Sharlyn Theresa L.

Loria BSIT CS3B

Prof. Jun M. Aranquez, MC

LIT 1 (Philippine Literature) What is Literature? Literature (from Latin litterae (plural); letter) is the art of written work and can, in some circumstances, refer exclusively to published sources. The word literature literally means "things made from letters" and the pars pro toto term "letters" is sometimes used to signify "literature," as in the figures of speech "arts and letters" and "man of letters." Literature is commonly classified as having two major formsfiction and non-fictionand two major techniquespoetry and prose. Literature may consist of texts based on factual information (journalistic or non-fiction), as well as on original imagination, such as polemical works as well as autobiography, and reflective essays as well as belles-lettres. Literature can be classified according to historical periods, genres, and political influences. The concept of genre, which earlier was limited, has broadened over the centuries. A genre consists of artistic works which fall within a certain central theme, and examples of genre include romance, mystery, crime, fantasy, erotica, and adventure, among others. Important historical periods in English literature include Old English, Middle English, the Renaissance, the 17th Century Shakespearean and Elizabethan times, the 18th Century Restoration, 19th Century Victorian, and 20th Century Modernism. Important political movements that have influenced literature include feminism, postcolonialism, psychoanalysis, post-structuralism, post-modernism, romanticism, and Marxism.

What are the main divisions of literature? Prose is derived from a Latin root word, prosa, that means "straightforward" (other scholars argue that the root for "prose" is proversa oratio, which means " straightforward discourse." Prose is generally defined as direct, common language presented in a straightforward manner. A victim of identity by negation, prose is frequently defined as "that which is not poetry." Prose demonstrates purposeful grammatic design in that it is constructed strategically by the author to create specific meaning. Prose also contains plot and the attendant narrative structures of plot. In most cultures, prose narrative tends to appear after a culture has developed verse. Prose genres are many and varied, ranging from science fiction to romance. The major generic divisions of prose are: novel - A lengthy fictional prose narrative. novella - A fictional prose narrative ranging from 50 to 100 pages, most common in science fiction and detective fiction.

short story - a brief fictional prose narrative. anecdote - A very brief account of some interesting, usually humorous, event. Poetry from the Greek poetes which means "doer" or "creator," is a catch-all term that is applied to any form of rhythmical or metrical composition. While poetry is considered to be a subset of verse (and also considered to be superior to verse) both are rhythmical/metrical. What distinguishes poetry from verse is its "imaginative quality, intricate structure, serious or lofty subject matter, or noble purpose." Most culture's first serious literary works are poetry (In Western tradition, we need look only as far as Homer and Hesiod). The purposes of poetry are said to include: A didactic purpose, meaning that it aims to instruct the reader. Unique insight that is not available in other genres. To provide pleasure to the reader. To uplift the reader to some higher insight or meaning. Drama is simply a work that is written to be performed on stage by actors. From the Greek dran, meaning "to do," drama is thought to have developed from ancient religious ceremonies. For instance, Greek comedy is traced to ancient fertility rites. Tragedy (which comes from the Greek word for "goat song") can be traced back to sacrificial rituals. The term play has come to mean drama written exclusively for performance, while the "loftier" term drama, is commonly reserved for works that are considered to be more serious works. What are the forms of the Philippine literature? I. Pre-Colonial Times Showcase a rich past through their folk speeches, folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and mimetic dances that affirm our ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors. Has vast collection of folk speeches such as: riddle or tigmo in Cebuano; bugtong in Tagalog paktakon in Ilongo patototdon in Bicol proverbs or aphorisms - express norms or codes of behavior, community beliefs or they instill values by offering bits of wisdom in short, rhyming verse tanaga- a mono-riming heptasyllabic (7) quatrain (4 line-stanza) expressing insights and lessons on life. folk song - expresses the hopes and aspirations, the people's lifestyles as well as their loves; often repetitive and sonorous

