedance Zc connected between nodes u and v is mutually coupled with the impedance Zd connected between nodes x and y through a mutual impedance Zm . The currents through the impedances, the voltages across the impedances and the injected currents at all the four nodes are also shown in Fig. 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Two mutually coupled impedances From Fig. 2.9, the relationship between the voltages and currents associated with the two impedances can be written as,

Or, Or,

1 Vc Ic Zc Zm Zd Zm Vc 1 = = 2 Id Zm Zd Vd Zc Vd Zc Zd Zm Zm Ic Yc Ym Vc = Id Ym Yd Vd Zc ; 2 Zc Zd Zm
(2.8)

Vc Zc Zm Ic = Vd Zm Zd Id

Where,

Vu c u Vv V V 1 1 0 0 Vv Now from Fig. 2.9, = = Vd Vx Vy 0 0 1 1 Vx Vy Or, Vu V Vc 1 1 0 0 v = C where, C = Vx Vd 0 0 1 1 Vy

19

Yc =

Zd ; 2 Zc Zd Zm

Yd =

and Ym =

Zm 2 Zc Zd Zm

(2.9)

(2.10)

Again, from Fig. 2.9,

From equations (2.8) and (2.10),

Iu Ic I I v c = = Ix Id Iy Id

1 0 T Ic 1 0 Ic = C 0 1 Id Id 0 1 Vu V Ym v C Vx Yd Vy

(2.11)

Ic Yc Ym Vc Yc = = Id Ym Yd Vd Ym
Or,

Now,

Iu Vu I V T Ic Yc Ym T v v C = = C C Ix Vx Id Ym Yd Iy Vy T Yc C Ym m Y C = d Y

(2.12)

1 0 1 0 Yc Ym 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 Ym Y d 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

(2.13)

Or,

T Yc C Ym

m Y C = d Y

Yc Yc Ym Ym

Ym Ym Yd Yd

(2.14)

Or,

T Yc C Ym

Yc Yc Ym Ym Y Ym Yc Ym Ym c C = Ym Ym Yd Yd Yd d Ym Ym Yd Y
20

(2.15)

Hence, from equations (2.12) and (2.15)

From equation (2.16),

Iu Yc Yc Ym Ym Vu I Y Yc Ym Ym Vv v c = Ix Ym Ym Yd Yd Vx Iy Ym Ym Yd Yd Vy

(2.16)

Iu = Yc Vu Yc Vv + Ym Vx Ym Vy = Yc Vu Yc Vv + Ym Vx Ym Vy + Ym Vu Ym Vu
Or, Similarly,

= Yc (Vu Vv ) + (Ym )(Vu Vx ) + Ym (Vu Vy ) Iu = Iuv + Iux + Iuy

(2.17)

(2.18)

Iv = Yc Vu + Yc Vv Ym Vx + Ym Vy = Yc Vu + Yc Vv Ym Vx + Ym Vy + Ym Vv Ym Vv
Or,

= Yc (Vu Vv ) + (Ym )(Vv Vy ) + Ym (Vv Vx ) Iv = Ivu + Ivy + Ivx

(2.19)

(2.20)

Ix = Ym Vu Ym Vv + Yd Vx Yd Vy = Ym Vu Ym Vv + Yd Vx Yd Vy + Ym Vx Ym Vx
Or,

= Yd (Vx Vy ) + (Ym )(Vx Vu ) + Ym (Vx Vu ) Ix = Ixy + Ixu + Ixv

(2.21)

(2.22)

Equations (2.18), (2.20) and (2.22) can be represented by the partial networks shown in Figs. 2.10, 2.11 and 2.12 respectively. Combining Figs. 2.10, 2.11 and 2.12, Fig. 2.13 is obtained. Again from the last row of equation (2.16),

Iy = Ym Vu + Ym Vv Yd Vx + Yd Vy = Ym Vu + Ym Vv Yd Vx + Yd Vy + Ym Vy Ym Vy

It can be observed that equation (2.23) is also represented by Fig. 2.13. Therefore, the voltage21

= Yd (Vy Vx ) + (Ym )(Yy Vv ) + Ym (Yy Vu )

(2.23)

Figure 2.10: Partial network corresponding to equation (2.18) current relationship of equation (2.16) is adequately represented by Fig. 2.13. Thus, Fig. 2.13 can be considered as an equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.9. As Fig. 2.13 does not contain any mutual admittance, usual method for YBUS formulation can be adopted for this circuit also. Fig. 2.13 shows the most general case in which all the four nodes are distinct from each other. However, in many cases mutual coupling exists between two elements which have one common node between them. The equivalent circuit for this case can also be derived from Fig. 2.13. For example, in Fig. 2.13, if nodes v and y are common (say w), then the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 2.14. Moreover, if the nodes u and x are also common (say s), then the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.15. Again, the usual method for YBUS formulation can be adopted for these two circuits also. We are now in a position to write down the basic power ow equation, which we will take up in the next lecture.

22

Figure 2.11: Partial network corresponding to equation (2.20)

Figure 2.12: Partial network corresponding to equation (2.22)

23

Figure 2.13: Combined network of Figs. 2.10, 2.11 and 2.12

Figure 2.14: Equivalent circuit with one common node

24

Figure 2.15: Equivalent circuit with two common nodes

25

2.5

Basic power ow equation

I1 Y11 I Y 2 21 = In Yn1 Y12 Y1n V1 Y22 Y2n V2 Yn2 Ynn Vn
n j=1

From equation (2.7), for a n bus system,

(2.24)

Or,

Complex power injected at bus i is given by,

Ii = Yij Vj

(2.25)

Now, Vi = Vi eji ;
Or,

Hence, Si = Pi + jQi = Vi eji Yij Vj ej(j + ij )

n j=1 n j=1 n

Vj = Vj ejj ;

Yij = Yij ejij ;

Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii

(2.26)

Equations (2.27) and (2.28) are known as the basic load ow equations. It can be seen that for any ith bus, there are two equations. Therefore, for a n-bus power system, there are altogether 2n load-ow equations. Now, from equations (2.27) and (2.28) it can be seen that there are four variables (Vi , i , Pi and Qi ) associated with the ith bus. Thus for the n-bus system, there are a total of 4n variables. As there are only 2n equations available, out of these 4n variables, 2n quantities need to be specied and remaining 2n quantities are solved from the 2n load-ow equations. As 2n variables are to be specied in a n bus system, for each bus, two quantities need to be specied. For this purpose, the buses in a system are classied into three categories and in each category, two di erent quantities are specied as described below. 1. PQ Bus: At these buses loads are connected and therefore, these buses are also termed as load buses. Generally the values of loads (real and reactive) connected at these buses are known and hence, at these buses Pi and Qi are specied (or known). Consequently, Vi and i need to be calculated for these buses. 26

Qi = Vi Vj Yij sin(i j ij )
j=1

Pi = Vi Vj Yij cos(i j ij )

(2.27)

(2.28)

2. PV Bus: Physically, these buses are the generator buses. Generally, the real power supplied by the generator is known (as we say that the generation is supplying 100 MW) and also, the magnitude of the terminal voltage of the generator is maintained constant at a pre-specied value by the exciter (provided that the reactive power supplied or absorbed by the generator is within the limits). Thus, at a PV bus, Pi and Vi are specied and consequently, Qi and i need to be calculatd. 3. Slack Bus: To calculate the angles i (as discussed above), a reference angle (i = 0) needs to be specied so that all the other bus voltage angles are calculated with respect to this reference angle. Moreover, physically, total power supplied by all the generation must be equal to the sum of total load in the system and system power loss. However, as the system loss cannot be computed before the load ow problem is solved, the real power output of all the generators in the system cannot be pre-specied. There should be at least one generator in the system which would supply the loss (plus its share of the loads) and thus for this generator, the real power output cant be pre-specied. However, because of the exciter action, Vi for this generator can still be specied. Hence for this generator, Vi and i (= 0) are specied and the quantities Pi and Qi are calculated. This generator bus is designated as the slack bus. Usually, the largest generator in the system is designated as the slack bus. To summarise, the details of di erent types of buses in a n bus, m generator power system are shown in Table 2.1. Now, please note that in a load ow problem, the quantities Pi and Qi (Qi at Table 2.1: Classication of buses Type PQ PV Slack Total no. of buses n-m m-1 1 Specied quantity Solution quantity

Pi , Qi Pi , Vi Vi , i

Vi , i Qi , i Pi , Qi

PV while Pi and Qi at slack buses) are not directly solved. Only the quantities Vi and i are directly solved (Vi for all PQ buses while i for all PV and PQ buses). This is because of the fact that once Vi and i at all PV and PQ buses are solved, then the voltage magnitudes and angles at all the buses are known (Vi , i at the slack bus are already specied) and subsequently, using equations (2.27) and (2.28), Pi and Qi at any bus can be calculated. Therefore, in a n bus, m generator system, the unknown quantities are: Vi (total n-m of them) and i (total n-1 of them). Therefore, total number of unknown quantities is 2n-m-1. On the other hand, the specied quantities are: Pi (total n-1 of them) and Qi (total n-m of them). Hence total number of specied quantities is also 2n-m-1. As the number of unknown quantities is equal to the number of specied quantities, the load-ow problem is well-posed. 27

Equations (2.27) and (2.28) represent a set of simultaneous, non-linear, algebraic equations. As the set of equations is non-linear, no closed form, analytical solution for these equations exist. Hence, these equations can only be solved by using suitable numerical iterative techniques. For solving the load ow problem, various iterative methods exist. These are: 1. Gauss-seidel method 2. Newton Raphron (polar) technique 3. Newton Raphron (rectangular) technique 4. Fast-decoupled load ow We will discuss these methods one by one and we start with the Gauss-Seidel method.

2.6

Basic Gauss Seidel solution method

Before discussing the Gauss-Seidel load ow (GSLF) technique, let we rst review the basic GaussSeidel procedure for solving a set of non-linear algebraic equations. Let the following n equations are given for the n unknown quantities x1 , x2 , xn ;

It is to be noted that in equation (2.29), the function f1 , f2 , fn are all non-linear in nature and no particular form of these equations is assumed. Now, with some algebraic manipulation, from the rst equation of equation set (2.29), the variable x1 can be represented in terms of the other variables. Similarly from the second equation, the variable x2 can be represented in terms of the other variables. Proceeding in the same way, from the nth equation, the variable xn can be expressed in terms of the other variables. Therefore, let,

f1 (x1 , x2 xn ) = 0 f2 (x1 , x2 xn ) = 0 fn (x1 , x2 xn ) = 0

(2.29)

To compute the variables x1 , x2 , xn from these equations g1 , g2 , gn , the rst step is to (0) (0) (0) assume the initial values of these solution variables (x1 , x2 xn ). With these initially assumed 28

x1 x2 xk xn

= g1 (x2 , x3 xn ) = g2 (x1 , x3 xn ) = gk (x1 , x2 xk1 , xk+1 xn ) = gn (x1 , x2 xn1 )

(2.30)

values, various steps of the basic Gauss-Seidel algorithm are as follows. Basic Gauss-Seidel procedure Step 1: Set iteration count k = 1 Step 2: Update the variables ;

x(k) = g1 (x(k1) , x(k1) , x(k1) ); n 1 2 3 x(k) = g2 (x(k) , x(k1) , x(k1) ); n 2 1 3 x(k) = gn (x(k) , x(k) , x(k) ); n 1 2 n1
(k) (k1)

x(k) = gp (x(k) , x(k) , x(k) , x(k1) , x(k1) ); p n 1 2 p1 p+1 for all i = 1, 2, n; Step 3: Compute ei = xi xi (k) (k) (k) Step 4: Compute er = max(e1 , e2 , en ) ; Step 5: If er (tolerance limit), stop and print the solution. Else set k = k + 1 and go to step
(k)

2.

It is to be noted that in step 2, for updating the variable xp , the most updated values of x1 , x2 , xp1 (which are before xp in the sequence of the solution variables) are used while for the variables xp+1 , xp+2 , xn (which are after xp in the sequence of the solution variables), the values pertaining to previous iteration are used (as these variables have not been updated yet). Subsequently, in steps 3 and 4, the maximum absolute error between the solutions of the current iteration and previous iteration is calculated. If this maximum absolute error is less then a pre-specied tolerance value, then the algorithm is considered to be converged. Otherwise, the solution variables are again updated. With this background of basic Gauss-Seidel method, we are now in a position of discussing GSLF, which we will do next.

2.7

Gauss Seidel Load Flow technique

Let us now proceed for discussing GSLF. From equation (2.25),

1 n Ii Yik Vk . Now, from the relation Ii = Yik Vk = Yii Vi + Yik Vk . Hence, Vi = Yii k=1 k=1 k=1 i i
n n

29

 Pi jQi . Thus, Pi + jQi = Vi Ii we get, Ii = Vi

Equation (2.31) is the basic equation for performing GSLF. It is to be noted that without loss of generality, it is assumed that the m generators are connected to the rst m buses (bus 1 being the slack bus) and remaining (n-m) buses are load buses. Now, initially to understand the basic GSLF procedure, let us assume that m = 1, i.e., there is only one generator (which is also the slack bus) and the rest (n-1) buses are all load buses. To perform load-ow computation, initial guesses of the bus voltages are necessary. As any power system is generally expected to operate at the normal steady-state operating condition (with the bus voltage magnitudes maintained between (0) 0.95 - 1.05 p.u.), all the unknown bus voltage are initialized to 1.00o p.u (i.e. Vj = 1.00o for j = 2, 3, n). This process of initializing all bus voltage to 1.00o is called at start. With these initial bus voltages, the complete procedure for GSLF (having no PV bus) is as follows. GSLF without PV bus Step 1: Set iteration count k = 1. Step 2: Update the bus voltages as;
(k) 2

n 1 Pi jQi Vi = Yik Vk Yii Vi k=1 i

(2.31)

With the above understanding of the basic GSLF, we are now in a position to discuss the GSLF procedure for a system having multiple generators. Before we discuss the GSLF procedure, let us look into the procedure of initialisation of bus voltages (which is little di erent than assuming a at start for all the bus volatges). For a system having multiple generators, the bus voltage 30

for all i = 2, n; Step 3: Compute ei = Vi Vi (k) = max(e(k) , e(k) , e(k) ) ; Step 4: Compute e n 2 3 (k) (tolerance limit), stop and print the solution. Else set k = k+1 and go to step 2. Step 5: If e
(k) (k) (k1)

n 1 P2 jQ2 (k1) 2j Vj V = Y Y22 V2(k1) j = 1 2 p1 n p(k) = 1 Pp jQp Ypj Vj(k) Ypj Vj(k1) V (k1) Ypp Vp j=p+1 j=1 1 Pn jQn n1 (k) (k) Vn = Ynj Vj Ynn Vn(k1) j=1

initialisation is carried out in a two step procedure; i) the load buses are initialised with at start (0) (i.e. Vj = 1.00o for j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n) and ii) the magnitudes of the voltages of the PV buses are initialised with the corresponding specied voltage magnitudes while initialising all (0) these voltage angles to 0o (i.e. Vj = Vjsp 0o for j = 2, 3, m, where Vjsp is the specied bus voltage magnitude of the j th generator). Now, as discussed earlier, the reactive power supplied or absorbed by a generator (QG ) is calculated by the load ow procedure. However any generator has a maximum and minimum limit on QG . If the QG from the generator is within these limits, then the generator excitation system is able to maintain the terminal voltage at the specied value. On the other hand, if the generator reaches its limit on QG (either maximum or minimum), then because of the insu cient amount of reactive power (either supplied or absorbed), the generator excitation system would not be able to maintain the terminal voltage magnitude at the specied value. In that case the generator bus would behave as a PQ bus (P being already specied for the generator and Q is set at either maximum or minimum limiting value of QG ). In power system terminology, this phenomenon (where the generator is behaving like a PQ bus) is termed as PV to PQ switching which should also be accounted for in any load-ow solution methodology. This is incorporated in GSLF by the following procedure. At the beginning of each iteration, QG injection by each generator is calculated. If this calculated QG is found to be within the correspond ing limits then this generator continues to behave as a PV bus. Hence Vi of this bus (at which the generator is connected ) is still maintained at the corresponding specied value and only the angle of this bus voltage is calculated in the present iteration. On the other hand if QG is found to exceed any limit (either maximum or minimum), then it is xed at that limit and the bus is considered to act like a PQ bus. Thus, both the magnitude and angle of the bus voltage are calculated in the present iteration. With this background, the complete algorithm of GSLF involving multiple generator buses is as follows.

Complete GSLF algorithm

Step 1: Initialise Vj = Vjsp 0o for j = 2, 3, m and Vj = 1.00o for j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n. Set iteration count k = 1. Step 2: For i = 2, 3, m, carry out the following operations. a) Calculate,
(0) (0) (k1) Q(k) = Vi(k1) Vj(k1) Yij sin i(k1) j ij i n j=1 (k)

b) If, Qmin Qi i is given by,

Qmax ; then assign Vi(k) = Visp and i(k) = A(k) . The quantity A(k) i i i n 1 Pi jQ(k) i1 (k) i ij Vj(k1) = Y Yij Vj Yii Vi(k1) j=1 j=i+1
31

(k) i

c) If Qi

(k)

Qmax , then calculate i V

(k) i

d) If Qi

(k)

Qmin , then calculate i V

(k) i

n 1 Pi jQmax i1 (k) (k1) i = Yij Vj Yij Vj Yii Vi(k1) j=1 j=i+1 n 1 Pi jQmin i1 (k) (k1) i = Yij Vj Yij Vj Yii Vi(k1) j=1 j=i+1 n 1 Pi jQ(k) i1 (k) (k1) i = Yij Vj Yij Vj Yii Vi(k1) j=1 j=i+1
(k) (k1)

Step 3: For i = (m + 1), n, calculate

(k) i

for all i = 2, n; Step 4: Compute ei = Vi Vi (k) = max(e(k) , e(k) , e(k) ) ; Step 5: Compute e n 2 3 (k) , stop and print the solution. Else set k = k + 1 and go to step 2. Step 6: If e
(k)

We will illustrate the GSLF algorithm with an example in the next lecture.

32

2.7.1

Example of Gauss Seidel load ow technique

To illustrate the basic procedure of GSLF, let as consider a small 5-bus system as shown in Fig. 2.16. In this system, buses 1-3 are generator buses and buses 4-5 are load buses. Therefore, in this system, n = 5 and m = 3. Moreover, bus 1 is taken to be the slack bus and thus, buses 2-3 are considered to be PV buses. The bus data and line data of this system are given in Tables A.1 and A.2 respectively. From Table A.1, the injected real and reactive powers at di erent buses can be obtained as follows: P2 = 0.5 p.u, P3 = 1.0 p.u, P4 = 1.15 p.u, P5 = 0.85 p.u, Q4 = 0.6 p.u, and Q5 = 0.4 p.u. Moreover, the YBUS of this system (computed from the line data given in Table A.2) is shown in equation (2.32). Note that in this equation, the real part (G) and the imaginary part (B) of the YBUS matrix (YBUS = G + jB) are shown separately.