 narrative song - uses for its subject matter the exploits of historical and legendary heroes folk narratives, i.e. epics and folk tales are varied, exotic and magical; II. The Spanish Colonial Tradition Showcase an array of religious prose and poetry. Religious lyrics versed in both Spanish and Tagalog were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the Spanish language. Religious poetry or the pasyon became known in the Filipino's commemoration of Christ's agony and resurrection at Calvary. prose narratives - written to prescribe proper decorum; also used for proselytizing secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the emergence of an opulent class and the middle class who could avail of a European education secular lyrics followed the conventions of a romantic tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless beloved, the rival, secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido in Tagalog (e.g. Florante at Laura, Ibong Adarna) Propaganda Prose political essays and Rizal's two political novels, Noli Me Tangere and the El filibusterismo helped usher in the Philippine revolution resulting in the downfall of the Spanish regime, and, at the same time planted the seeds of a national consciousness among Filipinos. III. The American Colonial Period Despite the threat of censorship by the new colonizers, more writers turned up "seditious works" and popular writing in the native languages bloomed through the weekly outlets like Liwayway and Bisaya. The poet Alejandro G. Abadilla promoted modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets who wrote modern verses in the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and Rolando S. Tinio. Modern Short Story Filipinos seemed to have taken easily to the modern short story as published in the Philippines Free Press, the College Folio and Philippines Herald. Paz Marquez Benitez's "Dead Stars" published in 1925 was the first successful short story in English written by a Filipino. Later on, Arturo B. Rotor and Manuel E. Arguilla showed exceptional skills with the short story. Alongside this development, writers in the vernaculars continued to write in the provinces. Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Pea and Patricio Mariano were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog short fiction called dali or pasingaw (sketch).

The Summary of the "DEAD STARS" Dead Star is a love story about a man named Alfredo Salazar,who has his fiance in the person of Esperanza and they have been engaged for quite some time. Society views them as an ideal couple. Their wedding is about to take place in the near future. Prior to the wedding however, he sees another girl, when he goes with his father to a judge's house. He tries to seek love in her, but she kinda declines. in that way, Alfredo became a little bit confused in his upcoming wedding where he is about to chose between two options; to do what he should do by marrying Esperanza as prescribed by his parents or to do what he wants to do by having Julia Salas, his dream - the dead star in his life. In the story, dead stars symbolize a dream for something that is nonexistent. The guy loved the girl. She was his dream, his star. He thought there was love there. But like a dead star which is so far away, and whose shine could actually be the leftover traveling light from it, he was a long way from getting the girl, and the love he thought was possible, never was. Novels adaptations of Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan by F. P. Boquecosa who also penned Ang Palad ni Pepe after Charles Dicken's David Copperfield the realist tradition was kept alive in the novels by Lope K. Santos and Faustino Aguilar, among others.The novel in the vernaculars continued to be written and serialized in weekly magazines like Liwayway, Bisaya, Hiligaynon and Bannawag. Essay The essay in English became a potent medium from the 1920's to the present. Some leading essayists were journalists like Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge Bocobo, Pura Santillan Castrence Among those who wrote criticism were Ignacio Manlapaz, Leopoldo Yabes and I.V. Mallari. But it was Salvador P. Lopez's criticism that grabbed attention when he won the Commonwealth Literary Award for the essay in 1940 with his "Literature and Society." IV. The Contemporary Period The flowering of Philippine literature in the various languages continue especially with the appearance of new publications after the Martial Law years and the resurgence of committed literature in the 1960s and the 1970s.With the requirement by the Commission on Higher Education to teach Philippine Literature in all tertiary schools in the country, the teaching of the vernacular literature or literatures of the regions was emphasized. The Difference Between the Myth and the Legend: Myths - Mythology, body of myths of a particular culture, and also the study and interpretation of myth. Myth is a complex cultural phenomenon that can be approached from a number of viewpoints. In general, myth is a narrative that describes and portrays in symbolic language the origin of the basic elements and assumptions of a culture. Mythic

narrative relates, for example, how the world began, how humans and animals were created, and how certain customs, gestures, or forms of human activities originated. Almost all cultures possess or at one time possessed and lived in terms of myths. Myths are traditional stories occurring in a timeless past. They involve supernatural elements and are beyond the frontiers of logic. Long ago, when our ancestors heard the sound of thunder and saw lightning, they were frightened because they could not understand why these things happened. In order to understand these and other natural events, they created stories. The stories were handed down from generation to generation all over the country. Although myths are not based on objective truth, they reflect both universal worries and the worries of specific cultures. World literature: In the cold northern countries, where the sun disappears almost completely during the winter season, great fires were lit in the midwinter to help the sun to be reborn. The ancient Greeks tell a myth in which Prometheus stole fire from Zeus, the chief god, and gave it to humans so that they could keep themselves warm. To punish him, Zeus chained Prometheus to a rock where his liver was eaten by an eagle every day but grew again every night. Legend (story) - traditional narrative or collection of related narratives, popularly regarded as historically factual but actually a mixture of fact and fiction. The medieval Latin word legenda means things for reading. During certain services of the early Christian Church, legenda, or lives of the saints, were read aloud. A legend is set in a specific place at a specific time; the subject is often a heroic historical personage. A legend differs from a myth by portraying a human hero rather than one who is a god. Legends, originally oral, have been developed into literary masterpieces. Legends are stories about real people who are famous for doing something brave or extraordinary. Every time the story was told, it became more exaggerated and so it is now difficult to tell how much of the story is really true. World Literature: One of the greatest legendary figures in Britain is King Arthur. He was the son of King Uther Pendragon, a Celtic King. King Uther gave his child to Merlin the wizard. Merlin taught Arthur everything he knew so that he could become a great king. When King Uther died, Merlin stuck a sword into a rock and said, This sword is in the stone by magic. Only the true king will be able to pull it out. Many men tried but none succeeded. When Arthur tried, the sword slipped out easily. Arthur was made king. He went on to found the Round Table, an order to knights who became famous for fighting the wicked and helping the poor. What do you think are the important of studying Philippine literature? Whatever nationality you are it is always very important to study the literature of your country. In doing so you are not only learning about the historical aspects of your land, but

you are also keeping alive the thoughts, beliefs and cultural variations of your ancestors that differentiate your country from the rest of the world. Everyone's homeland has a cultural history. Mine, being from Wales, is rich in Celtic mythology with a strong ancient tradition of defending our small land from foreign invaders, all whilst keeping alive our native language and the artistic elements of our culture such as music, poetry and verse. In the Philippines, it seems that literature documents a progression of culture and foreign colonizers, leading on to eventual independence. A country's literature also tells us about its civilization in a form other than straight fact. Literature is usually one person's description of a situation told through their own personal feelings; eyewitness testimony to historical events that we were not present at. Writers have a talent for bringing the past back to life with emotive language and metaphor, helping us to imagine scenarios that may have happened decades, or even centuries, ago. It could also be said that the deeper you look into your country's literature the more you will find out about yourself and your upbringing, whilst understanding the political and economic impact the past has had upon your land. Literature gives us the power to trace our identity, both nationalistically and personally, through our ancestors and peers. What are the different literally genres? Genres of literature are important to learn about. The two main categories separating the different genres of literature are fiction and nonfiction. There are several genres of literature that fall under the nonfiction category. Nonfiction sits in direct opposition to fiction. Examples from both the fiction and nonfiction genres of literature are explained in detail below. This detailed genres of literature list is a great resource to share with any scholars. Types of Nonfiction: Narrative Nonfiction is information based on fact that is presented in a format which tells a story. Essays are a short literary composition that reflects the authors outlook or point. A short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative. A Biography is a written account of another persons life. An Autobiography gives the history of a persons life, written or told by that person. Often written in Narrative form of their persons life.