Figure 2.16: The example 5 bus system

3.2417 1.4006 0 0 1.8412 1.4006 3.2417 1.8412 0 0 G= 0 1.8412 4.2294 1.2584 1.1298 0 0 1.2584 2.1921 0.9337 1.8412 0 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047 13.0138 5.6022 0 0 7.4835 5.6022 13.0138 7.4835 0 0 B= 0 7.4835 18.9271 7.1309 4.4768 0 0 7.1309 10.7227 3.7348 7.4835 0 4.4768 3.7348 15.5521
33

(2.32)

For applying GSLF, initially the at start prole is assumed. Please note that the at voltage prole is followed for PQ buses. For PV buses, the initial voltage magnitude is taken to be equal to their corresponding specied voltage magnitude. However, the initial voltage angles are always assumed to be zero. Therefore, from the data given in Table A.1, all the 5 bus voltages are initialised to 1.00o p.u. Now as the system contains both PV and PQ buses, we follow the complete GSLF algorithm. In step 2(a) of this algorithm, we rst calculate the reactive power absorbed or generated by generators 2 and 3 (corresponding to i = 2 and i = 3). The calculated values of Q2 and Q3 at iteration 1 (in p.u.) are shown in Table 2.2 (denoted as Qcal in this table). Now, the data in Table A.1 show that the minimum and maximum reactive power limits for both these generators are -5 p.u. and 5 p.u respectively. Hence, the calculated values of Q2 and Q3 are well within the corresponding reactive power limits. Therefore, both bus 2 and bus 3 are continued to operate as PV buses and as a result, their voltage magnitudes are maintained at the corresponding specied values and only the voltage angles are calculated in step 2(b) (utilising the calculated values of Q2 and Q3 ). Subsequently in step 3, both the magnitude and angles of buses 4 and 5 are calculated. The results of iteration 1 are shown in Table 2.2. Finally in steps 4-5, the error is calculated, which is also shown in Table 2.2. The error is found to be more than the threshold value (taken to be equal to 1.0e12 ) and therefore the algorithm goes back to step 2 again. The iteration wise result for rst 6 iterations are shown in Tables 2.2 and 2.3. Please observed from these two tables that because of high Qmax G min and QG limits, the reactive powers supplied or observed by these two generators are always within these limits and thus bus 2 and 3 continue to act as PV buses from iteration to iteration. Also note from Tables 2.2 and 2.3 that the error reduces with iteration. Finally, the algorithm converges after 69 iterations and the nal solution is shown in Table 2.4. Please note from this table that the nal values of Q2 and Q3 are -18.51 and 68.87 MVAR respectively. These values are well within their corresponding reactive power limits and thus, the voltage magnitudes of bus 2 and 3 maintained at 1.0 p.u (pre-specied values). The nally computed values of real and reactive power injection at all the buses are also shown in Table 2.4, which are also found to be exactly equal to the specied injected values. Table 2.2: GSLF results in 5 bus system without any generator Q limit for iterations 1-3 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 Iteration = 1

(p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 -0.0720 1.0 2.0533 -0.0663 1.0 4.1038 -0.2022 1.0 3.7091 -0.0932 1.0 3.5968 0.2937 1.0 2.6494 0.5142 1.0 1.6234 0.9394 -3.2379 0.9167 -5.0548 0.9101 -6.0776 0.957 -2.5257 0.9482 -3.2562 0.946 -3.797 error = 0.081708 error = 0.037148 error = 0.017906

Qcal

Iteration = 2

Qcal

Iteration = 3

Qcal

Let us now study the behaviour of GSLF when generator reactive power limit is violated. Towards this goal, let us assume that the maximum reactive power which can be supplied by generator 3 in 34

Table 2.3: GSLF results in 5 bus system without any generator Q limit for iterations 4-6 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 Iteration = 4

(p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 -0.2129 1.0 3.1318 -0.2071 1.0 2.6927 -0.2013 1.0 2.3782 0.5926 1.0 0.8641 0.6263 1.0 0.3228 0.6461 1.0 -0.0546 0.9082 -6.7844 0.9074 -7.266 0.9069 -7.5985 0.9452 -4.1735 0.9448 -4.435 0.9446 -4.6163 error = 0.013252 error = 0.0094475 error = 0.0065856

Qcal

Iteration = 5

Qcal

Iteration = 6

Qcal

Table 2.4: Final Results of the 5 bus system with GSLF Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.56743 0.26505 1.0 1.65757 0.5 -0.18519 1.0 -0.91206 1.0 0.68875 0.90594 -8.35088 -1.15 -0.6 0.94397 -5.02735 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 69

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

50 MVAR (it supplies 68.87 MVAR when no limit is imposed on the generators). The iteration wise solutions for rst 6 iterations of the load ow computation with this maximum limit are shown in Tables 2.5 and 2.6. Now, let us compare Tables 2.2 and 2.5. From these two tables it can be observed that the load ow solution with generator Q limit proceeds in identical fashion for rst two iterations as in the case with no reactive power limit on the generators. However, from iteration 3 onwards the solution changes. In iteration 3, Q3 calculated is found to be equal to 51.42 MVAR. As a result, Q3 is limited to 50 MVAR and Bus 3 is converted to a PQ bus, and therefore its voltage magnitude is calculated using the expression shown in step 2(c). Please observe that this voltage magnitude is not maintained at 1.0 p.u (in fact, it becomes less than 1.0 p.u. because of insu cient reactive power). In the subsequent iteration also, calculated Q3 is always found to be more than the maximum limit and as a result, Q3 is always maintained at 50 MVAR thereby making V3 < 1.0 p.u. The algorithm nally converges with a tolerance of 1.0e12 p.u. after 66 iterations and the nal solution are shown in Table 2.7. In this table, the GSLF results without any reactive power limit (as shown in Table 2.4) are also reproduced for comparison. Please note from Table 2.7 that because of cap on Q3 , the overall voltage prole of the system is little lower than that obtained with no limit on generator reactive power. As a second example, let us now consider the IEEE-14 bus system. The data of the IEEE 14 bus system are shown in Tables A.3 and A.4. The power ow solution without any limit on the 35

Table 2.5: GSLF results in 5 bus system with generator Q limit on bus 3 for iterations 1-3 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 Iteration = 1

(p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 -0.0720 1.0 2.0533 -0.0663 1.0 4.1038 -0.2022 1.0 3.7091 -0.0932 1.0 3.5968 0.2937 1.0 2.6494 0.5142 0.9955 1.6318 0.9394 -3.2379 0.9167 -5.0548 0.9071 -6.0918 0.957 -2.5257 0.9482 -3.2562 0.944 -3.8036 error = 0.081708 error = 0.037148 error = 0.019063

Qcal

Iteration = 2

Qcal

Iteration = 3

Qcal

Table 2.6: GSLF results in 5 bus system with generator Q limit on bus 3 for iterations 4-6 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 Iteration = 1

(p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 -0.1784 1.0 3.1067 -0.1365 1.0 2.6692 -0.1082 1.0 2.3656 0.5337 0.991 0.9288 0.5178 0.9882 0.4399 0.5109 0.9864 0.1025 0.9012 -6.8046 0.8973 -7.2918 0.8947 -7.6271 0.9409 -4.1739 0.9388 -4.4292 0.9374 -4.6044 error = 0.012967 error = 0.0088975 error = 0.0061049

Qcal

Iteration = 2

Qcal

Iteration = 3

Qcal

Table 2.7: Final Results of the 5 bus system with GSLF with generator Q limit Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.56743 0.26505 1.0 0 0.56979 0.33935 1.0 1.65757 0.5 -0.18519 1.0 1.69679 0.5 -0.04769 1.0 -0.91206 1.0 0.68875 0.9825 -0.63991 1.0 0.5 0.90594 -8.35088 -1.15 -0.6 0.88918 -8.35906 -1.15 -0.6 0.94397 -5.02735 -0.85 -0.4 0.93445 -4.98675 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 69 Total iteration = 66

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

With generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

generator reactive power is shown in Table 2.8. Note that all the terminal voltage of the generators are maintained at their corresponding specied values. Also observe that the generator connected at bus 6 supplies a reactive power of 37.27 MVAR. Now assume that generator 6 is constrained to supply only 30 MVAR. With this Q limit, the power ow solution is also shown in Table 2.8. From these result followings salient point can be noted: a. Reactive power supplied by generator 6 is limited at 30 MVAR. b. As a result, V6 goes down to 1.05497 p.u. (from the specied value of 1.07 p.u.). 36

Table 2.8: Final Results of the 14 bus system with GSLF Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

(p.u) 1.06 1.045 1.04932 1.03299 1.04015 1.07 1.02076 1.0224 1.0201 1.0211 1.04144 1.0526 1.04494 1.01249

Without generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.37259 -5.17113 0.183 -14.54246 -1.19 -10.39269 -0.4779 -8.76418 -0.07599 -12.52265 0.112 -13.44781 0 -13.47154 0 -13.60908 -0.29499 -13.69541 -0.09 -13.22158 -0.03501 -13.42868 -0.06099 -13.50388 -0.135 -14.60128 -0.14901 Total iteration = 676

Pinj

(p.u) -0.3308 -0.166 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.37278 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

(p.u) 1.06 1.045 1.04697 1.02902 1.03615 1.05497 1.01266 1.01391 1.0118 1.01154 1.02915 1.03787 1.03063 1.00136

With generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.37188 -5.17845 0.183 -14.55556 -1.19 -10.35987 -0.4779 -8.71027 -0.07599 -12.45871 0.112 -13.49478 0 -13.5185 0 -13.66101 -0.29499 -13.73679 -0.09 -13.21814 -0.03501 -13.39145 -0.06099 -13.48166 -0.135 -14.64504 -0.14901 Total iteration = 718

Pinj

(p.u) -0.31249 -0.1066 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.3 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

c. Because of the limit on generator reactive power, the overall voltage prole is on the lower side as compared to that obtained without any Q limit. As the last example the 30 bus system is considered. The data of this system are given in Tables A.5 and A.6. Again initially the load ow solution has been computed without any limit on the generator reactive power and the result are shown in Table 2.9. Subsequently Q limits have been imposed on both the generator connected at bus 11 (20 MVAR) and the generator connected at bus 13 (30 MVAR). However, with a tolerance of 10e12 p.u. GSLF algorithm fails to converge even after 10,000 iteration. When the tolerance is reduced to 10e6 p.u., the algorithm converges in 348 iteration and the result are again shown in Table 2.9. As can be seen from these results, for both the generation, the reactive power supplied have been xed at their corresponding limits and as a result, the overall voltage prole of the system has gone down. From these results it is observed that the convergence characteristics of the GSLF technique is quite poor. Usually the number of iteration taken by GSLF is quite large and moreover in many cases, GSLF even fails to converge. To overcome these di culties of GSLF, Newton- Raphson(NR) techniques have been developed, which are our next topics of discussion. These are two versions of NR techniques, namely, i) NR in polar co-ordinate and ii) NR in rectangular co-ordinate. We will study both these versions one by one and will start with the NR in polar co-ordinate from the next lecture.

37

Table 2.9: Final Results of the 30 bus system with GSLF Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(p.u) 1.05 1.0338 1.03128 1.02578 1.0058 1.02178 1.00111 1.023 1.04608 1.03606 1.0913 1.04859 1.0883 1.03346 1.02825 1.0359 1.0306 1.01873 1.01626 1.02041 1.02305 1.02343 1.0165 1.00939 1.00048 0.9825 1.00379 1.02049 0.98353 0.97181

Without generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.38673 -4.97945 0.3586 -7.96653 -0.024 -9.58235 -0.076 -13.60103 -0.6964 -11.50296 0 -13.9994 -0.628 -12.56853 -0.45 -13.04088 0 -14.88589 -0.058 -11.16876 0.1793 -13.74947 -0.112 -12.56078 0.1691 -14.71704 -0.062 -14.86737 -0.082 -14.50539 -0.035 -14.98291 -0.09 -15.58107 -0.032 -15.81066 -0.095 -15.63819 -0.022 -15.35955 -0.175 -15.35222 0 -15.41998 -0.032 -15.81043 -0.087 -15.84004 0 -16.27422 -0.035 -15.59587 0 -12.1474 0 -16.87497 -0.024 -17.79427 -0.106 Total iteration = 851

Pinj

(p.u) -0.29842 -0.05698 -0.012 -0.016 0.05042 0 -0.109 0.12343 0 -0.02 0.24018 -0.075 0.31043 -0.016 -0.025 -0.018 -0.058 -0.009 -0.034 -0.007 -0.112 0 -0.016 -0.067 0 -0.023 0 0 -0.009 -0.019

Qinj

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.05 0 2.3865 -0.29386 1.0338 -4.98084 0.35861 -0.04562 1.03045 -7.95523 -0.02399 -0.012 1.02477 -9.56929 -0.07598 -0.016 1.0058 -13.60836 -0.6964 0.05532 1.02084 -11.49304 0.00003 0 1.00055 -13.99792 -0.628 -0.109 1.023 -12.57567 -0.45 0.15111 1.04006 -13.02865 0.00001 0 1.03117 -14.8866 -0.05797 -0.02001 1.07807 -11.12256 0.1793 0.2 1.04456 -13.75755 -0.11198 -0.075 1.08311 -12.55854 0.1691 0.3 1.02931 -14.73168 -0.062 -0.016 1.02403 -14.88097 -0.08199 -0.025 1.03148 -14.51198 -0.035 -0.018 1.02583 -14.98712 -0.09 -0.058 1.01422 -15.59618 -0.03199 -0.009 1.01159 -15.8251 -0.09499 -0.034 1.01568 -15.64961 -0.022 -0.007 1.01825 -15.36524 -0.17496 -0.11201 1.01867 -15.3581 0 0 1.01226 -15.43637 -0.032 -0.016 1.00517 -15.8277 -0.087 -0.067 0.99748 -15.86849 0 0 0.97944 -16.30534 -0.035 -0.023 1.00158 -15.62827 0 0 1.01959 -12.14235 0 0 0.98126 -16.91314 -0.024 -0.009 0.96951 -17.83675 -0.106 -0.019 Total iteration = 348 (totlerance 10e6 )

With generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

38

2.8

Basic Newton - Raphson (NR) Techniques

Before discussing the application of NR technique in load ow solution, let us rst review the basic procedure of solving a set of non-linear algebraic equation by means of NR algorithm. Let there be n equations in n unknown variables x1 , x2 , xn as given below,

In equation (2.33), the quantities b1 , b2 , bn as well as the functions f1 , f2 , fn are known. To solve equation (2.33), rst we take an initial guess of the solution and let these initial guesses be (0) (0) (0) denoted as, x1 , x2 , xn . Subsequently, rst order Taylors series expansion (neglecting the higher order terms) is carried out for these equation around the initial guess of solution. Also let (0) (0) (0) T the vector of initial guess be denoted as x(0) = x1 , x2 , xn . Now, application of Taylors expansion on the equations of set (2.33) yields,

f1 (x1 , x2 , xn ) f2 (x1 , x2 , xn ) fn (x1 , x2 , xn )

= b1 = b2 = bn

(2.33)

Equation (2.34) can be written as,

f1 f1 f1 x1 + x2 + + xn = b1 x1 x2 xn f2 f2 f2 (0) (0) (0) f2 x1 , x2 , xn + x1 + x2 + + xn = b2 x1 x2 xn fn fn fn (0) (0) (0) fn x1 , x2 , xn + x1 + x2 + + xn = bn x1 x2 xn f1 x(0) , x(0) , x(0) + n 1 2 f1 f1 (x(0) ) x1 f (0) ) f2 (x 2 + x1 fn (x(0) ) f n x1 f1 x2 f2 x2 fn x2 f1 xn f2 xn fn xn x 1 b1 x 2 = b2 xn bn

(2.34)

(2.35)

In equation (2.35), the matrix containing the partial derivative terms is known as the Jacobin 39

matrix (J). As can be seen, it is a square matrix. Hence, from equation (2.35),

Equation (2.36) is the basic equation for solving the n algebraic equations given in equation (2.33). The steps of solution are as follow: Step 1: Assume a vector of initial guess x(0) and set iteration counter k = 0. Step 2: Compute f1 (x(k) ), f2 (x(k) ), fn (x(k) ). Step 3: Compute m1 , m2 , mn . Step 4: Compute error =max [ m1 , m2 , mn ] Step 5: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal solution vector is x(k) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 6. Step 6: Form the Jacobin matrix analytically and evaluate it at x = x(k) . T Step 7: Calculate the correction vector x = x1 , x2 , xn by using equation (2.36). Step 8: Update the solution vector x(k+1) = x(k) + x and update k = k+1 and go back to step 2. With this basic understanding of NR technique, we will now discuss the application of NR technique for load ow solution. We will rst discuss the Newton Raphson load- ow (NRLF) in polar co-ordinates.

b1 f1 (x(0) ) x1 b f (x(0) ) x2 1 2 1 2 = [J] = [J] bn fn (x(0) ) xn

m1 m2 mn

(2.36)

2.9

Newton Raphson load ow (NRLF) in polar co-ordinates

For NRLF techniques, the starting equations are same as those in equations (2.27) and (2.28), which are reproduced below:

Now, as before let us again assume that in a n bus, m machine system, the rst m buses are the generator buses with bus 1 being the slack bus. Therefore, the unknown quantities are; 2 , 3 , n (total n-1 quantities) and Vm+1 , Vm+2 , Vn (total n-m quantities). Thus the total number of unknown quantities is n 1 + n m = 2n m 1. Against these unknown quantities, the sp sp sp specied quantities are; P2 , P3 , Pn (total n-1 quantities) and Qsp , Qsp , Qsp (total n m+1 m+2 n-m quantities). Hence, the total number of specied quantities is also (2n m 1). Let the T T vectors of unknown quantities be denoted as = [2 , 3 , n ] and V = [Vm+1 , Vm+2 , Vn ] . sp sp sp T Similarly let the vector of the specied quantities be denoted as Psp = [P2 , P3 , Pn ] and Qsp = [Qsp , Qsp , Qsp ]. Also note from equations (2.37) and (2.38) that the real and reactive n m+1 m+2 power injections at any bus are functions of and V. Thus, these injection quantities can be 40

Qi = Vi Vj Yij sin(i j ij )
n j=1

Pi = Vi Vj Yij cos(i j ij )
n j=1

(2.37) (2.38)

written as Pi = Pi (, V) for i = 2, 3, n and Qi = Qi (, V) for i = (m + 1), (m + 2), n. (0) For proceeding with NRLF, we assume initial guesses of the bus voltage angles and the bus voltage magnitudes (V(0) ). Subsequently, Taylors series expansion of equations (2.37) and (2.38) yields (following the same procedure as in the basic N-R technique),

P2 2 Pn 2 Qm+1 2 Qn 2

P2 P2 n Vm+1 Pn Pn n Vm+1 Qm+1 Qm+1 n Vm+1 Qn Qn n Vm+1

P2 (0) sp (0) 2 P2 P2 , V Vn Pn (0) sp (0) Pn Pn , V Vn n = sp (0) (0) Qm+1 Vm+1 Q m+1 Qm+1 , V Vn Qn Vm+1 Qsp Q (0) , V(0) n n Vn
(0)

(2.39)

In equation (2.39), the quantity Pi , V(0) is nothing but the calculated value of Pi with (0) (0) vectors , V(0) . As a result, commonly, the quantity Pi , V(0) is denoted as Pical . With these notations, equation (2.39) can be written as,

J1 J2 Psp Pcal P = sp = cal J3 J4 V Q Q Q

(2.40)

cal cal cal In equation (2.40) the vectors Pcal and Qcal are dened as; Pcal = [P2 , P3 , Pn ] and Qcal = [Qcal , Qcal , Qcal ]. Also note that the vectors and Psp are of dimension (n 1) 1 n m+1 m+2 each and the vectors V and Qsp are of dimension (n m) 1 each. Therefore, from equations (2.39) and (2.40), T

P2 P2 P2 Vm+1 Vm+2 Vn P3 P3 P3 P J2 = = Vm+1 Vm+2 Vn V Pn Pn Pn Vm+1 Vm+2 Vn

41

P2 P2 P2 2 3 n P3 P3 P3 P J1 = = 2 3 n Pn Pn Pn 2 3 n

(2.41)

(2.42)

In equations (2.41) to (2.44) the sizes of the various matrices are as follows: J1 (n1)(n1), J2 (n 1) (n m), J3 (n m) (n 1) and J4 (n m) (n m). Now, equation (2.40) can be written in compact form as,

Qm+1 Qm+1 Qm+1 Vm+1 Vm+2 Vn Qm+2 Qm+2 Qm+2 Q J4 = = Vm+1 Vm+2 Vn V Qn Qn Qn Vm+1 Vm+2 Vn

Qm+1 Qm+1 Qm+1 2 3 n Qm+2 Qm+2 Qm+2 Q J3 = = 2 3 n Qn Qn Qn 2 3 n

(2.43)

(2.44)

J1 J2 is known as the Jacobian matrix, the vector X = J3 J4 Psp Pcal is known as the correction vector and the vector M = sp is known as the V Q Qcal mismatch vector. Further, the size of the matrix J is (2n m 1) (2n m 1) while the sizes of both the vectors X and M is (2n m 1) 1.
In equation (2.45), the matrix J = Equation (2.45) forms the basis of the NRLF (polar) algorithm, which is described below. Please note that in the algorithm described below it is assumed that there is no generator which violates its reactive power generation or absorption limit. The case of violation of reactive power generation or absorption limit would be dealt with a little later. Basic NRLF (polar) algorithm

[J] [ X] = [ M ]

(2.45)

Step 1: Initialise Vj = Vjsp 0o for j = 2, 3, m and Vj = 1.00o for j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n. Let the vectors of the initial voltage magnitudes and angles be denoted as V(0) and (0) respectively. Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1. (k1) Step 3: Compute the vectors Pcal and Qcal with the vectors and V(k1) thereby forming T the vector M . Let this vector be represented as M = [ M1 , M2 , M2nm1 ] . Step 4: Compute error = max ( M1 , M2 , M2nm1 ). (k1) Step 5: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal solution vectors are and
(0) (0)

42

V(k1) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 6.

Step 6: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors and V(k1) . Step 7: Compute the correction vector X by solving equation (2.45). (k) Step 8: Update the solution vectors = (k1) + and V(k) = V(k1) + k = k + 1 and go back to step 3.

(k1)

V . Update

In the above algorithm, the Jacobian matrix needs to be evaluated at each iteration. Therefore, the element of the Jacobian matrix needs to be found out analytically. This is discussed next.

Formation of Jacobian matrix elements for NRLF (polar) technique To derive the elements of the Jacobian matrix, let us revisit equations (2.37) and (2.38).

Pi = Vi Vj Yij cos(i j ij ) = V Gii + Vi Vj Yij cos(i j ij )

n 2 i n j=1

In the above two equations, the relations Gii = Yii cos(ii ) and Bii = Yii sin(ii ) have been used. From the expressions of the Pi and Qi in equations (2.46) and (2.47) respectively, the elements of the Jacobian matrix can be calculated as follows. Matrix J1 =

Qi = Vi Vj Yij sin(i j ij ) = Vi2 Bii + Vi Vj Yij sin(i j ij )

n n j=1 j =1 i

j =1 i

(2.46)

(2.47)

P (in this case, i = 2, 3, n,

i

n Pi = Vi Vk Yik sin(i k ik ); j k=1

j = 2, 3, n)

j=i

(2.48)

Matrix J2 =

P (in this case, i = 2, 3, n, V

i

Pi = Vi Vj Yij sin(i j ij ); j

n Pi = 2Vi Gii + Vk Yik cos(i k ik ); Vj k=1

j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n) j=i

(2.50)

ji

(2.49)

Pi = Vi Yij cos(i j ij ); Vj
43

ji

(2.51)

Matrix J3 =

Q (in this case, i = (m + 1), (m + 2), n,

i

n Qi = Vi Vk Yik cos(i k ik ); j k = 1

j = 2, 3, n) j=i
(2.52)

Matrix J4 =

Q (in this case, i = (m + 1), (m + 2), n, V

i

Qi = Vi Vj Yij cos(i j ij ); j

n Qi = 2Vi Bii + Vk Yik sin(i k ik ); Vj k=1

j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n). j=i

(2.54)

ji

(2.53)

With these expressions of Jacobian elements given in equations (2.48)-(2.55), the Jacobian matrix can be evaluated at each iteration as discussed earlier. Now, in the basic NRLF (polar) algorithm described earlier, the generator Q-limits have not been considered. To accommodate the generator Q-limits, at the beginning of each iteration, reactive power absorbed or produced by each generator is calculated. If the calculated reactive power is within the specied limits, the generator is retained as PV bus, otherwise the generator bus is converted to a PQ bus, with the voltage at this bus no longer held at the specied value. The detailed algorithm is as follows. Complete NRLF (polar) algorithm

Qi = Vi Yij sin(i j ij ); Vj

ji

(2.55)

Step 1: Initialise Vj = Vjsp 0o for j = 2, 3, m and Vj = 1.00o for j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n. Let the vectors of the initial voltage magnitudes and angles be denoted as V(0) and (0) respectively. Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1. Step 3: For i = 2, 3, m, carry out the following operations. a) Calculate,
(0) (0) (k1) Q(k) = Vi(k1) Vj(k1) Yij sin i(k1) j ij i n j=1 (k) (k)

b) If, Qmin Qi Qmax ; then assign Vi = Vispec and the ith bus is retained as PV bus i i for k th iteration. (k) (k) c) If Qi > Qmax , then assign Qsp = Qmax or, if Qi < Qmin , then assign Qsp = Qmin . In i i i i i i
44

both the cases, this bus is converted to PQ bus. Hence, its voltage magnitude becomes an unknown for the present iteration (thereby introducing an extra unknown quantity) and to solve for this extra unknown quantity, an extra equation is required, which is obtained by the new value of Qsp (as i shown above). Therefore, when the ith bus is converted to a PQ bus, the dimensions of both V and Q vectors increases by one. In general, if l generator buses (l (m 1)) violate their corresponding reactive power limits at step 3, then the dimensions of both V and Q vectors increases from (n m) to (n m + l). However, the dimensions of both P and vectors remain the same. Therefore, the size of matrix J2 becomes (n 1) (n m + l), that of matrix J3 becomes (n m + l) (n 1) and the matrix J4 becomes of size (n m + l) (n m + l). The size of matrix J1 , however, does not change. Hence, the size of the matrix J becomes (2n m 1 l) (2n m 1 l) while the sizes of both the vectors X and M (in equation (2.45)) becomes (2n m 1 l) 1. Of course, if there is no generator reactive power limit violation, then l = 0. (k1) Step 4: Compute the vectors Pcal and Qcal with the vectors and V(k1) thereby forming T the vector M . Let this vector be represented as M = [ M1 , M2 , M2nm1l ] . Step 5: Compute error = max ( M1 , M2 , M2nm1l ). (k1) Step 6: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal rotation vectors are and (k1) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 7. V (k1) Step 7: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors and V(k1) . Step 8: Compute the correction vector X by solving equation (2.45). (k) Step 9: Update the solution vectors = (k1) + and V(k) = V(k1) + V . Update k = k + 1 and go back to step 3. In the next lecture, we will look at an example of NRLF (polar) technique.

45

2.9.1

Example for NRLF (polar) technique

As an example, let us consider again the 5-bus system shown in Fig. 2.16. In this System, n = 5 and m = 3 (as the number of generator in 3). Initially, let us assume that there is no violation of reactive power limit at any generator. Therefore, the sizes of The Jacobian sub-matinees are as follows; J1 (4 4), J2 (4 2), J3 (2 4) and J4 (2 2). Therefore, the size of the combined Jacobian matrix J is (66). As before, the NRLF algorithm starts with at voltage prole and with this assumed voltage prole, the di erent quantities in the rst iteration are calculated as shown in Table 2.10: Table 2.10: Initial calculation with NRLF (polar) in the 5 bus system

Pcal = 0.0444 0.1776 0.0333 0.0444 1014 ;

T

As the error is more than the tolerance value ( = 1012 p.u), the algorithm proceeds and in the next few steps, the Jacobian matrix, correction vector and the updated values of the error are calculated as shown in Table 2.11. As the error is still more than the tolerance value, the algorithm continues and enters 2nd iteration. The values of the relevant qualities in second iteration are shown in Table 2.12 below. Since the error is still more than the tolerance value, the algorithm continues and nally converges after 4 iterations. The nal converged solution is shown in Table 2.13. Comparsion of Tables 2.13 and 2.4 (GSLF results) shows that the nal results obtained by these two methods are identically same. However, NRLF achieves this solution in 4 iterations as opposed at 69 iterations required by GSLF. The convergence behavior of both GSLF and NRLF are shown in Fig. 2.17. From this gure it can be observed that, NRLF has certainly much better convergence characteristics as compared to GSLF. Now let us consider the case where reactive power generation of generator 3 is limited to 50 MVAR. The algorithm again starts with a at start and the initial calculation are same as shown in Table 2.10 earlier. As Q3 calculated has not crossed the limit, the program proceeds in the same way as shown in Table 2.11 till the end of rst iteration. With the voltage magnitudes and angles obtained at the end of rst iteration, the reactive power generated by all the machines are again calculated and the value of Q3 is found to be 53.42 MVAR (0.5342 p.u). Hence, bus 3 (generator 3) is converted to a PQ bus and hence, the PQ buses in the system now are (4, 5, 3). The vectors of calculated injected real and reactive powers, mismatch vector and nal mismatch at the end of 1st iteration are shown in Table 2.14. Note that without any generator reactive power violation, the size of M vector was (6 1) and with generator limit violation in Q3 , the size has now increased to (7 1). At the end of 1st iteration, n = 5 and m = 2 (as the number of generator buses is 2). Hence, the sizes of the various Jacobian sub-matrices are: J1 (4 4), J2 (4 3), J3 (3 4) and 46

M = 0.5 1.0 1.15 0.85 0.457 0.257 ;

T

Qcal = 0.143 0.143 ;

T

error = 1.15;

Table 2.11: Calculation at 1st iteration with NRLF (polar) in the 5 bus system without any generator Q limit violation

13.0858 7.4835 J1 = 0 0

0 1.2584 2.1921 0.9337 J3 = ; 0 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047 13.0858 7.4835 0 J= 0 0 0

7.4835 0 0 19.0911 7.1309 4.4768 ; 7.1309 10.8657 3.7348 4.4768 3.7348 15.6951

= 0.0331 0.0090 0.1275 0.0799 ;

T

X = 0.0331 0.0090 0.1275 0.0799 0.0783 0.0475 ;

T

7.4835 0 0 0 0 19.0911 7.1309 4.4768 1.2584 1.1298 7.1309 10.8657 3.7348 2.1921 0.9337 ; 4.4768 3.7348 15.6951 0.9337 3.9047 1.2584 2.1921 0.9337 10.5797 3.7348 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047 3.7348 15.4091

10.5797 3.7348 J4 = ; 3.7348 15.4091

0 0 1.2584 1.12982 J2 = 2.1921 0.9337 0.9337 3.9047

M = 0.0023 0.0707 0.1087 0.0372 0.0842 0.0528 ;

T

Pcal = 0.5023 0.9293 1.0413 0.8128 ;

T

V = 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9217 0.9525 ;

T

= 0 0.0331 0.0090 0.1275 0.0799 ;

T

V = 0.0783 0.0475

Qcal = 0.5158 0.3472 ;

T

error = 0.1087;

J4 (3 3). Thus, the size of the Jacobian matrix increases to (7 7). The Jacobian matrix, correction vector and the updated value of the mismatch as computed in the 2nd iteration are shown
in Table 2.15. As the mismatch is still more than the tolerance value, the algorithm proceeds further and nally, the algorithm converges in 5 iterations. The nal converged values are shown in Table 2.16. In this table also, the NRLF (polar) results without any reactive power limit (as shown in Table 2.13) are also reproduced for comparison. Moreover, it is observed that the nal converged values are identically same as those calculated by the GSLF method (Table 2.7).

The results with IEEE - 14 bus system are shown in Table 2.17 with and without limit on generator reactive power. For this case also, the limit on the generator at bus 6 has been maintained at 30 MVAR. Comparison of Tables 2.8 and 2.17 shows that the results obtained by GSLF and NRLF are identical, but due to quadratic convergence characteristics, the number of iteration required by 47

Table 2.12: Calculation at 2nd iteration with NRLF (polar) in the 5 bus system without any generator Q limit violation

13.1998 7.3995 J1 = 0 0

0 1.9289 2.9037 0.9748 J3 = ; 0 1.3756 0.6628 4.3554 13.1998 7.3995 0 J= 0 0 0

7.5543 0 0 18.3929 6.6638 4.3296 ; 6.3896 9.6258 3.2363 4.1771 3.3143 14.3457

= 0.0331 0.0090 0.1275 0.0799 ;

T

X = 0.0041 0.0068 0.0179 0.0154 0.0783 0.0084 ;

T

7.5543 0 0 0 0 18.3929 6.6638 4.3296 0.4065 0.8098 6.3896 9.6258 3.2363 0.8909 1.0234 ; 4.1771 3.3143 14.4567 0.7191 2.8658 1.9289 2.9037 0.9748 9.3239 3.3977 1.3756 0.6628 4.3554 3.5957 14.4487

9.3239 3.3977 J4 = ; 3.5957 14.4487

0 0 0.4065 0.8098 ; J2 = 0.8909 1.0234 0.7191 2.8658

M = 0.0000 0.0012 0.0026 0.0001 0.0020 0.0010 ;

T

Pcal = 0.5000 0.9988 1.1474 0.8501 ;

T

V = 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9063 0.9441 ;

T

= 0 0.0290 0.0158 0.1453 0.0876 ;

T

V = 0.0783 0.0475 ;
T

Qcal = 0.5980 0.3990 ;

T

error = 0.0026 ;

NRLF to reach the same solution is much less compared to that taken by GSLF for a tolerance of 10e12 p.u. The results for 30-bus system are shown in Table 2.18. Without any generator Q-limit, the results obtained by GSLF and NRLF (polar) are identical, although NRLF (polar) takes only 4 iterations against 851 iterations taken by GSLF. Also,as mentioned earlier, with a tolerance of 10e12 (p.u), GSLF does not converge for Q limit on gen 11 and 13 (20 and 30 MVAR respectively). However, NRLF (polar) does not face any such di culty in convergence in this case and the algorithm converges with 7 iterations in this case. The corresponding results are also shown in Table 2.18. In the next lecture, we will discuss another version of NRLF, namely, the rectangular version, in which, all the complex quantities are represented in the rectangular co-ordinates instead of polar co-ordinates as is done in the case of NRLF (polar) technique. 48

Table 2.13: Final Results of the 5 bus system with NRLF (polar) without any generator Q limit violation Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.56743 0.26505 1.0 1.65757 0.5 -0.18519 1.0 -0.91206 1.0 0.68875 0.90594 -8.35088 -1.15 -0.6 0.94397 -5.02735 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 4

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

Figure 2.17: Convergence characteristics of GSLF and NRLF Table 2.14: Calculations at the end of 1st iteration with NRLF (polar) in the 5 bus system for limit on Q3

Pcal = 0.5023 0.9293 1.0413 0.8128 ;

T

M = 0.0023 0.0707 0.1087 0.0372 0.0842 0.0528 0.0342 ;

T

error = 0.1087 ;

Qcal = 0.5158 0.3472 0.5342 ;

T

49

Table 2.15: Calculations at 2nd iteration with NRLF (polar) in the 5 bus system for limit on Q3

13.1998 7.3995 J1 = 0 0

0 7.5543 0 0 0 1.5250 0.4065 0.8098 5.1587 18.3929 6.6638 4.3296 ; J2 = ; 0.8909 1.0234 1.9289 6.3896 9.6258 3.2363 0.7191 2.8658 1.3756 4.1771 3.3143 14.3457 0 9.3239 3.3977 6.3896 1.9289 2.9037 0.9748 0 ; J4 = 3.5957 14.4487 4.1771; 1.3756 0.6628 4.3554 J3 = 2.1541 3.3002 0.3747 0.7713 7.2296 4.5456 19.4614 13.1998 7.5543 0 0 0 0 1.5250 7.3995 18.3929 6.6638 4.3296 0.4065 0.8098 5.1587 0 6.3896 9.6258 3.2363 0.8909 1.0234 1.9289 0 4.1771 3.3143 14.4567 0.7191 2.8658 1.3756; J= 0 1.9289 2.9037 0.9748 9.3239 3.3977 6.3896 0 1.3756 0.6628 4.3554 3.5957 14.4487 4.1771 2.1542 3.3002 0.3747 0.7713 7.2296 4.5456 19.4614 X = 0.0033 0.0022 0.0174 0.0069 0.0310 0.0173 0.0167 ;
T T

= 0.0033 0.0022 0.0174 0.0069 ;

Pcal = 0.5002 0.9949 1.1421 0.8498 ;

T

V = 1.0000 1.0000 0.9833 0.8907 0.9352 ;

T

= 0 0.0297 0.0112 0.1449 0.0868 ;

T

V = 0.0310 0.0173 0.0167 ;

T

M = 0.0002 0.0051 0.0073 0.0002 0.0036 0.0016 0.0015 ;

T

Qcal = 0.5964 0.3984 0.5015 ;

T

error = 0.0073;

50

Table 2.16: Final Results of the 5 bus system with NRLF (polar) with generator Q limit Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.56743 0.26505 1.0 0 0.56979 0.33935 1.0 1.65757 0.5 -0.18519 1.0 1.69679 0.5 -0.04769 1.0 -0.91206 1.0 0.68875 0.9825 -0.63991 1.0 0.5 0.90594 -8.35088 -1.15 -0.6 0.88918 -8.35906 -1.15 -0.6 0.94397 -5.02735 -0.85 -0.4 0.93445 -4.98675 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 4 Total iteration = 5

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

With generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

Table 2.17: Final Results of the 14 bus system with NRLF (Polar) Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

(p.u) 1.06 1.045 1.04932 1.03299 1.04015 1.07 1.02076 1.0224 1.0201 1.0211 1.04144 1.0526 1.04494 1.01249

Without generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.37259 -5.17113 0.183 -14.54246 -1.19 -10.39269 -0.4779 -8.76418 -0.07599 -12.52265 0.112 -13.44781 0 -13.47154 0 -13.60908 -0.29499 -13.69541 -0.09 -13.22158 -0.03501 -13.42868 -0.06099 -13.50388 -0.135 -14.60128 -0.14901 Total iteration = 4

Pinj

(p.u) -0.3308 -0.166 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.37278 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

(p.u) 1.06 1.045 1.04697 1.02902 1.03615 1.05497 1.01266 1.01391 1.0118 1.01154 1.02915 1.03787 1.03063 1.00136

With generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.37188 -5.17845 0.183 -14.55556 -1.19 -10.35987 -0.4779 -8.71027 -0.07599 -12.45871 0.112 -13.49478 0 -13.5185 0 -13.66101 -0.29499 -13.73679 -0.09 -13.21814 -0.03501 -13.39145 -0.06099 -13.48166 -0.135 -14.64504 -0.14901 Total iteration = 6

Pinj

(p.u) -0.31249 -0.1066 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.3 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