Speech is the faculty or power of speaking; oral communication; ability to express ones thoughts and emotions by speech, sounds, and gesture. Generally delivered in the form of an address or discourse. Finally there is the general genre of Nonfiction. This is Informational text dealing with an actual, real-life subject. This genre of literature offers opinions or conjectures on facts and reality. This includes biographies, history, essays, speech, and narrative non fiction. Nonfiction opposes fiction and is distinguished from those fiction genres of literature like poetry and drama which is the next section we will discuss. Genres of Fiction: Drama is the genre of literature thats subject for compositions is dramatic art in the way it is represented. This genre is stories composed in verse or prose, usually for theatrical performance, where conflicts and emotion are expressed through dialogue and action. Poetry is verse and rhythmic writing with imagery that evokes an emotional response from the reader. The art of poetry is rhythmical in composition, written or spoken. This genre of literature is for exciting pleasure by beautiful, imaginative, or elevated thoughts. Fantasy is the forming of mental images with strange or other worldly settings or characters; fiction which invites suspension of reality. Humor is the faculty of perceiving what is amusing or comical. Fiction full of fun, fancy, and excitement which meant to entertain. This genre of literature can actually be seen and contained within all genres. A Fable is a story about supernatural or extraordinary people Usually in the form of narration that demonstrates a useful truth. In Fables, animals often speak as humans that are legendary and supernatural tales. Fairy Tales or wonder tales are a kind of folktale or fable. Sometimes the stories are about fairies or other magical creatures, usually for children. Science Fiction is a story based on impact of potential science, either actual or imagined. Science fiction is one of the genres of literature that is set in the future or on other planets. Short Story is fiction of such briefness that is not able to support any subplots. Realistic Fiction is a story that can actually happen and is true to real life.

Folklore are songs, stories, myths, and proverbs of a person of folk that was handed down by word of mouth. Folklore is a genre of literature that is widely held, but false and based on unsubstantiated beliefs. Historical Fiction is a story with fictional characters and events in a historical setting. Horror is an overwhelming and painful feeling caused by literature that is frightfully shocking, terrifying, or revolting. Fiction in which events evoke a feeling of dread in both the characters and the reader. A Tall Tale is a humorous story with blatant exaggerations, swaggering heroes who do the impossible with an here of nonchalance. Legend is a story that sometimes of a national or folk hero. Legend is based on fact but also includes imaginative material. Mystery is a genre of fiction that deals with the solution of a crime or the unraveling of secrets. Anything that is kept secret or remains unexplained or unknown. Mythology is a type of legend or traditional narrative. This is often based in part on historical events, that reveals human behavior and natural phenomena by its symbolism; often pertaining to the actions of the gods. A body of myths, as that of a particular people or that relating to a particular person. Fiction in Verse is full-length novels with plot, subplots, themes, with major and minor characters. Fiction of verse is one of the genres of literature in which the narrative is usually presented in blank verse form. The genre of Fiction can be defined as narrative literary works whose content is produced by the imagination and is not necessarily based on fact. In fiction something is feigned, invented, or imagined; a made-up story.