51

Table 2.18: Final Results of the 30 bus system with NRLF (Polar) Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(p.u) 1.05 1.0338 1.03128 1.02578 1.0058 1.02178 1.00111 1.023 1.04608 1.03606 1.0913 1.04859 1.0883 1.03346 1.02825 1.0359 1.0306 1.01873 1.01626 1.02041 1.02305 1.02343 1.0165 1.00939 1.00048 0.9825 1.00379 1.02049 0.98353 0.97181

Without generator Q limit

(deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 0 2.38673 -0.29842 1.05 0 2.3865 -0.29386 -4.97945 0.3586 -0.05698 1.0338 -4.98084 0.35861 -0.04562 -7.96653 -0.024 -0.012 1.03045 -7.95523 -0.02399 -0.012 -9.58235 -0.076 -0.016 1.02477 -9.56929 -0.07598 -0.016 -13.60103 -0.6964 0.05042 1.0058 -13.60836 -0.6964 0.05532 -11.50296 0 0 1.02084 -11.49304 0.00003 0 -13.9994 -0.628 -0.109 1.00055 -13.99792 -0.628 -0.109 -12.56853 -0.45 0.12343 1.023 -12.57567 -0.45 0.15111 -13.04088 0 0 1.04006 -13.02865 0.00001 0 -14.88589 -0.058 -0.02 1.03117 -14.8866 -0.05797 -0.02001 -11.16876 0.1793 0.24018 1.07807 -11.12256 0.1793 0.2 -13.74947 -0.112 -0.075 1.04456 -13.75755 -0.11198 -0.075 -12.56078 0.1691 0.31043 1.08311 -12.55854 0.1691 0.3 -14.71704 -0.062 -0.016 1.02931 -14.73168 -0.062 -0.016 -14.86737 -0.082 -0.025 1.02403 -14.88097 -0.08199 -0.025 -14.50539 -0.035 -0.018 1.03148 -14.51198 -0.035 -0.018 -14.98291 -0.09 -0.058 1.02583 -14.98712 -0.09 -0.058 -15.58107 -0.032 -0.009 1.01422 -15.59618 -0.03199 -0.009 -15.81066 -0.095 -0.034 1.01159 -15.8251 -0.09499 -0.034 -15.63819 -0.022 -0.007 1.01568 -15.64961 -0.022 -0.007 -15.35955 -0.175 -0.112 1.01825 -15.36524 -0.17496 -0.11201 -15.35222 0 0 1.01867 -15.3581 0 0 -15.41998 -0.032 -0.016 1.01226 -15.43637 -0.032 -0.016 -15.81043 -0.087 -0.067 1.00517 -15.8277 -0.087 -0.067 -15.84004 0 0 0.99748 -15.86849 0 0 -16.27422 -0.035 -0.023 0.97944 -16.30534 -0.035 -0.023 -15.59587 0 0 1.00158 -15.62827 0 0 -12.1474 0 0 1.01959 -12.14235 0 0 -16.87497 -0.024 -0.009 0.98126 -16.91314 -0.024 -0.009 -17.79427 -0.106 -0.019 0.96951 -17.83675 -0.106 -0.019 Total iteration = 4 Total iteration = 7

Pinj

Qinj

With generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

52

2.10

NRLF in Rectangular co-ordinates [NRLF (Rect.)]

In rectangular co-ordinates, every complex quantity is expressed in terms of its real and imaginary parts. Hence, let Vk = Vk ejk = ek + jfk ; Ii = ai + jci and Yik = gik + jbik .

Thus, from equation (2.25), Ii = Yik Vk . Or, ai + jci = (gik + jbik )(ek + jfk ).
n n

Or,

k=1

ai = (gik ek bik fk )
n

ci

Complex power injected at bus i is, Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii . Or, Pi + jQi = (ei + jfi )(ai jci ).
Or, and

k=1 n = (bik ek + gik fk ) k=1

k=1

(2.56)

Equations (2.57) and (2.58) can be re-written as;

n

Qi = fi ai ei ci = [fi (gik ek bik fk ) ei (bik ek + gik fk )]

n k=1

Pi = ai ei + ci fi = [ei (gik ek bik fk ) + fi (bik ek + gik fk )]

n k=1

(2.57)

(2.58)

Pi = gii (e2 + fi2 ) + [ei (gik ek bik fk ) + fi (bik ek + gik fk )] i

k=1 i n

(2.59)

Now, again let us consider a n bus system having m generators (bus 1 being the slack bus). For each of the (n-m) PQ buses, both voltage magnitude and angle are unknown. In other words, for these buses both real and imaginary parts of the voltages are unknown. For each of the (m-1) PV buses, even though the voltage magnitude is known, real and imaginary parts of the voltage are not known as there can be many combination of ei and fi to give a specied value of Vi . Hence, for each of the PV buses also, the real and imaginary parts of the voltage are unknown. Therefore, total number of unknown quantities is = 2(n m) + 2(m 1) = (2n 2). To solve for these (2n 2) unknown quantities, (2n 2) independent equations are also needed. Now, let us look at the specied quantities. As discussed earlier, for each of the (n-1) buses, the quantity Pi is specied [given in equation (2.59)]. Similarly, for each of the (n-m) buses, the quantity Q1 is also known [given in equation (2.60)]. Thus, total number of specied quantities is (n 1 + n m) = (2n m 1). Hence, still 2n 2 (2n m 1) = (m 1) specied quantities are needed to make the NRLF (rectangular) a well posed problem. These additional specied quantities would be available from the specied voltage magnitudes at each of the (m-1) buses. At each of these (m-1) PV buses, following relation holds good between the specied quantity (Vi ) and the 53

Qi = bii (e2 + fi2 ) + [fi (gik ek bik fk ) ei (bik ek + gik fk )] i

k=1 i

(2.60)

unknown quantities (ei , fi ).

Thus, in NRLF rectangular co-ordinates method, the unknown quantities are; (ei , fi ) for i = 2, 3, n (total (2n 2) in number). The specied quantities are; a) Pi ; for i = 2, 3, n; b) Qi ; for i = (m + 1) n and c) Vi ; for i = 2, 3, m. Hence, the total number of specied quantities is also (2n 2). The relations connecting the unknown quantities to the specied quantities are given by equations (2.59) - (2.61), which are solved by the standard Newton-Rabhosn technique to determine the unknown quantities. As in the case of NRLF (polar) method, in NRLF (rectangular) technique also, at voltage prole is assumed at the starting. The standard, linearized form of Newton-Raphron solution of the equations (2.59) - (2.61) are given below (following the basic Newton-Raphron solution method discussed previously);

Vi2 = e2 + fi2 i

(2.61)

e (n 1) 1; f (n 1) 1; P (n 1) 1; Q (n m) 1; V2 (m 1) 1. From these sizes P of the vectors, the sizes of di erent sub-matrices J1 J6 can be deduced as; J1 e P Q Q (n 1) (n 1); J2 (n 1) (n 1); J3 (n m) (n 1); J4 f e f V 2 V 2 (n m) (n 1); J5 (m 1) (n 1); J6 (m 1) (n 1). e f
In equation (2.62), the sizes of di erent vector are as follows: Equation (2.62) can be succinctly written as,

P J J 1 2 Q = J3 J4 e f V2 J5 J6

(2.62)

In equation (2.63), as before, the quantities M , X and J are known as the mismatch vector, correction vector and the Jacobian matrix respectively. Note that the vector M and X each has a size of (2n 2) 1 whereas the Jacobian matrix has a size of (2n 2) (2n 2).

[J] [ X] = [ M ]

(2.63)

Equation (2.63) forms the basis of NRLF (rectangular) algorithm as discussed below. Note that the algorithm discussed below assumes that there is no violation of generator reactive power limits.

Basic NRLF (Rectangular) algorithm Step 1: Assume at start prole and denote the initial real and imaginary parts of the bus voltages as e(0) and f (0) respectively. Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1. Step 3: Compute the vectors Pcal and Qcal with the vectors e(k1) and f (k1) thereby forming T the vector M . Let this vector be represented as M = [ M1 , M2 , M2n2 ] . 54

Step 4: Compute error = max ( M1 , M2 , M2n2 ). Step 5: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal solution vectors are e(k1) and f (k1) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 6. Step 6: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors e(k1) and f (k1) . Step 7: Compute the correction vector X by solving equation (2.63). Step 8: Update the solution vectors e(k) = e(k1) + e and f (k) = f (k1) + f . Update k = k +1 and go back to step 3. As can be seen, in step 6, the Jacobian matrix needs to be evaluated at each iteration. For this purpose, the analytical expressions of the elements of the Jacobian matrix are needed, which are derived next. Derivation of Jacobian matrix elements for NRLF (rectangular) technique We derive the elements of the Jacobian matrix by utilising equations (2.59), (2.60) and (2.61). From these three equations, the Jacobian matrix elements can be obtained as follows: Matrix J1 =

P (in this case, i = 2, 3, n, e

i

n Pi = 2ei gii + (gik ek bik fk ); ej k=1

j = 2, 3, n)

j=i

(2.64)

Matrix J2 =

P (in this case, i = 2, 3, n, f

i

Pi = (ei gij + fi bij ); ej

n Pi = 2fi gii + (bik ek + gik fk ); fj k=1

j = 2, 3, n)

ji

(2.65)

j=i

(2.66)

Matrix J3 =

Q (in this case, i = (m + 1), (m + 2), n, e

i

Pi = (fi gij ei bij ); fj

ji

(2.67)

n Qi = 2ei bii + (bik ek gik fk ); ej k=1

j = 2, 3, n) j=i
(2.68)

Qi = (fi gij ei bij ); ej

55

ji

(2.69)

Matrix J4 =

Q (in this case, i = (m + 1), (m + 2), n, f

i

n Qi = 2fi bii + (gik ek bik fk ); fj k=1

j = 2, 3, n) j=i
(2.70)

Matrix J5 =

V 2 (in this case, i = 2, 3, m, e Vi2 = 2ei for j = i; ej

Qi = (fi bij + ei gij ); fj

j = 2, 3, n)

ji

(2.71)

and

Matrix J6 =

V 2 (in this case, i = 2, 3, m, f Vi2 = 2fi for j = i; fj

With these expressions of Jacobian elements, the matrix J can be evaluated at each iteration as discussed earlier. Now, in the above algorithm, the violations of generation reactive power limits have not been taken into account. As in the case of NRLF (polar), in this case also, if a generator violates its Qlimits at any particular iteration, it is treated as a PQ bus for that iteration. Otherwise, it continues to be treated as a PV bus. The detailed step-by-step procedure for taking the generation Q limit violation into account in given below. Complete NRLF (rectangular) algorithm Step 1: Initialise ej = Vjsp for j = 2, 3, m and ej = 1.0 for j = (m + 1), (m + 2), n. (0) Also initialise fj = 0.0 for j = 2, 3, n. Let the vectors of the initial real and imaginary parts of the voltages be denoted as e(0) and f (0) respectively. Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1. (k) Step 3: For i = 2, 3, m, calculate Qi from equation (2.60) by using e(k1) and f (k1) . If (k) the calculated Qi is within its respective limit, then this bus would be retained as a PV bus in the current iteration. If either the lower limit or the upper limit is violated, then this bus is converted to a PQ bus. In general, if l generator buses (l (m 1)) violate their corresponding reactive power limits at step 3, then the size of Q vector increases from (n m) to (n m + l) and the size of V 2 vector decreases from (m 1) to (m l 1). As a result, the new sizes of the matrices J3 , J4 , J5 and J6 become (n m + l) (n 1), (n m + l) (n 1), (m l 1) (n 1) and
(0) (0)

Vi2 and = 0 for j i; fj

j = 2, 3, n)

Vi2 = 0 for j i; ej

(2.72)

(2.73)

56

(m l 1) (n 1) respectively. The sizes of the matrices J1 and J2 remain same. Also, the total

sizes of the mismatch vector, correction vector and the Jacobian matrix remain same. Step 4: Compute the calculated vectors P, Q and V2 from equations (2.59) - (2.61) with the vectors e(k1) and f (k1) thereby forming the vector M . Let this vector be represented as T M = [ M1 , M2 , M2n2 ] . Step 5: Compute error = max ( M1 , M2 , M2n2 ). Step 6: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal rotation vectors are e(k1) and f (k1) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 7. Step 7: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors e(k1) and f (k1) . Step 8: Compute the correction vector X by solving equation (2.63). Step 9: Update the solution vectors e(k) = e(k1) + e and f (k) = f (k1) + f . Update k = k +1 and go back to step 3. In the next lecture, we will look at an example of NRLF (rectangular) technique.

57

2.10.1

Example for NRLF (rectangular) technique

Taking the 5 bus system as an example again, the NRLF algorithm starts with the at voltage prole and subsequently di erent quantitative are calculated as shown in Table 2.19. Table 2.19: Initial calculation with NRLF (rectangular) in the 5 bus system

Pcal = 0 0.2220 0 0 1015 ;

T

M = 0.5 1.0 1.15 0.85 0.457 0.257 0 0 ;

T

Qcal = 0.143 0.143 ;

T

Vcal = 1.0 1.0 ;

T

error = 1.15;

As the mismatch (= 1.15) is greater than the tolerance (= 1.0e12 ), the algorithm proceeds further and calculates the Jacobian matrix. Following the discussion presented earlier, the sizes of various Jacobian sub matrices should be as follows: J1 (4 4); J2 (4 4); J3 (2 4); J4 (24); J5 (24); J6 (24) and J (88). The computed Jacobian matrices are shown in Table 2.20. From this set observe that the sizes of the calculated Jacobian matrices are indeed the same as they are indicated above. After calculating the Jacobian matrix, the algorithm calculates the correction vector ( X) and extracts the vectors e and f from X . With these obtained vectors e and f , the updated vectors e and f are computed and lastly the mismatch vector ( M ) and the nal mismatch are calculated. All these calculations are also shown in Table 2.20. As the mismatch in still more than the tolerance (although it has reduced from the last value), the algorithm repeats all these calculation and nally converges with 5 iterations. The nal load ow result is shown in Table 2.21. Observe that the result obtained with NRLF (rectangular) method are identically same as obtained by NRLF (polar) and GSLF techniques. The load ow solutions of IEEE-14 bus and 30-bus systems have also been computed with NRLF (rectangular) method. The results are shown in Tables 2.22 and 2.23 and respectively. Again conrm yourself that the results shown in these two tables are identically same as the corresponding results shown earlier with NRLF (polar) and GSLF methods. Now, let us study the behavior of the algorithm when generator Q-limit is considered. Towards this end, again let us rst consider the 5-bus system and as before, let us consider the limit on Q3 to be 50 MVAR. TO begin with, the initial calculations for this case are identically same as that shown in Table 2.19. As no violation of Q3 is detected in this initial calculation, the algorithm proceeds as usual (without any consideration of generation Q-limit violation) and repeats the same calculations as shown in Table 2.20. As there is still no violation in Q3 , the algorithm advances to 2nd iteration and the calculations at the end of 2nd iteration are shown in Table 2.24. At the end of 2nd iteration, it is found that the calculated value of Q3 is 0.6824 p.u. and as a result, this bus is now converted from a PV bus to a PQ bus. Hence, the PQ buses are now (4, 5, 3) and only bus 2 is retained as a PV bus. The corresponding calculated vectors Qcal , Vcal and M are shown in Table 2.24 along with the nal value of the mismatch quantity. As this nal value is still more than the tolerance, the algorithm enters the third iteration. 58

Table 2.20: Calculations at 1st iteration with NRLF (rectangular) in the 5 bus system

3.2417 1.8412 0 0 1.8412 4.2294 1.2584 1.1298 ; J1 = 0 1.2584 2.1921 0.9337 0 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047 2 0 0 0 J5 = ; 0 2 0 0

0 7.1309 10.5797 3.7348 J3 = ; 0 4.4768 3.7348 15.4091

13.0858 7.4835 J2 = 0 0

3.2417 1.8412 0 0 J= 0 0 2.000 0

e = 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9217 0.9525 ;

T

e = 0.0 0.0 0.0783 0.0475 ;

T

X = 0.0 0.0 0.0783 0.0475 0.0331 0.009 0.1275 0.0799 ;

T

1.8412 0 0 13.0858 7.4835 0 0 4.2294 1.2548 1.1298 7.4835 19.0911 7.1309 4.4768 1.2548 2.1921 0.9337 0 7.1309 10.8657 3.7348 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047 0 4.4768 3.7348 15.6951 ; 7.1309 10.5797 3.7348 0 1.2584 2.1921 0.9337 4.4768 3.7348 15.4091 0 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 f = 0 0.0331 0.009 0.1275 0.0799 ;
T T T

0 0 0 0 J6 = ; 0 0 0 0

0 1.2584 2.1921 0.9337 J4 = ; 0 1.1298 0.9337 3.9047

7.4835 0 0 19.0911 7.1309 4.4768 ; 7.1309 10.8657 3.7348 4.4768 3.7348 15.6951

f = 0.0331 0.009 0.1275 0.0799 ;

T

M = 0.0041 0.0056 0.0289 0.0188 0.1809 0.0795 0.0011 0.0001 ;

T

Qcal = 0.4191 0.3205 ;

Pcal = 0.5041 1.0056 1.1211 0.8312 ; error = 0.1809;

Vcal = 1.0011 1.0001 ;

T

In the third iteration the numbers of PQ buses is 3 and the number of PV buses is 1 and hence, the sizes of matrices J3 and J4 change to (3 4) and those of matrices J5 and J6 become (1 4). The sizes of the matrices J1 , J2 and J remain same as earlier. With this Jacobian matrix, the correction vector X is calculated and from this vector X , the vectors e and f are extracted. Subsequently, the vectors e and f are updated. It is found that Q3 still violates the limit and the mismatch is also found to be still more than the tolerance at the end of the third iteration. 59

Table 2.21: Final Results of the 5 bus system with NRLF (rectangular) with no generator Q limit Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 e f V Pinj Qinj (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1 0 1 0 0.56743 0.26505 0.99958 0.02893 1 1.65757 0.5 -0.18519 0.99987 -0.01592 1 -0.91206 1 0.68875 0.89634 -0.13157 0.90594 -8.35088 -1.15 -0.6 0.94034 -0.08272 0.94397 -5.02735 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 5

Table 2.22: Final Results of the 14 bus system with NRLF (rectangular) with no generator Q limit Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 e (p.u) 1.06 1.04075 1.0157 1.01604 1.02801 1.04455 0.99277 0.99427 0.99146 0.99207 1.01383 1.02382 1.01605 0.97979 f V (p.u) (p.u) (deg) 0 1.06 0 -0.09419 1.045 -5.17113 -0.26348 1.04932 -14.54246 -0.18634 1.03299 -10.39269 -0.15849 1.04015 -8.76418 -0.232 1.07 -12.52265 -0.23739 1.02076 -13.44781 -0.23818 1.0224 -13.47154 -0.24002 1.0201 -13.60908 -0.24176 1.0211 -13.69541 -0.23819 1.04144 -13.22158 -0.24445 1.0526 -13.42868 -0.24401 1.04494 -13.50388 -0.25524 1.01249 -14.60128 Total iteration = 5 (p.u) 2.37259 0.183 -1.19 -0.4779 -0.07599 0.112 0 0 -0.29499 -0.09 -0.03501 -0.06099 -0.135 -0.14901

Pinj

(p.u) -0.3308 -0.166 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.37278 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

All the relevant calculations pertaining to 3rd iteration are shown in Table 2.25. As the mismatch is still more than the tolerance limit, the algorithm proceeds and nally converges with 5 iterations. The nal results are shown in Table 2.26. Again the load ow solutions of the IEEE-14 bus and IEEE-30 bus system have been computed for the same generator reactive power limits as taken for GSLF and NRLF (polar) techniques. The nal solutions are shown in Tables 2.27 and 2.28 respectively. Again cross-check for yourself that the nal solution computed by this method are same as those computed by GSLF and NRLF (polar) techniques. We will now discuss the fast-decoupled load ow (FDLF) technique in the next lecture.

60

Table 2.23: Final Results of the 30 bus system with NRLF (rectangular) with no generator Q limit Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 e (p.u) 1.05 1.0299 1.02132 1.01147 0.97759 1.00126 0.97138 0.99849 1.0191 1.00129 1.07063 1.01854 1.06225 0.99956 0.99383 1.00288 0.99556 0.98129 0.97781 0.98263 0.98651 0.98691 0.97991 0.9712 0.96249 0.94313 0.96684 0.99764 0.94118 0.92532 f V Pinj Qinj (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 0 1.05 0 2.38673 -0.29842 -0.08973 1.0338 -4.97945 0.3586 -0.05698 -0.14293 1.03128 -7.96653 -0.024 -0.012 -0.17076 1.02578 -9.58235 -0.076 -0.016 -0.23652 1.0058 -13.60103 -0.6964 0.05042 -0.20376 1.02178 -11.50296 0 0 -0.24218 1.00111 -13.9994 -0.628 -0.109 -0.22261 1.023 -12.56853 -0.45 0.12343 -0.23604 1.04608 -13.04088 0 0 -0.26616 1.03606 -14.88589 -0.058 -0.02 -0.21138 1.0913 -11.16876 0.1793 0.24018 -0.24923 1.04859 -13.74947 -0.112 -0.075 -0.23668 1.0883 -12.56078 0.1691 0.31043 -0.26255 1.03346 -14.71704 -0.062 -0.016 -0.26383 1.02825 -14.86737 -0.082 -0.025 -0.25946 1.0359 -14.50539 -0.035 -0.018 -0.26644 1.0306 -14.98291 -0.09 -0.058 -0.27363 1.01873 -15.58107 -0.032 -0.009 -0.27689 1.01626 -15.81066 -0.095 -0.034 -0.27506 1.02041 -15.63819 -0.022 -0.007 -0.27098 1.02305 -15.35955 -0.175 -0.112 -0.27096 1.02343 -15.35222 0 0 -0.27028 1.0165 -15.41998 -0.032 -0.016 -0.27501 1.00939 -15.81043 -0.087 -0.067 -0.27308 1.00048 -15.84004 0 0 -0.27533 0.9825 -16.27422 -0.035 -0.023 -0.26987 1.00379 -15.59587 0 0 -0.21474 1.02049 -12.1474 0 0 -0.2855 0.98353 -16.87497 -0.024 -0.009 -0.29698 0.97181 -17.79427 -0.106 -0.019 Total iteration = 5

Table 2.24: Calculation at the end of 2nd iteration with NRLF (rectangular) in the 5 bus system for limit on Q3

M = 0.0 0.0016 0.0002 0.0 0.0056 0.0012 0.1824 0.0 ;

T

Qcal = 0.5944 0.3988 0.6824 ;

T

Pcal = 0.5000 1.0016 1.1502 0.8500 ;

T

Vcal = 1.0;

error = 0.1824;

61

Table 2.25: Calculations at 3rd iteration with NRLF (rectangular) in the 5 bus system with limit on

Q3 3.3566 1.6230 13.3023 0 0 1.9584 5.5167 1.3701 1.2000 7.4539 ; J2 = J1 = 0 0 2.0669 2.2170 1.3289 0 0 1.4328 1.1870 4.0987 0 0 6.2313 8.4978 3.2275 0 ; J4 = 0 4.1175 3.4358 13.8060 J3 = 7.4539 19.5569 7.1104 4.4586 1.9584 3.3566 1.9584 0 0 J= 0 0 7.4539 1.992 J5 = 1.9992 0 0 0 ; 7.5339 0 0 18.1609 7.1104 4.4586 ; 6.2313 10.1633 3.2275 4.1175 3.4358 14.8052 2.0669 4.5371 1.3289 1.4328 1.1870 5.8182; 3.5351 1.3701 1.2000

e = 0.0000 0.0171 0.0169 0.0095 ;

T

X = 0.0000 0.0171 0.0169 0.0095 0.0006 0.0047 0.0024 0.0015 ;

T

1.6230 0 0 13.3023 7.5339 0 0 5.5167 1.3701 1.2000 7.4539 18.1609 7.1104 4.4586 2.0669 2.2170 1.3289 0 6.2313 10.1633 3.2275 1.4328 1.1870 4.0987 0 4.1175 3.4358 14.8052 ; 6.2313 8.4978 3.2275 0 2.0669 4.5371 1.3289 4.1175 3.4358 13.8060 0 1.4328 1.1870 5.8182 19.5569 7.1104 4.4586 1.9584 3.5351 1.3701 1.2000 0 0 0 0.0581 0 0 0 e = 1.0 0.9996 0.9828 0.8801 0.9311 ;
T T

J6 = 0.0581 0 0 0;

f = 0.0006 0.0047 0.0024 0.0015 ;

T T

f = 0 0.0297 0.0109 0.1292 0.0812 ; Qcal = 0.5997 0.4000 0.5031 ;

T

Pcal = 0.4999 1.0005 1.1496 0.8499 ; error = 0.0031;

M = 0.0001 0.0005 0.0004 0.0001 0.0003 0.0000 0.0031 0.0000 ;

T

Vcal = 1.0 ;
T

62

Table 2.26: Final Results of the 5 bus system with NRLF (rectangular) with limit on Q3 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 e f V Pinj Qinj (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1 0 1 0 0.56979 0.33935 0.99956 0.02961 1 1.69679 0.5 -0.04769 0.98244 -0.01097 0.9825 -0.63991 1 0.5 0.87973 -0.12927 0.88918 -8.35906 -1.15 -0.6 0.93092 -0.08123 0.93445 -4.98675 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 5

Table 2.27: Final Results of the 14 bus system with NRLF (rectangular) with generator Q limits Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 e (p.u) 1.06 1.04073 1.01336 1.01224 1.0242 1.03013 0.9847 0.98582 0.98318 0.98261 1.00189 1.00965 1.00223 0.96883 f V (p.u) (p.u) (deg) 0 1.06 0 -0.09432 1.045 -5.17845 -0.26312 1.04697 -14.55556 -0.18505 1.02902 -10.35987 -0.15691 1.03615 -8.71027 -0.22759 1.05497 -12.45871 -0.23631 1.01266 -13.49478 -0.23701 1.01391 -13.5185 -0.23896 1.0118 -13.66101 -0.2402 1.01154 -13.73679 -0.23533 1.02915 -13.21814 -0.24037 1.03787 -13.39145 -0.24028 1.03063 -13.48166 -0.25317 1.00136 -14.64504 Total iteration = 8 (p.u) 2.37188 0.183 -1.19 -0.4779 -0.07599 0.112 0 0 -0.29499 -0.09 -0.03501 -0.06099 -0.135 -0.14901

Pinj

(p.u) -0.31249 -0.1066 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.3 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

63

Table 2.28: Final Results of the 30 bus system with NRLF (rectangular) with generator Q limits Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 e (p.u) 1.05 1.0299 1.02053 1.01051 0.97756 1.00036 0.97083 0.99845 1.01327 0.99655 1.05781 1.01458 1.05718 0.99547 0.98968 0.99856 0.99092 0.97686 0.97323 0.97802 0.98184 0.98228 0.97574 0.96705 0.95946 0.94003 0.96454 0.99677 0.93881 0.9229 f V Pinj Qinj (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 0 1.05 0 2.38676 -0.29389 -0.08977 1.0338 -4.98141 0.3586 -0.04555 -0.14263 1.03044 -7.95615 -0.024 -0.012 -0.17038 1.02477 -9.57038 -0.076 -0.016 -0.23666 1.0058 -13.6093 -0.6964 0.05533 -0.20342 1.02084 -11.49427 0 0 -0.24204 1.00055 -13.99903 -0.628 -0.109 -0.22276 1.023 -12.57695 -0.45 0.15116 -0.2345 1.04005 -13.0305 0 0 -0.26495 1.03117 -14.8887 -0.058 -0.02 -0.208 1.07807 -11.1244 0.1793 0.2 -0.24844 1.04456 -13.75943 -0.112 -0.075 -0.23554 1.08311 -12.56043 0.1691 0.3 -0.26178 1.02931 -14.73367 -0.062 -0.016 -0.26302 1.02403 -14.88301 -0.082 -0.025 -0.25851 1.03148 -14.51398 -0.035 -0.018 -0.26532 1.02583 -14.98919 -0.09 -0.058 -0.27271 1.01421 -15.59837 -0.032 -0.009 -0.2759 1.01159 -15.82733 -0.095 -0.034 -0.27402 1.01568 -15.65181 -0.022 -0.007 -0.26984 1.01825 -15.36745 -0.175 -0.112 -0.26983 1.01867 -15.36029 0 0 -0.26947 1.01226 -15.43846 -0.032 -0.016 -0.27419 1.00517 -15.82979 -0.087 -0.067 -0.27277 0.99748 -15.87039 0 0 -0.27501 0.97944 -16.30724 -0.035 -0.023 -0.26985 1.00158 -15.62998 0 0 -0.21448 1.01959 -12.14364 0 0 -0.2855 0.98126 -16.91488 -0.024 -0.009 -0.297 0.96951 -17.83848 -0.106 -0.019 Total iteration = 5

64

2.11

Fast-decoupled load-ow (FDLF) technique

An important and useful property of power system is that the change in real power is primarily governed by the charges in the voltage angles, but not in voltage magnitudes. On the other hand, the charges in the reactive power are primarily inuenced by the charges in voltage magnitudes, but not in the voltage angles. To see this, let us note the following facts: (a) Under normal steady state operation, the voltage magnitudes are all nearly equal to 1.0. (b) As the transmission lines are mostly reactive, the conductances are quite small as compared to the susceptance (Gij << Bij ). (c) Under normal steady state operation the angular di erences among the bus voltages are quite small (i j 0 (within 5o 10o )). (d) The injected reactive power at any bus is always much less than the reactive power consumed by the elements connected to this bus when these elements are shorted to the ground (Qi << Bii Vi2 ). With these facts at hand, let us re-visit the equations for Jacobian elements in Newton-Raphson (polar) method (equation (2.48) to (2.55)). From equations (2.50) and (2.51) we have,
n Pi = 2Vi Gii + Vk Yik cos(i k ik ) Vj k=1 i n k=1 i n k=1 i

= 2Vi Gii + Vk Yik [cos(i k ) cos ik + sin(i k ) sin ik ] = 2Vi Gii + Vk [Gik cos(i k ) + Bik sin(i k )] ; j=i

(2.74)

Pi = Vi Yij cos(i j ij ) Vj = Vi Yij [cos(i j ) cos ij + sin(i j ) sin ij ] = Vi [Gij cos(i j ) + Bij sin(i j )] ; Pi Pi 0 and 0 Vi Vj J2 0 ji

(2.75)

Now, Gii and Gij are quite small and negligible and also cos(i j ) 1 and sin(i j ) 0, as [(i j ) 0]. Hence, (2.76) Similarly, from equations (2.52) and (2.53) we get,

n Qi = Vi Vk [Gik cos(i k ) + Bik sin(i k )] ; j k = 1

Qi = Vi Vj [Gij cos(i j ) + Bij sin(i j )] ; j

65

j=i ji

(2.77)

(2.78)

Again in light of the natures of the quantities Gii , Gij and (i j ) as discussed above,

Qi Qi 0 and 0 i j

J3 0

(2.79)

Substituting equations (2.76) and (2.79) into equation (2.40) one can get,

P J1 0 = Q 0 J4 V

(2.80)

In other words, P depends only on and Q depends only on V . Thus, there is a decoupling between P - and Q - V relations. Now, from equations (2.48) and (2.49) we get,
n Pi = Vi Vk Yik sin(i k ik ); j k=1 i n

Pi = Vi Vj Yij sin(i j ij ); j i j = Vi Vj Yij [sin(i j ) cos ij cos(i j ) sin ij ] ; = Vi Vj [Gij sin(i j ) Bij cos(i j )] ; = Vi Vj Bij ; ji ji

= Bii Vi2 Qi Bii Vi2 ;

= Vi Vi Yii sin(i i ii ) Vi Vk Yik sin(i k ik ); j=i

k=1

j=i

[as Qi << Bii Vi2 ]

j=i

(2.81)

ji

(2.82)

Similarly, from equations (2.54) and (2.55) we get,

n Qi = 2Vi Bii + Vk Yik sin(i k ik ); Vj k=1 i n i

or, or,

Qi Vi = Vi2 Bii + Vi Vk Yik sin(i k ik ) = Qi Vi2 Bii ; Vj k=1 Qi or, Vi = Vi2 Bii ; j = i [as Qi << Bii Vi2 ] Vj Qi or, = Vi Bii ; j = i Vj
n

Qi Vi = 2Vi2 Bii + Vi Vk Yik sin(i k ik ); Vj k=1

j=i

j=i

j=i
(2.83)

66

Qi = Vi Yij sin(i j ij ); j i Vj = Vi Yij [sin(i j ) cos ij cos(i j ) sin ij ] ; = Vi [Gij sin(i j ) Bij cos(i j )] ; Vi Bij ; ji
n k=1

ji

ji

(2.84)

Combining equations (2.80)-(2.82) we get,

Now, as Vi 1.0 under normal steady state operating condition, equation (2.85) reduces to,
n Pi = Bik k . Vi k=1

n Pi = Vk Bik k Vi k=1

Pi = Vi Vk Bik k . Or,

(2.85)

Or,

P = [B] V

Or,

Matrix B is a constant matrix having a dimension of (n 1) (n 1). Its elements are the negative of the imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i = 2, 3, n and k = 2, 3, n. Again combining equations (2.80), (2.83) and (2.84) we get,

P = B V

(2.86)

Qi = Vi Bik Vk .
n k=1

Or,

n Qi = Bik Vk . Vi k=1

Or,

Again, [B ] is also a constant matrix having a dimension of (n m) (n m). Its elements are the negative of the imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i = (m + 1), (m + 2), n and k = (m + 1), (m + 2), n. As the matrixes [B ] and [B ] are constant, it is not necessary to invert these matrices in each iteration. Rather, the inverse of these matrices can be stored and used in every iteration, thereby making the algorithm faster. Further simplication in the FDLF algorithm can be made by,

Q = B V

(2.87)

b. Omitting from [B ] the angle shifting e ect of phase shifter, which predominantly a ects real power ow.

a. Ignoring the series resistances is calculating the elements of [B ]. Also, by omitting the elements of [B ] that predominantly a ect reactive power ows, i.e., shunt reactances and transformer o nominal in phase taps.

In the next lecture, we will look at an example of FDLF method. 67

2.11.1

Example for Fast-decoupled load-ow technique

As an example, the 5 bus system described earlier is considered again. Starting from the at start, the initial calculations are shown in Table 2.29. As the mismatch is more than the tolerance, the algorithm proceeds. The YBUS matrix of this system is shown in Table 2.30. In this table, the notation YBUS (, m n) represents the elements (of the YBUS matrix) corresponding to all rows (denoted by the notation :) and columns spanning from mth column to nth column (denoted by the notation m:n). From this YBUS matrix, the matrices [B ] and [B ] are constructed as shown in Table 2.30. Note that the size of the matrix [B ] is (4 4) (corresponding to the non slack buses, i.e. 2, 3, 4 and 5) and the size of the [B ] matrix is (2 2) (corresponding to the PV buses 4 and 5). Also note that the matrices [B ] and [B ] have been formed by taking the negative of the imaginary parts of the corresponding elements of the YBUS matrix. With these constant matrices, the vectors and V are calculated and subsequently, the vectors and V have been updated. With these updated values of and V, the nal mismatch (error) is again calculated as shown in Table 2.30. As the error is still more than the tolerance, the algorithm proceeds further and nally converges in 19 iterations for a tolerance value of 1012 p.u. The nal solution is shown in Table 2.31, which happens to be the same as the results obtained by the other methods described earlier.

Table 2.29: Initial calculation with FDLF in the 5 bus system

Pcal = 0.0444 0.1776 0.0333 0.0444 1014 ;

T

M = 0.5000 1.0000 1.1500 0.8500 0.4570 0.2570 ;

T

error = 1.15 ;

Qcal = 0.1430 0.1430 ;

T

Now, let us impose the reactive power limit on the generation at bus 3. Starting from the at start, the calculation up to 1st iteration are same and hence are not shown here. The calculation pertaining to 2nd iteration are shown in Table 2.32. From this set, observe that the calculated value of Q3 has exceeded the limit of 50 MVAR and hence it should be now treated as PQ-bus. Thus, the dimension of the matrix [B ] increases to (3 3) (corresponding to the buses 4, 5 and 3). This new, augmented matrix is shown in Table 2.33. With these [B ] and [B ] matrices ([B ] matrix remains the same), the calculations are further carried out and the algorithm converges in 20 iterations. The nal solution is shown in Table 2.31. Comparison of this result with the earlier results (obtained with other methods) shows that because of the approximations made in FDLF, the results obtained with FDLF are not identically the same with those obtained by the other methods but are very close. The results corresponding to 14-bus and 30-bus systems are shown in Tables 2.34 and 2.35 respectively. From these tables note that the number of iterations taken by FDLF is much higher than those required by NRLF. This is because of approximations adopted by FDLF (to achieve decoupling) due to which, the convergence is slower. However, because of the constant Jacobrian matrices, the 68

Table 2.30: Calculations at 1st iteration with FDLF in the 5 bus system

3.2417 13.0138i 1.4006 + 5.6022i 0 1.4006 + 5.6022i 3.2417 13.0138i 1.8412 + 7.4835i BUS (, 1 3) = 0 1.8412 + 7.4835i 4.2294 18.9271i ; Y 0 0 1.2584 + 7.1309i 1.8412 + 7.4835i 0 1.1298 + 4.4768i 0 1.8412 + 7.4835i 0 0 YBUS (, 4 5) = 1.2584 + 7.1309i 1.1298 + 4.4768i; 2.1921 10.7227i 0.9337 + 3.7348i 0.9337 + 3.7348i 3.9047 15.5521i 13.0138 7.4835 0 0 7.4835 18.9271 7.1309 4.4768 10.7227 3.7348 ; [B ] = [B ] = ; 0 7.1309 10.7227 3.7348 3.7348 15.5521 0 4.4768 3.7348 15.5521 = 0.0306 0.0136 0.1492 0.0944 ;
T

= 0 0.0306 0.0136 0.1492 0.0944 ;

T

V = 0.0528 0.0292 ;
T T

Pcal = 0.5045 1.0488 1.1725 0.8975 ;

T

V = 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9472 0.9708 ; error = 0.3069;

M = 0.0045 0.0488 0.0225 0.0475 0.3069 0.2733 ;

T

Qcal = 0.2931 0.1267 ;

T

execution of each iteration is much faster (as the Jacobrian matrix need not be recomputed and reversed at each iteration) and hence, the total time taken by FDLF is quiet comparable to that needed by NRLF. From the two tables it is further noted that, in the absence of any generation reactive power limit, the results obtained by FDLF are almost identical to those obtained by other methods. However, in the presence of generation reactive power limits, FDLF results are quiet close to the results obtained by other methods, though not identical. We are now at the end of our discussion of AC load ow techniques. In the next lecture, we will study the method of load ow analysis of an AC system in which a HVDC link is also embedded (namely, the AC-DC load ow technique).