VOLLEYBALL Volleyball is a team sport where 2 teams of 6 active players are separated by a high net and each team tries to score points against the other by grounding a ball on the other team's court. The rules of the game of volleyball are quite extensive. Ideally, points are scored when one team grounds a ball in the opposing team's court, or when the opposing team makes a fault. The game is made up of sets, each set being 25 points each. The first team to win 3 sets wins the game. The ball is usually played with hands and arms. Sometimes players also use any other part of their body to strike or push the ball. A team can contact the ball up to 3 times before it crosses the net. Mostly, volleyball is an indoor sport. However, other variations of the game, such as Beach Volleyball, have also developed over a period of time. Volleyball History Volleyball was invented by William G. Morgan who was a physical instruction teacher in the YMCA in Holyoke, Massachusetts, USA. He wanted to create an indoor game which could be played by any number of players. The game was created on the 9th of February, 1895. It was called Mintonette. Some of the traits of the game were borrowed from tennis and handball. This was also the time when another game called basketball was also gaining a lot of popularity. Mintonette was intended to be an indoor game that was less rough and could be played by the older members of the YMCA. Initial rules laid down by William G. Morgan required a net which was 1.98 meters (6 feet 6 inches) high and a court which was 7.6 meters X 15.2 meters (25 feet X 50 feet) in size. The game could have any number of players. The match was made up of 9 innings where each team had 3 serves in each inning. There was also no limit to the number of contacts which a team could make on the ball before passing it into the opposing team's side. Of course, the rules have evolved over time. The set and spike was introduced by 1916 and in 1917 the game changed from 21 points to 15 points. In 1919 the American Expeditionary Forces distributed about 16,000 volleyballs to their troops and allies and the game spread to different parts of the world. In 1900, Canada officially adopted volleyball. In 1920 the '3 hits rule' and the back row hitting guidelines were established. In 1924, Volleyball was introduced in the Olympics - the games were held in Paris. Volleyball was played as an American sports demonstration event. Officially the game was included in the Olympics in 1964. In 1947, the FIVB (Federation Internationale de Volleyball) was formed leading to the first of the World Championships to be held: in 1949 for men and in 1952 for women. Many countries have adopted volleyball since then. A list of these countries includes Brazil, Italy, Netherlands, Russia, and China. In 1987, the FIVB endorsed Beach Volleyball, which is a game played on sand with only 2 players per team. Beach Volleyball was officially introduced in the Olympics program in 1996. Volleyball Court Volleyball courts have evolved since the time the game was played the first time. Today, the game is played on a court which is 9 meters wide and 18 meters long. This is then divided into two halves of 9 meters X 9 meters each. A net which is 1 meter wide is placed in the center, so that the top of the net is 2.43 meters high (for men) and 2.24 meters high (for women). The height is often varied for different types of players such as veterans and juniors. A line is drawn parallel to the center in each half, at a distance of 3 meters. This is called the 'attack line'. Thus, the court area of each team is divided into the 'front row' and 'back row' areas. The court areas are also surrounded by an area called 'the free zone' which is at least 3 meters wide on all sides of the court. The players can enter and play within this free zone after the service of the ball. Volleyball Equipment To play volleyball, the first equipment required is the court. The next is obviously, the ball. The ball is made out of natural or synthetic leather. It is inflated with compressed air. As per the regulations laid down by the FIVB, the ball must: Have a circumference between 65 to 67 centimeters. Weigh between 260 to 280 grams. Have an inside pressure between 0.30 to 0.325 kilograms per centimeter square.

The next bit of equipment for the volleyball player is the outfit. A variety of volleyball uniforms are available. The colors depend upon the team colors. The uniform usually consists of jerseys, low rise shorts, volleyball shoes. Other accessories may include headbands and arm bands etc. There are a variety of good sporting brands which make clothes for volleyball players. Also, there are volleyball kits available in the market for those who wish to learn and play the game.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/volleyball-history-court-and-equipments.html

Volleyball Terms You might hear some of these terms during a match. Ace- A serve not returned by the opposing team. Attack- An attempt by the offensive team to end the rally by hitting the ball to the floor of the defensive team. Attacker- A player who spikes or hits the ball over the net. Block- A skill executed above the net by one or more players to prevent a spike from entering their side of the court. Dig- A basic skill used to receive an opponents attack. (Also called a bump) Down Ball- An attacked ball the blockers judge as not having enough speed or good enough court position to require a block. Foul- Any rule infraction that causes the referee to blow the whistle. Forearm Pass- A basic skill where the ball is rebounded off the players forearms to the desired target. Free Ball- A ball returned by the opposing team that cannot be attacked and, instead, is passed over the net. Hit- Another term used for an attack or spike. Kill- An attack not returned by the defense. Overhead Pass- A basic skill where the ball is contacted above the head with both hands. It can be used on defense, serve receive and setting. Rally- The time from the start of the serve until the play is ended by a point or side out. Rally Scoring- An alternative scoring system incorporated in the deciding game of a match where a point is scored when either team wins the rally. Rotation- When a team earns a side out, the team moves one position clockwise on the court before the next serve. Serve- A basic volleyball skill used to put the ball into play. Set - An overhead pass directed to an attacker. Side out- When the serving team loses the rally and the receiving team gets the ball and the next serve attempt. (Does not result in a point unless rally scoring is being used.) Spike- A powerful attack that incorporates jumping and hitting the ball into the opponents court with one hand. Sprawl- A defensive technique used to retrieve a ball in front of the defender. Tip- An offspeed shot used by the attacker directed at the holes in the defense. Also called a dump or dink.

VOLLEYBALL Rules and Regulations I. The Game, Players, and Equipment 1. Teams consist of six players. However, a team may start or continue the game with four players. 2. This event will be Co-ed (minimum of 2 females on the score card and official roster), one female player must be playing on the court at all times. 3. All games shall be played with the NO SIDE OUT rule. That is, a point is scored on every possession. 4. Preliminary Games: A game shall be won by the team that has scored 25 points and is at least two points ahead with a cap at 27. A match consists of only one game and sides will be switched once 13 points has been reached by one team. 5. Semifinal & Final Games: A game shall be won by the team that has scored 25 points and is at least two points ahead. A match consists of best two-out-of-three games. 6. The ball may not be played off of an adjacent court. 7. Any ball which hits the ceiling or any outside object is out of play. 8. Each team is allowed one 60-second time-outs per game, during which rotation can change and substitutions can be made. 9. For safety reason, jewelry should not be worn during play or should be taped. 10. There are two substitutions allowed per team per game which can take place at service. II. Service 1. Winner of the coin toss shall choose to serve or receive. 2. Server must remain behind service line until ball is contacted. 3. If the ball is served before the referees whistle, the ball is dead and the point is re-served. 4. If a teams player serve out of order, the team loses serve and any points scored while serving out of order. The players of the team at fault must take their correct positions. 5. Any attempt to screen the receiving team from seeing the trajectory of the serve will result in a point and possession. This includes two or more players standing together, or one player with his hands above his head, as the serve passes over him/them. 1. At the time the ball is contacted for the serve, the players on the court must be in their proper order. III. Playing The Ball 1. Each team is allowed three successive contacts of the ball in order to return it. 2. The ball may be hit with any part of the body above the waist. 3. The ball can contact any number of body parts provided that such contacts are simultaneous and what the ball rebounds immediately and cleanly. 4. Touching a ball in an attempt to block does not count as a touch and the same player may make the first contact. 5. Contact with the ball must be brief and instantaneous. When the ball visibly comes to rest momentarily in the hands and arms of a player, it is considered as having been held. Scooping, lifting, pushing, or carrying the ball are forms of holding. A ball clearly hit from a position below the ball is considered a good hit. 6. Receiving a served ball with an overhead pass using open hands is not necessarily a fault. 7. If, after simultaneous contact by opponents, the ball falls out-of-bounds, the team on the opposite side shall be deemed as having caused it to go out-of-bounds. 8. When two players of the same team simultaneously contact a ball, it is considered one contact and either player may make the next contact. 9. A player is not allowed to attack the ball on the opponents side of the net. 10. No player shall assist a teammate by holding him/her while they are playing the ball. It is legal to hold a player not playing the ball in order to prevent a fault. 11. A back-row player may not cause a ball, which is completely above the height of the net to cross over to the opponents side unless he/she is either on the ground completely behind the 3-meter line or is in the air, having jumped from the behind line. If any part of the line is touched by the attacking player it is a violation. I. Blocking 1. Blocking may be legally accomplished by only the players who are in the front-line at the time of service. Back-line players may not participate in a block.