69

Table 2.31: Final Results of the 5 bus system with FDLF Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.56743 0.26505 1.0 0 0.56985 0.34069 1.0 1.65757 0.5 -0.18519 1.0 1.69742 0.5 -0.04522 1.0 -0.91206 1.0 0.68875 0.98219 -0.63507 1.0 0.49668 0.90594 -8.35088 -1.15 -0.6 0.88888 -8.35938 -1.15 -0.6 0.94397 -5.02735 -0.85 -0.4 0.93428 -4.9861 -0.85 -0.4 Total iteration = 19 Total iteration = 20

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

With generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

Table 2.32: Calculations at 2nd iteration with FDLF in the 5 bus system with limit on Q3

= 0.0010 0.0012 0.0026 0.0034 ;

T

= 0 0.0296 0.0148 0.1465 0.0910 ;

T

V = 0.0399 0.0277 ;
T T

Pcal = 0.4999 1.0353 1.1526 0.9012 ;

T

V = 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9074 0.9431 ; error = 0.1775;

M = 0.0001 0.0353 0.0026 0.0512 0.0170 0.0020 0.1775 ;

T

Qcal = 0.5830 0.4020 0.6775 ;

T

70

Table 2.33: Calculations at 3rd iteration with FDLF in the 5 bus system with limit on Q3

13.0138 7.4835 [B ] = 0 0

= 0.0006 0.0010 0.0008 0.0034 ;

T

7.4835 0 0 18.9271 7.1309 4.4768 ; 7.1309 10.7227 3.7348 4.4768 3.7348 15.5521

10.7227 3.7348 7.1309 3.7348 15.5521 4.4768; [B ] = 7.1309 4.4768 18.9271 V = 0.0167 0.0090 0.0178 ;
T T T

= 0 0.0290 0.0157 0.1457 0.0875 ; V = 1.0 1.0 0.9822 0.8906 0.9341 ;

T

Pcal = 0.5268 0.9223 1.1174 0.8408 ;

M = 0.0268 0.0777 0.0326 0.0092 0.0061 0.0125 ;

T

Qcal = 0.5939 0.4125 ;

T

error = 0.0777;

Table 2.34: Final Results of the 14 bus system with FDLF Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

(p.u) 1.06 1.045 1.04932 1.03299 1.04015 1.07 1.02076 1.0224 1.0201 1.0211 1.04144 1.0526 1.04494 1.01249

Without generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.37259 -5.17113 0.183 -14.54246 -1.19 -10.39269 -0.4779 -8.76418 -0.07599 -12.52265 0.112 -13.44781 0 -13.47154 0 -13.60908 -0.29499 -13.69541 -0.09 -13.22158 -0.03501 -13.42868 -0.06099 -13.50388 -0.135 -14.60128 -0.14901 Total iteration = 123

Pinj

(p.u) -0.3308 -0.166 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.37278 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

(p.u) 1.06 1.045 1.04697 1.02902 1.03615 1.05497 1.01266 1.01391 1.0118 1.01154 1.02915 1.03787 1.03063 1.00136

With generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.37188 -5.17845 0.183 -14.55556 -1.19 -10.35987 -0.4779 -8.71026 -0.07599 -12.4587 0.112 -13.49478 0 -13.5185 0 -13.66102 -0.29499 -13.73679 -0.09 -13.21814 -0.03501 -13.39144 -0.06099 -13.48166 -0.135 -14.64504 -0.14901 Total iteration = 119

Pinj

(p.u) -0.31249 -0.1066 -0.08762 -0.039 -0.01599 0.29999 0 -0.129 -0.16599 -0.05799 -0.018 -0.01599 -0.05799 -0.05001

Qinj

71

Table 2.35: Final Results of the 30 bus system with FDLF Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(p.u) 1.05 1.0338 1.03128 1.02578 1.005 8 1.02178 1.00111 1.023 1.04608 1.03606 1.0913 1.04859 1.0883 1.03346 1.02825 1.0359 1.0306 1.01873 1.01626 1.02041 1.02305 1.02343 1.0165 1.00939 1.00048 0.9825 1.00379 1.02049 0.98353 0.97181

Without generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.38673 -4.97945 0.3586 -7.96653 -0.024 -9.58235 -0.076 -13.60103 -0.6964 -11.50296 0 -13.9994 -0.628 -12.56853 -0.45 -13.04088 0 -14.88589 -0.058 -11.16876 0.1793 -13.74947 -0.112 -12.56078 0.1691 -14.71704 -0.062 -14.86737 -0.082 -14.50539 -0.035 -14.98291 -0.09 -15.58107 -0.032 -15.81066 -0.095 -15.63819 -0.022 -15.35955 -0.175 -15.35222 0 -15.41998 -0.032 -15.81043 -0.087 -15.84004 0 -16.27422 -0.035 -15.59587 0 -12.1474 0 -16.87497 -0.024 -17.79427 -0.106 Total iteration = 115

Pinj

(p.u) -0.29842 -0.05698 -0.012 -0.016 0.05042 0 -0.109 0.12343 0 -0.02 0.24018 -0.075 0.31043 -0.016 -0.025 -0.018 -0.058 -0.009 -0.034 -0.007 -0.112 0 -0.016 -0.067 0 -0.023 0 0 -0.009 -0.019

Qinj

(p.u) 1.05 1.0338 1.03026 1.02455 1.0058 1.0206 1.00041 1.023 1.03842 1.02995 1.07426 1.04384 1.0824 1.02853 1.0232 1.03054 1.02469 1.01323 1.01052 1.01457 1.01706 1.0175 1.01136 1.00418 0.99677 0.97872 1.00105 1.01937 0.98073 0.96897

With generator Q limit (deg) (p.u) 0 2.38678 -4.98182 0.3586 -7.95403 -0.024 -9.56795 -0.076 -13.6111 -0.6964 -11.49172 0 -13.9986 -0.628 -12.5786 -0.45 -13.02612 0 -14.88705 -0.058 -11.11026 0.1793 -13.76458 -0.112 -12.56395 0.1691 -14.73984 -0.062 -14.88791 -0.082 -14.51633 -0.035 -14.98908 -0.09 -15.60231 -0.032 -15.83038 -0.095 -15.65374 -0.022 -15.36723 -0.175 -15.36018 0 -15.44311 -0.032 -15.83356 -0.087 -15.87684 0 -16.31432 -0.035 -15.63737 0 -12.14228 0 -16.92364 -0.024 -17.84827 -0.106 Total iteration = 112

Pinj

(p.u) -0.29289 -0.0429 -0.012 -0.016 0.05654 0 -0.109 0.15797 0 -0.02 0.18809 -0.075 0.29991 -0.016 -0.025 -0.018 -0.058 -0.009 -0.034 -0.007 -0.112 0 -0.016 -0.067 0 -0.023 0 0 -0.009 -0.019

Qinj

72

2.12

A.C.-D.C. LOAD FLOW

For solving the load ow problem of an A.C. system in which one or more HVDC links are present, either of the following two approaches are followed; a. Simultaneous solution technique b. Sequential solution technique In simultaneous solution technique, the equations pertaining to the A.C. system and the equations pertaining to the DC system are solved together. In the sequential method, the AC and DC systems are solved separately and the coupling between the AC and DC system in accomplished by injecting an equivalent amount of real and reactive power at the terminal AC buses. In other words, for an HVDC link existing between buses i and j of an AC system (rectier at bus i and inverter at bus j), the e ect of the DC link in incorporated into the AC system by injections (R) (I) PDCi and Q(R) at the rectier bus i and PDCj and Q(I) at bus j (the super scripts R and DCi DCj I denote the rectier and inverter respectively). Therefore the net injected power at bus i and (R) (R) (I) (I) j are: Pitotal = PACi + PDCi ; QT otal = QACi + QDCi ; PjT otal = PACj + PDCj ; QT otal = QACj + QDCj . i j With these net injected powers the AC system is again solved and subsequently, the equivalent in(R) (R) (I) (I) jected powers (PDCi , QDCi , PDCj , QDCi ) and the total injected powers (PiT otal , QT otal , PjT otal , QT otal ) i j are updated. This process of alternately solving AC and DC system quantities is continued till the changes in AC system and DC system quantities between two consecutive iterations become less then a threshold value. Although simultaneous technique gives the solution of the system without any to and fro switching between the AC and DC systems, the sequential solution technique is actually quite easy to implement as we will see later. Now let as look at the equations of the DC system.

2.12.1

DC system model

For deriving a suitable model of a HVDC system for steady state operation, few basic assumptions are adopted as described below; a. The three A.C. voltages at the terminal bus bar are balanced and sinusoidal. b. The converter operation is perfectly balanced. c. The direct current and voltages are smooth. d. The converter transformer is lossless and the magnetizing admittance is ignored.

With the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of the converter (either rectier or inverter) is shown in Fig. 2.18. In this gure, the notations are as follows; 73

Figure 2.18: Equivalent circuit of the converter under the steady state operation

Vt t a Es s Ip , Is Vd , Id

It is to be noted that in Fig. 2.18, the angles are referred to the common reference of the entire AC-DC system. With the above notations, the basic equation governing the HVDC systems are as follow: For rectier

Magnitude and angle of the terminal bus bar of the converter Converter transformer tap ratio Magnitude and angle of the secondary side of the converter transformer Primary and secondary current of the converter transformer respectively DC voltage and DC current respectively

3 2 Vdr = Nr ar Etr cos r = Vdor cos r 3 Vdr = Vdor cos Xcr Nr Id

(2.88) (2.89)

For inverter

3 2 Vdi = Ni ai Eti cos i = Vdoi cos i 3 Vdi = Vdoi cos Xci Ni Id

(2.90) (2.91)

In the above equations, the subscripts r and i denote the rectier and inverter side respectively. The quantity N denotes the number of six-pulse bridges at any partienlar side and the angle denotes the angular di erence between the terminal voltages and primary current of the transformer, i.e. the power factor of the converter as seen by the AC bus. Xc denotes the commutating reactance of the converter transformer and the angles and denote the ring angle of the rectier and the extinction angle of the inverter respectively. 74

The rectie and the inverter are interconnected though the following equation:

In equation (2.92), the quantity Rd denotes the DC link resistance. Equations (2.88)-(2.92) describe the operation of a two-terminal HVDC link. Now, as the basic objective of a HVDC link is to provide complete controllability of power over a transmission corridor, both the recties and the inverter stations are suitably controlled and thus, suitable control equations also need to be incorporated in the above model. We will discuss these control equations shortly. However, to solve the above equations, appropriate solution variables must be chosen. Now, for the reason of simplicity, following set of solution variables is chosen for each converter;

Vdr Vdi = Id Rd

(2.92)

Therefore, for a two terminal HVDC link, the complete set of solution vector is;

x = Vd Id a cos

(2.93)

In equation (2.94), Id has been taken only once as the DC current is same at both the ends. From equation (2.94) it is observed that there are total 9 unknown variables which need to be solved to completely determine the HVDC link. However, we have only 5 independent equations as shown in equations (2.88)-(2.92). Therefore, out of 9 unknown variables, any 4 variables need to be specied and thereafter, remaining 5 variables can be solved using equations (2.88)-(2.92). These 4 variables can be specied using the control specication. There can be several combinations of control specication and some of their combination are; i) , Pdr , , Vdi ; iii) ar , Pdr , ai , Vdi ; v) ar , Pdr , , ai ; vii) , Id , , Vdi ; ii) , Pdr , ai , Vdi ; iv) ar , Pdr , , Vdi ; vi) ar , Pdr , , ; viiii) , Vdr , , Pdi ;

xc = Vdr Vdi Id ar ai cos cos r i

(2.94)

With any of these four specied control values, the remaining 5 variables can be solved from equations (2.88)-(2.92) by using standard Newton-Raphoson technique. However, for the sequential (R) (R) (I) (I) solution techniques, the quantities PDci , QDci , PDcj and QDcj can be competed in a much easier way by algebraic manipulation of equations (2.88)-(2.92). we will show this procedure by two of the eight combinations listed above.

75

Combination 1

In this case, , Pdr , and Vdi are specied. With these known quantities, the calculation procedure is as follows: Step 1: We know, Pdr = Vdr Id .
2 Or, Vdr Vdr Vdi Rd Pdr = 0.

Or, Pdr =

Or,

Vdr =

Vdi

2 Vdi + 4Rd Pdr 2

Vdr (Vdr Vdi ) (from equation (2.92)). Rd

(2.95)

From equation (2.95), two values of Vdr are obtained. Out of these two values, the value of Vdr which is greater than Vdi is chosen, i.e.

Step 2: Id is calculated as,

1 2 Vdr = (Vdi + Vdi + 4Rd Pdr ) 2 Id = Pdr Vdr

(2.96)

(2.97)

Step 3: Using equation (2.89), Vdor is calculated as,

Step 4: Using equation (2.88), ar and cos

3 Vdr + Xcr Nr Id Vdor = cos

r

(2.98)

are calculated as,

cos

Vdor ar = 3 2Nr Etr

Vdr Vdor

(2.99) (2.100)

In equation (2.100) Etr is known as in the sequential solution method, the terminal voltages are known from the immediate past solution of the AC system equations. (R) (R) Step 5: The quantities PDCi and QDCi are calculated as;
(R) PDCi = Pdr

and

Step 6: From equation (2.91), Vdoi is calculated as,

Q(R) = Pdr tan r DCi

(2.101)

3 Vdi + Xci Ni Id Vdoi = cos

76

(2.102)

Step 7: Using equation (2.90), ai and cos

are calculated as,

Step 8: The quantities PDCj and QDCj are calculated as,

(I) PDCj = Vdi Id (R) (R)

(I)

(I)

Vdoi ai = 3 2Ni Eti

and

cos i =

Vdi Vdoi

(2.103) (2.104)

With these values of PDCi , QDCi , PDCj and QDCj , the AC system equations are again solved to obtain the updated values of Etr and Eti and subsequently, steps (1)-(8) are repeated again to (R) (R) (I) (I) update the values of PDCi , QDCi , PDCj and QDCj . This alternate process of solving AC and DC system equations are repeated till convergence in obtained. Combination 8 In this case, , , Pdi and Vdr are known. With these known quantities, the calculation procedure is as follows:
2 Vdr Vdi Vdi Vdr Vdi Step 1: We know Pdi = Vdi Id = Vdi = . Rd Rd 2 Or, Vdi + Rd Pdi Vdi Vdr = 0. Or,

(I)

(I)

(I) Q(I) = PDCj tan i DCj

(2.105)

From the two values of Vdi in equation (2.106), the nal value of Vdi is calculated as,

Vdi =

Vdr

2 Vdr 4Rd Pdi 2

(2.106)

Step 2: Id is calculated as,

1 2 Vdi = (Vdr + Vdr 4Rd Pdi ) 2 Id = Pdi Vdi

(2.107)

(2.108)

With these calculated values of Vdi and Id , steps (3)-(8) of combination-1 are followed to calculate (R) the Equivalent power injection values, where PDCi = Vdr Id . With these injected power values, the AC and DC systems are continued to be solved alternately till convergence in achieved. It is to be (R) R noted that at the rectier end, P(DCi) = Pdr and QDCi = Qdr as the rectier draws both real and
I reactive power from the grid. On the other hand, at the inverter end, P(DCj) = Pdi and QDCj = Qdi as the inverter supplies real power to the AC grid and draws reactive power from the AC grid. In the next lecture, we will look at an example of AC-DC load ow method. (I)

77

2.12.2

Example for A.C-D.C load ow

To illustrate the application of the above procedure, let us rst consider the 5-bus system. In this system, it is now assumed that one bipolar HVDC link is connected between bus 4 and 5 (rectier at bus 4 and inverter at bus 5). Other relevant data for this link are as follows; Rd = 10.0 ;

Nr = Ni = 2;

taken according to combination 1 and the values are as follows: Combination-1

3 3 Xcr = Xci = 6.0 . Further, let us also assume that the specied values have been

With the above specication, the calculation procedure for the DC system is as follows. Initially, the at start is assumed for all the buses in the system. Therefore, V4 = V5 = 1.0 p.u. Let us also assume that the base voltage of the AC system is 132 kV. Now, before commencing the AC load ow, the equivalent power injections (both real and reactive) at buses 4 and 5 need to be calculated. For this purpose, equations (2.95) - (2.105) are used to calculate the values of di erent DC variables as follows: Vdr = 253.938 kV; id = 393.8 Amp.; Qdr = 16.276 MVAR; Pdi = 98.45 MW; Qdi = 35.024 MVAR. Now, let us look at equations (2.95) - (2.105) more closely. Equations (2.96) - (2.99) show that the quantities Vdr , id , Vdor and cos r depend only on the DC system data. As the DC system data are constant, the calculatd values of these four quantities would also be constant (i.e. their values would not change from iteration to iteration). Similarly, from equations (2.102) and (2.103) it can be seen that the quantities Vdoi and cos i are also constant. As cos r and cos i are constant, (R) (I) from equations (2.101) and (2.105), QDCi and QDCj are also constant. Thus, the equivalent real and reactive power injections at buses 4 and 5 are constant (they need not be updated at every iteration) and hence these values can be pre-calculated and suitably adjusted into the injected real and reactive powers at buses 4 and 5 before solving the AC system equations. Thus, for the example at hand, the net injected real and reactive powers at bus 4 and bus 5 can be calculated as follows; P4 = 1.15 1.0 = 2.15 p.u., Q4 = 0.6 0.16276 = 0.76276 p.u., P5 = 0.85 + 0.9845 = 0.1345 p.u. and Q5 = 0.4 0.35024 = 0.75024 p.u. With these net injected real and reactive powers, the load ow solution of the AC system is computed and the nal solution is shown in Table 2.36. It is to be noted that in Table 2.36, it has been assumed that no violation of reactive power limit has taken place for any of the generators. After the nal solution of voltage magnitudes is obtained, the quantities ar and ai can be calculated from equations (2.100) and (2.104) as ar = 0.8714 and ai = 0.8149. Please note that in these two equations, the quantities Etr and Eti should be taken in actual values (i.e. in kV), not in per unit. Let us now turn our attention to combination 8. Following the same reasonong as described above, from equations (2.107) - (2.108) it can be observed that the quantities Vdi and Id are constant. Moreover, as steps (3)-(8) of combination 8 are same as in combination 1, it immediately follows that for combination 8 also, the equivalent real and reactive power injections (representing 78

= 5o , Pdr = 100 MW; = 18o , Vdi = 250 kV

Table 2.36: Final Results of AC-DC load ow of 5 bus system without any generator Q limit violation Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.68984 0.46301 1.0 -0.63995 0.5 -0.17235 1.0 -4.91128 1.0 1.54134 0.82813 -17.48682 -2.15 -0.76277 0.91332 -3.89028 0.13449 -0.75025 Total iteration = 5

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

Qinj

the DC system) are constant. Therefore, by pre-calculating these equivalent power injections and subsequently incorporating these calculated values into net bus power injections, standard AC load ow solution can be computed to obtain the solution of the composite AC-DC system. From the above discussion regarding combination 1 and 8, it may appear that the equivalent real and reactive power injections (representing the DC system) are always constant for any combination of the specied control variables. However, this is not true. Depending on the specied control variables, the equivalent real and reactive power injections may vary from iteration to iteration and therefore, they need to be calculated in every iteration. As an example, let us consider combination 3. For this combination, the various steps are as follows: Step 1: Initialise all the bus voltages with at start. Hence, Etr and Eti are known. Step 2: From the specied values of Pdr and Vdi , calculate Vdr and Id using equations (2.96) and (2.97) respectively. Step 3: Calculate Vdor from equation (2.100). Step 4: Calculate cos and cos r using equations (2.98) and (2.99) respectively. (R) Step 5: From the knowledge of Pdr and cos r , calculate QDCi using equation (2.101). Step 6: Calculate Vdoi from equation (2.104). Step 7: Calculate cos and cos i using equations (2.102) and (2.103) respectively. (I) (I) Step 8: Calculate PDCj and QDCj from equation (2.105). Please note that in steps 3-5, the quantities Vdor , cos r and QDCi are all dependent on the (I) rectier side AC bus voltage, Etr . Similarly, in steps 6-8, the quantities Vdoi , cos i and QDCj are all (I) dependent on the inverter side AC bus voltage, Eti . The quantity PDCj however, depends only on the DC system quantities and hence remain constant. Thus, the equivalent reactive power injections at both rectier and inverter side depend on the AC bus voltage magnitudes (although the equivalent real power injections at both the sides are independent of AC bus voltage magnitudes). Hence, the equivalent reactive power injections need to be updated at each iteration and with these updated power injection values, another iteration of AC load ow is carried out. This process is continued till convergence is achieved. To illustrate this procedure further, let us assume that the specied values corresponding to combination 3 are as follows: 79
(R)

From the information of Pdr and Vdi , the quantities Pdi and Id are calculated as; Pdi = 98.45 MW and Id = 393.8 Amp. The calculated values for di erent other DC quantities corresponding to rst 3 iterations are shown in Table 2.37. In this table, the symbols In and MM denote iteration number and mismatch respectively. Proceeding in this fashion, the algorithm nally converges in 70 iterations with a convergence threshold value of 1.0e12 . The nal converged values of di erent (R) DC quantities are as follows: Vdr = 253.938 kV; = 19.82o ; = 34.84o ; QDCi = 41.52 MVAR; Q(I) = 72.44 MVAR. The nal converged values of the AC system quantities are shown in Table DCj 2.38. Note that, as in the case of Table 2.36, in this case also, no generator reactive power violation has been assumed. Table 2.37: Calculated DC quantities for rst three iterations in 5 bus system

ar = 1.0; Pdr = 100 MW; ai = 1.0; Vdi = 250 kV

In 0 1 2

(p.u.) (p.u.) (kV) (rad.) (MVAR) (deg.) (kV) (rad.) (MVAR) 1.0 1.0 356.52 0.778 98.54 43.48 356.52 0.7937 100.09 0.7843 0.8731 279.63 0.432 46.11 22.33 311.29 0.638 73.04 0.7682 0.8703 273.91 0.3842 40.43 19.20 310.29 0.634 72.37

V4

V5

Vdor

Q(R) DCi

Vdoi

Q(I) DCj

MM (deg.) 44.4 2.15 35.08 0.5578 34.82 0.038

Table 2.38: Final Results of AC-DC load ow of 5 bus system for combination 3 without any generator Q limit violation Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5

(p.u) (deg) (p.u) 1.0 0 0.75382 1.0 -0.99374 0.5 1.0 -5.52481 1.0 0.82813 -18.69153 -2.15 0.91332 -3.65137 0.13449 Total iteration = 70

Without generator Q limit

Pinj

(p.u) 0.78420 -0.16893 2.17338 -1.01522 -1.12440

Qinj

For further illustration, let us now consider the 30-bus system. In this system, it is now assumed that one bipolar HVDC link is connected between bus 9 and 28 (rectier at bus 9 and inverter at bus 28). Other relevant data for this link are as follows; Rd = 10.0 Combination-1 80 The load ow has been solved for combination-1, combination-3 and combination-8 (of specied quantities). The specied values which have been considered are as follows; ; Nr = Ni = 2;

3 3 Xcr = Xci = 6.0 .

Combination-3

= 5o ; Pdr = 100 MW; = 18o ; Vdi = 250 kV ar = 0.75; Pdr = 100 MW; ai = 0.75; Vdi = 250 kV = 5o ; Pdi = 100 MW; = 18o ; Vdr = 250 kV

Combination-8

The results of the 30-bus system for combination 1 and 8 are shown in Table 2.39 for a tolerance of 1012 p.u. Furthermore, the results corresponding to combination 3 are shown in Table 2.40. It is to be noted that for these results, no reactive power limit on the generators have been considered. The nal solutions of corresponding DC system quantities are also shown in these tables for these three cases. Comparison of Tables 2.18, 2.39 and 2.40 shows that because of the reactive power absorption at both bus 9 and 28, the overall voltage prole of the system is lower in the presence of HVDC link. Moreover, when the equivalent injected real and reactive powers are constant (i.e. do not vary from iteration to iteration), the number of iterations taken by the algorithm is quiet comparable with that taken by the normal NRLF (polar) method (without any HVDC link). However, when these equivalent injected powers vary from iteration to iteration, the number of iterations taken by the sequential algorithm is appreciably more as compared that taken by the normal NRLF (polar) method (without any HVDC link). In the above, the detail calculation procedures for three combinations (1, 3 and 8) have been shown. For the remaining combinations, the DC quantities can be calculated following the procedure of either combination 1 or combination 3 and thus, these are not detailed here. Let us now turn our attention to simultaneous techniques. As discussed earlier, in the simultaneous technique, the AC and DC system equations are solved together. Now, in a N-bus, M-generator power system having a HVDC link between lens k and l (bus k being the rectier and bus l being the inverter), the total number of unknown are (N 1) + (N M ) + 5 = 2N M + 4. To solve these unknowns, we also have (N 1) + (N M ) + 5 = 2N M + 4 equations. Therefore the size of Jacobrian matrix would be (2N M +4)(2N M +4), as compared to the (2N M 1)(2N M 1) Jacobrian matrix of the AC system. The additional 5 rows and 5 columns pertain to the DC equations which need to be evaluated in each iteration. Also, the Jacobian matrix also needs to be inverted in each iteration, thereby increasing the computation burden appreciably. Apart from that, depending upon the combination of specied quantities, the DC equations [(2.88)-(2.92)] need to be recasted appropriately before starting the solution procedure. Therefore, the simultaneous solution technique does not give any computational advantage vis--vis the sequential method and thus, this method is not further discussed here. 81

Table 2.39: Results of the 30 bus system with a bipolar HVDC link between bus 9 and 28 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(p.u) 1.05 1.0338 1.02345 1.01637 1.0058 1.01055 0.99437 1.023 1.01796 1.00713 1.0913 1.04132 1.0883 1.02408 1.01562 1.01841 1.00471 0.99979 0.9938 0.99623 0.99497 0.99578 1.00064 0.98942 0.98869 0.97048 0.99711 1.00723 0.97669 0.96489

With combination 1

(deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) 0 2.42039 -0.26099 1.05 0 2.42229 -0.26023 -5.0387 0.3586 0.06523 1.0338 -5.04273 0.3586 0.06857 -8.08233 -0.024 -0.012 1.02325 -8.08809 -0.024 -0.012 -9.72937 -0.076 -0.016 1.01613 -9.73654 -0.076 -0.016 -13.69708 -0.6964 0.10883 1.0058 -13.70427 -0.6964 0.11036 -11.35395 0 0 1.01026 -11.35703 0 0 -13.96765 -0.628 -0.109 0.99419 -13.97288 -0.628 -0.109 -12.18127 -0.45 0.47454 1.023 -12.18265 -0.45 0.48393 -20.00269 -1 -0.16277 1.01711 -20.13217 -1.01653 -0.16832 -19.52942 -0.058 -0.02 1.00633 -19.6175 -0.058 -0.02 -18.07884 0.1793 0.38778 1.0913 -18.20671 0.1793 0.39224 -16.16702 -0.112 -0.075 1.04109 -16.21744 -0.112 -0.075 -14.97002 0.1691 0.36696 1.0883 -15.02017 0.1691 0.36879 -17.34016 -0.062 -0.016 1.02379 -17.39439 -0.062 -0.016 -17.64022 -0.082 -0.025 1.01524 -17.69657 -0.082 -0.025 -17.83191 -0.035 -0.018 1.01792 -17.89732 -0.035 -0.018 -19.23196 -0.09 -0.058 1.00399 -19.31323 -0.09 -0.058 -19.02914 -0.032 -0.009 0.99925 -19.09708 -0.032 -0.009 -19.66267 -0.095 -0.034 0.99317 -19.73758 -0.095 -0.034 -19.69028 -0.022 -0.007 0.99555 -19.76851 -0.022 -0.007 -19.72658 -0.175 -0.112 0.99419 -19.81012 -0.175 -0.112 -19.62149 0 0 0.99501 -19.7033 0 0 -18.30125 -0.032 -0.016 1.00016 -18.3595 -0.032 -0.016 -18.8339 -0.087 -0.067 0.98881 -18.89458 -0.087 -0.067 -16.70952 0 0 0.98823 -16.73336 0 0 -17.15432 -0.035 -0.023 0.97001 -17.17859 -0.035 -0.023 -15.12179 0 0 0.99676 -15.12284 0 0 -9.39718 0.98449 -0.35025 1.00683 -9.35718 1 -0.35723 -16.41847 -0.024 -0.009 0.97633 -16.42047 -0.024 -0.009 -17.35084 -0.106 -0.019 0.96452 -17.35353 -0.106 -0.019 Total iteration = 4 Total iteration = 4 DC system solutions Vdi = 245.93 kV; idr = 406.613 Amp.; ar = 0.6988; Pdr = 101.65 MW; ai = 0.7275; Qdr = 16.831 MVAR; Qdi = 35.723 MVAR;

Pinj

Qinj

With combination 8

Pinj

Qinj

DC system solutions Vdr = 253.938 kV; idr = 393.8 Amp.; ar = 0.7088; Qdr = 16.276 MVAR; ai = 0.7389; Pdi = 98.45 MW; Qdi = 35.024 MVAR;

We are now at the end of our theoretical study of various load ow techniques. However, in production grade implementatin of these techniques, the sparsity of the linear equations (connecting the mismatch and solution vectors) is exploited to reduce the computation time as well as memory requirement. From the next lecture, we will study some methods for solution of sparse linear 82

Table 2.40: Further results of the 30 bus system with a bipolar HVDC link between bus 9 and 28 Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(p.u) 1.05000 1.03380 1.02180 1.01437 1.00580 1.00804 0.99286 1.02300 1.00248 0.99624 1.09130 1.03787 1.08830 1.01972 1.01042 1.01181 0.99507 0.99250 0.98530 0.98713 0.98445 0.98541 0.99404 0.98099 0.98192 0.96358 0.99144 1.00345 0.97089 0.95901

With combination 3 (deg) (p.u) 0.00000 2.42241 -5.04581 0.35860 -8.07176 -0.02400 -9.71785 -0.07600 -13.71987 -0.69640 -11.32909 0.00000 -13.96633 -0.62800 -12.20102 -0.45000 -20.07763 -1.00000 -19.56171 -0.05800 -18.12405 0.17930 -16.26936 -0.11200 -15.06838 0.16910 -17.44774 -0.06200 -17.72802 -0.08200 -17.89806 -0.03500 -19.27534 -0.09000 -19.10546 -0.03200 -19.73134 -0.09500 -19.74984 -0.02200 -19.76760 -0.17500 -19.66188 0.00000 -18.37832 -0.03200 -18.89414 -0.08700 -16.75594 0.00000 -17.20702 -0.03500 -15.15766 -0.00000 -9.34449 0.98449 -16.46954 -0.02400 -17.41321 -0.10600 Total iteration = 23

Pinj

(p.u) -0.25233 0.09175 -0.01200 -0.01600 0.12191 0.00000 -0.10900 0.55554 -0.33808 -0.02000 0.46906 -0.07500 0.39377 -0.01600 -0.02500 -0.01800 -0.05800 -0.00900 -0.03400 -0.00700 -0.11200 -0.00000 -0.01600 -0.06700 0.00000 -0.02300 -0.00000 -0.38369 -0.00900 -0.01900

Qinj

DC system solutions Vdr = 253.938 kV; idr = 393.8 Amp.; = 15.21o ; Qdr = 33.808 MVAR; = 18.31o ; Pdi = 98.45 MW; Qdi = 38.37 MVAR; equations.

83

Module 3 Sparsity Technique

3.1 Sparse matrices

Sparse matrix is a matrix in which most (or, at least, signicant number) of the elements are zero. In the context of power system analysis, the matrices associated with power ow solution are sparse. For example, let us consider the YBU S matrix. As we have already seen, the o -diagonal elements of YBU S matrix signies the connectivity between the nodes. To be more precise, the element (i,j) of YBU S matrix is non-zero if there is a direct connection between node i and node j, while it is zero if there is no direct connectivity between these two nodes. Now, in many power systems, generally any bus is connected to mostly 3-4 buses directly. Therefore, in a 100 buses system (say), there would be at best 4-5 non-zero terms (including the diagonal) in any row of the YBU S matrix, rest of the elements being zero. Therefore, out of (100 100) = 10, 000 elements, only about 500 terms would be non-zero and the other terms (elements) would be zero. Thus, in this case, the YBU S matrix is almost 95 percent sparse. For any larger system, the percentage of sparsity of the associated YBU S matrix would be even more. Because of the sparsity of the YBU S matrix, the Jacobian matrix for load ow solution is also sparse. To see that, please consider equations (2.48) - (2.55). From these equations it can be seen that all the elements of the Jacobian matrix depend on the element Yij . Therefore, if this element Yij is zero, the corresponding elements of the Jacobian matrix would also be zero. As most of the elements (Yij ) of the YBU S matrix are zero, it immediately follows that most of the elements of the Jacobian matrix would also be zero, thereby making the Jacobian matrix also quite sparse. Now, in each iteration of the NRLF technique, (we are considering the polar form here), the correction vector ( X) is computed by inverting the Jacobian matrix and thereafter multiplying the inverse of the Jacobian matrix with the mismatch vector ( M ) (please see equation (2.45)). However, even though the Jacobian matrix is sparse, its inverse is a full matrix. Hence, computation of the direct inverse of the sparse matrix involves a lot of computational burden. Therefore, it would be much less intensive if equation (2.45) can be solved exploiting the sparse nature of the Jacobian matrix. Apart from this, storing all the elements of a highly sparse matrix also consumes the memory unnecessarily. Therefore, if only the non-zero elements are stored in appropriate fashion, a lot of memory can be freed. Of course, with the storage of only the non-zero elements, the complexity of 84

programming will increase. However, for any general purpose load ow program, which is expected to handle any large size power system, enhancement in the complexity of programming is often a small cost as compared to the advantage of optimized memory utilization. Below we will discuss some schemes for solving a set of linear equations (note that equation (2.48) is a set of linear equations) utilizing the sparse nature of the Jacobian matrix and also some schemes for storing a sparse matrix. We will start with the Gaussian Elimination method for solving a set of linear equations.

3.2

Gaussian elimination technique

Ax = b

Let us consider a linear system of equations: (3.1)

Where x and b are both (n1) vectors and A is a (nn) co-e cient matrix. The most obvious method for solving equation (3.1) is to invert matrix A, that is x = A1 b. However, equation (3.1) can also be solved indirectly by converting the matrix A into an upper triangular form with appropriate changes reected in the vector b and then by back substitution. To illustrate the basic procedure, let us consider a 4th order system as shown in equations (3.2)-(3.5).

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + a14 x4 = b1 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + a24 x4 = b2 a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + a34 x4 = b3
The Gaussian elimination proceeds in certain sequential steps as described below: Step 1: a) Equation (3.2) is divided throughout by a11 .

(3.2) (3.3) (3.4) (3.5)

a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 + a44 x4 = b4

b) Multiply equation (3.6) by a21 , a31 , a41 (one by one) and subtract the resulting expression from equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5) respectively to yield:

x1 +

a12 a13 a14 b1 x2 + x3 + x4 = a11 a11 a11 a11

(3.6)

a22 a32

a12 a21 a13 a21 a14 a21 b1 a21 x2 + a23 x3 + a24 x4 = b2 a11 a11 a11 a11 a12 a31 a13 a31 a14 a31 b1 a31 x2 + a33 x3 + a34 x4 = b3 a11 a11 a11 a11
85

(3.7) (3.8)

Equations (3.6) to (3.9) can be written more compactly as,

a42

a12 a41 a13 a41 a14 a41 b1 a41 x2 + a43 x3 + a44 x4 = b4 a11 a11 a11 a11 x1 + a12 a13 a14 b1 x2 + x3 + x4 = a11 a11 a11 a11

(3.9)

(3.10) (3.11) (3.12) (3.13)

a(1) x2 + a(1) x3 + a(1) x4 = b(1) 22 23 24 2 a(1) x2 + a(1) x3 + a(1) x4 = b(1) 32 33 34 3 a(1) x2 + a(1) x3 + a(1) x4 = b(1) 42 43 44 4 aj1 a1k a11

Where, in equations (3.10) - (3.13)

Step 2: In this step we will work with equations (3.11) - (3.13). (1) a) Equation (3.11) is divided throughout by a22 .

a(1) = ajk jk

for j, k = 2, 3, 4

(3.14)

b) Multiplying equation (3.15) by a32 and a42 (one by one) and subtracting the resulting expressions from equations (3.12) and (3.13) respectively one can obtain;

x2 +

a(1) 23 a(1) 22

(1)

x3 +

a(1) 24 a(1) 22

(1)

x4 =

a(1) 22

b(1) 2

(3.15)

a a

(1) 33 (1) 43

a(1) a(1) 23 32 a a(1) a(1) 23 42 a

(1) 22 (1) 22

x3 + a x3 + a x2 +

(1) 34 (1) 44

a(1) a(1) 24 32 a a(1) a(1) 24 42 a

(1) 22 (1) 22

x4 = b x4 = b b(1) 2

(1) 3 (1) 4

b(1) 2 b(1) 2

(1) 22 (1) 22

a(1) 32 a(1) 42

(3.16)

(3.17)

Similar to step 1, equations (3.15) - (3.17) are re-written as,

a(1) 23 a(1) 22

a(2) x3 + a(2) x4 = b(2) 33 34 3 a(2) x3 + a(2) x4 = b(2) 43 44 4 a(1) a(1) j2 2k a(1) 22

x3 +

a(1) 24 a(1) 22

x4 =

a(1) 22

(3.18) (3.19) (3.20)

Where, in equations (3.19) - (3.20),

(2) jk

Step 3: In this step we will work with equations (3.19) and (3.20). 86

=a

(1) jk

for j, k = 3, 4

(3.21)

a) Equation (3.19) is divided throughout by a33 .

x3 +
(2)

a(2) 34 a(2) 33

(2)

x4 =

a(2) 33

b(2) 3

(3.22)

b) Multiplying equation (3.22) by a43 and subtracting it from equation (3.20) one can obtain,

(2) 44

a(2) a(2) 34 43 a
(2) 33

x4 = b

(2) 4

b(2) 3

(2) 33

a(2) 43

(3.23)

Equation (3.23) contains only one unknown, x4 . Therefore, the value of x4 can be calculated from this equation. With the value of x4 thus calculated, x3 can be calculated from equation (3.22). Going back in this manner, x2 can be calculated from equation (3.18) (with the known values of x3 and x4 ) and lastly, the value of x1 can be calculated from equation (3.10) (with the known values of x2 , x3 and x4 ). The steps described in equations (3.6)-(3.23) can easily be expressed in terms of standard matrix operations. To see this, let us represent equations (3.2)-(3.5) in matrix notation as shown in equation (3.24). In this equation, it is assumed that a11 0.