2. The team which has affected a block shall have the right to three additional contacts after the block. 3. Any player participating in a block shall have the right to make the next contact, such contact counting as the first team hit, Multiple contacts of the ball by a players participating in a block shall be legal provided it is during one attempt to intercept the ball. 4. Multiple contacts of the ball by a player participating in a block shall be legal provided it is during one attempt to intercept the ball. 5. Multiple contacts of the ball during a block shall be considered a single contact, even though the ball may make multiple contacts with one or more players of the block 6. Blocking and/or spiking a served ball is prohibited. 7. It is legal to block a ball on the opponents side of the net provided, in the opinion of the official, the trajectory of the ball would have caused it to break the plane of the net. 8. A blocked ball is considered to have crossed the net. II. Play At The Net 1. Play will continue during the serve even if the ball makes contact with the net and crosses over. 2. If a players action causes him/her to contact the net during play, accidental or not, with any part of the body or clothes, that player shall be charged with a fault. 3. If opponents contact the net simultaneously, it shall constitute a double fault and the point shall be replayed. 4. If a player accidentally contacts any part of the net supports, such contact should not be counted as a fault provided that it has no effect on sequence of play. Intentional contact or grabbing of such objects shall be penalized as a fault. 5. Contacting the opponents playing areas with any part of the body except the feet is a fault. Touching the opponents area with a foot is not a fault provided that some part of the encroaching foot remain on or above the centerline and does not interfere with the play of an opponent. III. Faults 1. Faults result in a point. 2. A fault shall be declared when: a. the ball touches the floor. b. the ball is held, thrown, or pushed. c. a team has played the ball more than three times consecutively. d. the ball touches a player below the waist. e. a player touches the ball twice consecutively. f. a team is out of position at serve. g. a player touches the net. h. a player completely crosses the center point and contacts the opponents playing area. i. a player attacks the ball above the opponents playing area. j. a back-line player while in the attack area hits the ball into the opponents court from above the height of the net. k. a ball lands outside the court or touches an object outside the court. l. the ball is played by a player being assisted by a teammate as a means of support. m. a player reaches under the net and touches the ball or an opponent while the ball is being played by the opposite team. n. the game is delayed persistently. o. blocking is performed illegally. p. illegally served ball or service fault.

Percentage A related system which expresses a number as a fraction of 1000 uses the terms "per mil" and "millage". Percentages are used to express how large/small one quantity is, relative to another quantity. The first quantity usually represents a part of, or a change in, the second quantity, which should be greater than zero. Although percentages are usually used to express numbers between zero and one, any ratio can be expressed as a percentage. Percent sign The word is derived from the Latin per centum meaning by the hundred.The percent sign evolved by gradual contraction of the phrase per cento. The "per" was often abbreviated as "p." and eventually disappeared entirely. The "cento" was contracted to two circles separated by a horizontal line from which the modern "%" is derived. Let's look at some examples in which we are asked to convert between ratios, fractions, decimals and percents. Example 1.Write each ratio as a fraction, a decimal, and a percent: 4 to 100, 63 to 100, 17 to 100 Solution Ratio Fraction Decimal Percent 04 to 100 .04 04% 63 to 100 .63 63% 17 to 100 .17 17% Example 2.Write each percent as a ratio, a fraction in lowest terms, and a decimal: 24%, 5%, 12.5% Solution Percent Ratio Fraction Decimal 24% 24 to 100 .240 05% 05 to 100 .050 12.5% 12.5 to 100 .125 Example 3.Write each percent as a decimal: 91.2%, 4.9%, 86.75% Solution Percent Decimal 91.2% .9120 04.9% .0490 86.75% .8675 1. percent of ? 16% 2. decimal of 21.8%? .218 3. decimal of 150%? 1.50 4. percent of .0179? 1.79% 5. decimal of 56.28%? .5628

Simple Interest Definition and Calculation When we borrow money we are expected to pay for using it this is called interest. There are three components to calculate simple interest: principal (the amount of money borrowed), interest rate and time. Formula for calculating simple interest: I = Prt Where, I = interest P = principal r = interest rate (per year) t = time (in years or fraction of a year) CALCULATING SIMPLE INTEREST EXAMPLES Example: Alan borrowed $10,000 from the bank to purchase a car. He agreed to repay the amount in 8 months, plus simple interest at an interest rate of 10% per annum (year). If he repays the full amount of $ 10,000 in eight months, the interest would be: P = $ 10,000 r = 0.10 (10% per year) t = 8/12 (this denotes fraction of a year) Applying the above formula, interest would be I = $ 10,000(0.10)(8/12) = $ 667 If he repays the amount of $10,000 in fifteen months, the only change is with time. Therefore, his interest would be: I = $ 10,000 (0.10)(15/12) = $ 1,250

The Bankers Rule: In the world of finance, time is often expressed in days rather than months. Two kinds of times are used: Exact time and Approximate time.