Starting with this matrix, the various steps for Gaussian elimination are as follows. Step M1 On equation (3.24), the operation R1a11 (where R1 is the rst row of the co-e cient matrix of equation (3.24)) is carried out to obtain equation (3.6) and the resulting matrix equation is shown in equation (3.25).

a11 a 21 a31 a41

a12 a22 a32 a42

a13 a23 a33 a43

a14 x1 b1 a24 x2 b2 = a34 x3 b3 a44 x4 b4

(3.24)

Step M2

On equation (3.25), the operations (R2 R1 a21 ), (R3 R1 a31 ) and (R4 R1 a41 ) are carried out (where Ri denotes the ith (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) row of the co-e cient matrix of equation (3.25)) to obtain equations (3.10)-(3.13) and the resulting matrix equation is shown in equation (3.26). In 87

1 a12 a11 a13 a11 a14 a11 x1 b1 a11 a a22 a23 a24 x2 b2 21 = a31 x3 b3 a32 a33 a34 a41 a42 a43 a44 x4 b4

(3.25)

this equation, it is assumed that a22 0.

(1)

Step M3

1 a a a a a a x b a 12 11 13 11 14 11 1 1 11 (1) 0 a(1) a(1) a(1) x2 b2 22 23 24 = (1) (1) (1) 0 a(1) b a33 a34 x3 3 32 (1) (1) (1) (1) 0 a42 a43 a44 x4 b4
(1)

(3.26)

On equation (3.26), the operation R2a22 is carried out (corresponding to equation (3.15)) to obtain the resulting matrix equation shown in equation (3.27).

Step M4

1 a a a13 a11 a14 a11 x1 b1 a11 12 11 (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) 0 x2 b2 a22 1 a23 a22 a24 a22 = (1) (1) (1) 0 a(1) x b a33 a34 3 3 32 (1) (1) (1) (1) 0 a42 a43 a44 x4 b4
(1) (1)

(3.27)

On equation (3.27), the operations R3 R2 a32 and R4 R2 a42 are carried out corresponding to the equations (3.18)-(3.21) and the resulting matrix equation is shown in equation (2) (3.28). In this equation, it is assumed that a33 0.

Step M5

1 a a a13 a11 a14 a11 x1 b1 a11 12 11 (1) (1) (1) (1) 0 x2 b(1) a(1) 1 a23 a22 a24 a22 2 22 = 0 0 a(2) a(2) x3 b(2) 3 33 34 (2) (2) (2) 0 x4 b4 0 a43 a44
(2)

(3.28)

On equation (3.28), the operation R3a33 is carried out to obtain the matrix equation shown in equation (3.29).

Step M6

1 a a a13 a11 a14 a11 x1 b1 a11 12 11 (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) 0 1 a23 a22 a24 a22 x2 b2 a22 = (2) (2) (2) (2) 0 0 1 a34 a33 x3 b3 a33 (2) (2) (2) 0 x4 b4 0 a43 a44
(2)

(3.29)

Lastly, on equation (3.29), the operation R4 R3 a43 is carried out to obtain the matrix 88

equation shown in equation (3.30).

unknowns can be easily solved by back-substitution starting from the last row of the nal co-e cient matrix in equation (3.30). Thus, Gaussian elimination enables us to solve the unknown quantities in a systematic manner without inverting the co-e cient matrix. Therefore, by adopting the same procedure, the correction vector ( M ) can be computed from equation (2.48) without having to invert the Jacobian matrix. When a large power system in analyzed, adopting Gaussian elimination reduces computational burden to a large extent (as compared to inversion of the Jacobian matrix). (1) (2) In the above procedure, the variables a11 , a22 and a33 have been assumed to be non-zero. These variables, by which the rows of the co-e cient matrix are divided, are called the pivot variables. However, during the elimination process, it is not necessary that the pivot variables would be always non-zero. If any pivot variable turns out to be zero at any intermediate step, then the corresponding row is interchanged with the next row so that the new pivot variable is non-zero and the elimination process can continue. We will look into an example of Gaussian elimination procedure in the next lecture.

In equation (3.30), a44 = a44

(3) (2)

1 a a a13 a11 a14 a11 x1 b1 a11 12 11 (1) (1) 0 1 a(1) a(1) a(1) a(1) x2 b2 a22 23 22 24 22 = (2) (2) (2) (2) 0 b a 0 1 a34 a33 x3 3 33 (3) (3) 0 0 0 a44 x4 b4 a(2) a(2) 34 43 a
(2) 33

(3.30)

and b4

(3)

= b(2) 4

b(2) 3

(2) 33

a(2) . From this equation, the 43

89

3.2.1

Example of Gaussian elimination

11 23 22 12 16 x1 10 28 x2 20 = 36 x3 30 36 x4 40

We wish to solve the following matrix equation by Gaussian elimination:

17 27 32 15

18 25 34 41

(3.31)

Towards this goal, we proceed with the di erent steps as follows: Step M1 On equation (3.31), the operation R1A(1, 1) (where, A(1, 1) = 11) is performed to yield,

On equation (3.32), the operations (R2 R1 A(2, 1)), (R3 R1 A(3, 1)) and (R4 R1 A(4, 1)) are carried out (where A(2, 1) = 23, A(3, 1) = 22 and A(4, 1) = 12) and the resulting matrix equation is given by;

Step M2

1 1.5455 1.6364 1.4545 x1 0.9091 23 27 25 28 x2 20 = 22 32 34 36 x3 30 12 15 41 36 x4 40

(3.32)

Step M3

On equation (3.33), the operation R2A(2, 2) (where, A(2, 2) = 8.5455) is carried out to get;

1 1.5455 1.6364 1.4545 x1 0.9091 0 8.5455 12.6364 5.4545 x 0.9091 2 = 0 x3 10 2.0 2.0 4.0 0 3.5455 21.3636 18.5455 x4 20.0909 1 1.5455 1.6364 1.4545 x1 0.9091 0 1 1.4787 0.6383 x2 0.1064 = 0 2.0 2.0 4.0 x3 10 0 3.5455 21.3636 18.5455 x4 20.0909

(3.33)

(3.34)

On equation (3.34), the operations (R3 R2 A(3, 2)) and (R4 R2 A(4, 2)) are carried out to obtain (where A(3, 2) = 2.0 and A(4, 2) = 3.5455);

Step M4

1 1.5455 1.6364 1.4545 x1 0.9091 0 1 1.4787 0.6383 x2 0.1064 = 0 x3 10.2128 0 0.9574 5.2766 0 x4 29.4681 0 26.6065 20.8085
90

(3.35)

On equation (3.35), the operation R3A(3, 3) (where A(3, 3) = 0.9574) is carried out to obtain the matrix equation shown below:

Step M5

Lastly, on equation (3.36), the operation (R4 R3 A(4, 3)) (where A(4, 3) = 26.6065) is carried out to get;

Step M6

1 1.5455 1.6364 1.4545 x1 0.9091 0 1 1.4787 0.6383 x2 0.1064 = 0 x3 10.6672 0 1 5.5114 0 0 26.6065 20.8085 x4 29.4681

(3.36)

In equation (3.37), the co-e cient matrix has been converted to an upper-triangular matrix. From the last row of this equation, x4 can be calculated as x4 = 254.3484125.83 = 2.0214. Back substituting this value of x4 in the third row of equation (3.37) one can obtain x3 = 10.6672 5.5114 2.0214 = 0.4735. Similarly, substitution of the values of x3 and x4 in the second row of equation (3.37) yields the of x2 as x2 = 0.1064 + 1.4787 0.4735 0.6383 2.0214 = 0.4837. Lastly, substituion of x2 , x3 and x4 in the rst row of equation (3.37) gives x1 = 0.9091 + 1.5455 0.4837 + 1.6364 0.4735 1.4545 2.0214 = 0.5086.

1 1.5455 1.6364 1.4545 x1 0.9091 0 1 1.4787 0.6383 x2 0.1064 = 0 x3 10.6672 0 1 5.5114 0 0 0 125.83 x4 254.3484

(3.37)

3.3

Optimal order of elimination

We have seen that the Gaussian Elimination method is quite e ective for solving a large set of spare linear equations without having to invert the co-e cient matrix. Moreover, at every stage, if the calculations pertaining to Gaussian elimination is carried out only using the non-zero terms, great saving in the computational burden can be achieved. However, if the elimination process is carried out in the normal sequence, at any stage of elimination, the original zero-elements may the concerted into a non-zero element. This is normally termed as ll-in phenomenon. On the other hand, instead of following the normal sequence, if the elimination process is carried out in an appropriate order, then the occurrence of ll-in can be avoided to a great extent. A simple example given below illustrates this point. In equation (3.38), an initial co-e cient matrix is shown at the left hand side (part a) and the structure of the co-e cient matrix after step-1 is shown at the right hand side (part b). It is to be noted that in this equation, only the positions of non-zero terms (denoted by ) and zero terms (denoted by o) are shown. As can be seen in equation (3.38), after step-1, all the original zero elements have been converted to non-zero terms (denoted by ), or, in other words, signicant 91

level of ll-in has occurred.

1 2 3 4

a) Initial A matrix

o o o o o o

1 2 3 4

b) A matrix after step 1

1 o o o

(3.38)

Now, if the original co-e cient matrix shown in part (a) of equation (3.38) is re-arranged as shown in part (a) of equation (3.39), then after step 1, there would be no ll-in as can be observed in part (b) of equation (3.39).

4 2 3 1

a) Rearranged A matrix

o o o o o o

4 2 3 1

b) Rearranged A matrix after step 1

1 o o o o o o o

(3.39)

From the above example, it is apparent that if the rows are eliminated in an optimal order, then the number of ll-in would be minimum. However, an ideal optimal order is very di cult to develop and perhaps is impossible. As an alternative, various near optimal ordering schemes have been developed. Some of them are discussed below: Scheme 1 In this scheme, before elimination, number the rows of the co-e cient matrix A according to the number of non-zero, o -diagonal terms. Thus, the rows with only one o -diagonal, non-zero term are numbered rst, those with two non-zero, o - diagonal terms are numbered second and so on. However, this scheme does not take into account the changes occurring in the co-e cient matrix during the elimination process. Therefore, this scheme in quite easy and straight forward to implement. Scheme 2 In this scheme the rows of the co-e cient matrix A are numbered such that at each step of the elimination procedure, the row with the fewest number of non-zero o -diagonal terms would be operated next. If more than one row meets this criterion, then any one row is chosen. Therefore, this scheme requires the simulation of the elimination procedure to estimate the changes occurring in the co-e cient matrix in advance. Thus, this method takes longer time as compared to scheme 1 to compute the solution, but is denitely better than scheme 1. 92

Scheme 3 In this scheme, the rows are numbered in such a way so that the row which will introduce fewest nonzero o -diagonal terms would be operated upon next. If more than one row satises this criterion, choose any one row. Again, this scheme also requires the simulation of the elimination process to study its e ects on the co-e cient matrix in advance. Hence, this method also takes longer time than scheme 1. Let us now look at another technique for solving a set of linear equations without the need of inverting the co-e cient matrix, namely, the triangular factorization or LU decomposition.

3.4

Triangular factorization:

In triangular factorization or decomposition method, a square matrix A is expressed as a product of two triangular matrices as A = LU, where L is a lower triangular matrix and U is an upper triangular matrix. As an example, let the matrix A be a 4 4 (N = 4) matrix. Upon triangular factorization (or LU decomposition), the matrix A is represented as A = LU. Or,

With this decomposition, the equation Ax = b can be written as, Or,

a11 a 21 a31 a41

a12 a22 a32 a42

a13 a23 a33 a43

a14 11 0 0 0 11 12 13 a24 21 22 0 0 0 22 23 = a34 31 32 33 0 0 0 33 a44 41 42 43 44 0 0 0

14 24 34 34

(3.40)

Ax = b or, (LU)x = b or, L(Ux) = b Ly = b

(3.41)

(3.42)

In equation (3.42), y = Ux. Expanding equation (3.42) we get,

From equation (3.43), the intermediate vector y can be calculated as,

11 0 0 0 y1 b1 0 y2 b2 21 22 0 = 31 32 33 0 y3 b3 41 42 43 44 y4 b4

(3.43)

y1 = yi

b1 11 i1 1 = bi ij yj ; ii j=1
93

i = 2, 3, N

(3.44)

Again, expanding the expression y = Ux we get,

Now, With the knowledge of the intermediate vector y, from equation (3.45), the solution vector x can be calculated as,

11 12 13 0 22 23 0 0 33 0 0 0

14 x1 y1 24 x2 y2 = 34 x3 y3 34 x4 y4

(3.45)

xN = xi

yn N N N 1 ij xj ; = yi ii j=1+1

i = (N 1), (N 2), 1

(3.46)

We will now look into the basic procedure of obtaining the LU decomposition in the next lecturel.

94

3.4.1

Method of LU decomposition

To solve for the matrices L and U for given matrix A, let us write the i, j th element of equation (3.40). In general, the element aij can be represented as (from equation (3.40)),

The number of terms in the sum of equation (3.47) depends on whether i or j is the smaller number. We have in fact three distinct cases:

i1 1j + i2 2j + up to appropriate term = aij

(3.47)

In equations (3.48)-(3.50), total N 2 equations are available for a total of (N 2 + N ) unknown and (the diagonals terms being repeated twice). As the number of unknown quantities is greater than the number of equations, we need to specify N of the unknown quantities arbitrarily and then the remaining unknown quantities can be solved. In fact, it is always possible to take

i > j;

i = j;

i < j;

i1 1j + i2 2j + + ij jj = aij

i1 1j + i2 2j + + ii jj = aij

i1 1j + i2 2j + + ii ij = aij

(3.48) (3.49) (3.50)

With the condition of equation (3.51), an elegant procedure called Crouts algorithm quite easily solves for the N 2 unknown and by just rearranging the equations in a certain order. The algorithm is as follows: step 1: Set ii = 1 for i = 1, 2, 3 N . step 2: For each j = 1, 2, 3 N , perform the following operation: a) For i = 1, 2, 3 N solve for ij as Note: when i = 1, the summation term in equation (3.52) is taken to be zero. b) For i = j + 1, j + 2, N solve for ij as;
j1 1 ij = aij ik kj jj k=1

ii = 1;

i = 1, 2, N

(3.51)

ij = aij ik kj
i1 k=1

(3.52)

(3.53)

These rst and second operations both need to be carried out before going to next value of j. 95

3.4.2

Example of LU decomposition

3 2 7 Decompose the matrix A = 2 3 1 in LU form through Crouts algorithm. 3 4 1 3 2 7 0 11 12 13 11 0 2 3 1 = 21 22 0 0 22 23 Solution: Let A = 3 4 1 31 32 33 0 0 33 Applying Crouts algorithm; 11 = 1; 22 = 1; 33 = 1; For j = 1; i = 1 11 = a11 = 3; 1 i = 2 21 = (a21 0) = 11 1 i = 3 31 = (a31 0) = 11 2 ; 3 3 = 1; 3

For j = 2;

i = 1 12 = a12 = 2;

For j = 3;

5 i = 2 22 = a22 21 12 = ; 3 1 6 i = 3 32 = (a32 31 12 ) = ; 22 5 i = 1 13 = a13 = 7;

i = 2 23 = a23 21 13 =

3 2 7 1 0 0 3 2 7 2 3 1 = 23 1 0 0 53 113 Hence, 3 4 1 1 65 1 0 0 85

8 i = 3 33 = a33 31 13 32 23 = ; 5

11 ; 13

3.5

Storage schemes for sparse matrices

There are several methods available in the literature for storing a sparse matrix. Some of these schemes are described here. 96

Random packing: In this method, every non-zero element of the matrix is stored in a primary array while its row and column indices are stored in two secondary arrays. As each element in individually identied, the elements can be stored in a random manner. For example, the sparse matrixes shown in equation (3.54) are stored in one primary array and two secondary arrays as shown below.

Primary array (elements) X = {0.29 3.12 -1.25 2.67 2.31 0} Secondary array (row indices) i = {3 2 3 2 3 0} Secondary array (column indices) j = {2 5 1 3 5 0} In the above, the zero at the end of each array denotes the termination of the array. Systematic packing: In case the elements of a sparse matrix are read or constructed or sorted in a systematic order, then there is no need to adopt both row and column indices for each element. Instead some alternative, more e cient schemes can be adopted as described below. a) The use of row address: In this scheme, the index of rst non-zero element in each row is specied in a separate integer array. As an example, for the matrix A in equation (3.54) the elements can be represented as, Real array (elements) = {2.67 3.12 -1.25 0.29 2.31} Integer array JA = {3 5 1 2 5} Integer array IST = {1 1 3 6 } In this case, the array of row address IST has been constructed such that the number of non-zero elements in row i is IST(I+1)-IST(I). Thus, for a matrix with m rows, the array IST will have (m+1) entries. For example, from the array IST, the number of non-zero elements in 1st row of the matrix A is IST(2) - IST(1) = 1 - 1 = 0, which is indeed true as observed from equation (3.54). Similarly, the array IST indicates that the number of non-zero elements in 2nd row of the matrix A is IST(3) - IST(2) = 3 - 1 = 2 and from the rst two elements of the array JA, these two elements are located at columns 3 and 5 of the matrix whereas the elements themselves are given by the rst two elements of the real array (2.67 and 3.12) (which is again true from equation (3.54)). In a similar way, the elements and the locations of the elements in the third row of the matrix A can easily be identied from the above three arrays. Moreover, please note that, as the number of rows in the matrix A is 3, the total number of entries in array IST is 4.

0 0 0 0 0 A= 0 0 2.67 0 3.12 1.25 0.29 0 0 2.31

(3.54)

97

b) The use of dummy variables: In this scheme, the integer array IST is not used. Instead, dummy variables are introduced in the array JA itself to indicate the beginning of each row and the end of the matrix. For example, a zero entry (except the last one) in the array JA could indicate the presence of dummy variables and the dummy variables itself could specify the row number. Moreover, the non-zero elements would indicate the column number of the elements. Also, as before, the zero at the end of the array indicates the termination of the list. Hence the matrix A of equation (3.54) in this scheme looks like Real array (elements) = {2 2.67 3.12 3 -1.25 0.29 2.31 0} Integer array JA = {0 3 5 0 1 2 5 0} c) Compound identiers: In the random packing scheme it in possible to reduce the storage requirement by combining the two indices for each element so that these can be held in one integer storage. A suitable compound identier could be (n i + j) where n is an integer higher than the number of columns in the matrix and (i, j) denote the position of the non-zero element in the matrix. For example, the matrix A in equation (3.54) could look like Real array (elements) = {2.67 3.12 -1.25 Integer array JA = {2003 2005 3001 0.29 2.31 0} 3002 3005 9999}

In the above, n has been chosen to be equal to 1000. Also, in the real array, the entry zero indicates the end of the array and the corresponding entry in the integer array is 9999 (to signies the end of the integer array). However, unless compound identiers yield necessary or highly desirable storage saving, it should not be used because of the following reasons: i) Extra programming would be required to interpret the identiers correctly. ii) It should not be used for matrices whose order is so large that integer register overow results. d) The use of mixed arrays: It is possible to use a single array to store both the non-zero elements of the matrix and the identiers. For example, the matrix A in equation (3.54) could be stored as, Real array (B) = {-2 3 2.67 5 3.12 -3 1 -1.25 2 0.29 5 2.31 0} In the above scheme, each non-zero element is preceded by its column number and each non-zero row is preceded by the negative of the corresponding row number. With this discussion, we are now at the and of our study of sparse linear systems. From the next lecture, we will start the discussion of short circuit analysis methods.

98