Exact Time It uses the precise number of days for time of the loan or investment. Assumes that each year has 360 days. Approximate time: Assumes that each year has 360 days and each month has 30 days. The Bankers rule Is widely used in the United States, and uses the combination of ordinary interest and exact time. Example: An investment of $5,000 is made on August 31 and repaid on December 31 at an interest rate of 9% Applying the Bankers rule, interest would be: I = Prt = $5,000(0.09)(106/360) = $ 132.50 Determining the maturity value: Maturity value = Interest + Principal Formula: S = P (1 + rt) Refer the example given under the Bankers rule. Maturity value would be, S = $ 5,000 [1 + 0.09(106/360)] = $ 5,000 (1.0265) = $ 5,132.50 Note: How to calculate 1.0265. First, divide 106 by 360, you will get 0.2944. Then, multiply 0.2944 by 0.09, you will get 0.0265. Add 1 to 0.0265 to get 1.0265 Finding time: Formula: t = I/Pr Using the same example above, time would be t = $ 132.50/[$ 5,000*0.09] = 132.50/$ 450 = 0.2944 We have considered 360 days in a year. Therefore number of days would be, t = 0.2944 x 360 = 106 days Finding the interest rate: Formula: r = I/Pt Using the same example above, time would be r = $ 132.50/[$ 5,000*(106/360)] = 132.50/$ 1,472.22 = 0.09 i.e. 9%
Compound A formula for calculating annual compound interest is

Where, A = final amount P = principal amount (initial investment) r = annual nominal interest rate (as a decimal, not in percentage) n = number of times the interest is compounded per year t = number of years Example usage: An amount of 1500.00 is deposited in a bank paying an annual interest rate of 4.3%, compounded quarterly. Find the balance after 6 years. A. Using the formula above, with P = 1500, r = 4.3/100 = 0.043, n = 4, and t = 6:

So, the balance after 6 years is approximately 1,938.84. [edit]Periodic compounding The amount function for compound interest is a power law function in terms of time.

= Total time in years = Number of compounding periods per year (note that the total number of compounding periods is = Nominal annual interest rate expressed as a decimal. e.g.: 6% = 0.06

 means that nt is rounded down to the nearest integer. As n increases, the rate approaches an upper limit of er 1. This rate is called continuous compounding, see below. Since the principal A(0) is simply a coefficient, it is often dropped for simplicity, and the resulting accumulation function is used in interest theory instead. Accumulation functions for simple and compound interest are listed below:

Note: A(t) is the amount function and a(t) is the accumulation function.

Basic "Percent of" Word Problems Sections: Basic percentage exercises, Markup / markdown, General increase / decrease When you learned how to translate simple English statements into mathematical expressions, you learned that "of" can indicate "times". This frequently comes up when using percentages. If you need to find 16% of 1400, you first convert the percentage "16%" to its decimal form; namely, the number "0.16". (When you are doing actual math, you need to use actual numbers. Always convert the percentages to decimals!) Then, since "sixteen percent OF fourteen hundred" tells you to multiply the 0.16 and the 1400, you get: (0.16)(1400) = 224. This says that 224 is sixteen percent of 1400. Percentage problems usually work off of some version of the sentence "(this) is (some percentage) of (that)", which translates to "(this) = (some decimal) (that)". You will be given two of the values, or at least enough information that you can figure two of them out. Then you'll need to pick a variable for the value you don't have, write an equation, and solve for that variable. What percent of 20 is 30? We have the original number (20) and the comparative number (30). The unknown in this problem is the rate or percentage. Since the statement is "(thirty) is (some percentage) of (twenty)", then the variable stands for the percentage, and the equation is: 30 = (x)(20) 30 20 = x = 1.5 Since x stands for a percentage, I need to remember to convert this decimal back into a percentage: 1.5 = 150% Thirty is 150% of 20. What is 35% of 80? Here we have the rate (35%) and the original number (80); the unknown is the comparative number which constitutes 35% of 80. Since the exercise statement is "(some number) is (thirty-five percent) of (eighty)", then the variable stands for a number and the equation is: x = (0.35)(80) x = 28 Twenty-eight is 35% of 80. 45% of what is 9? Here we have the rate (45%) and the comparative number (9); the unknown is the original number that 9 is 45% of. The statement is "(nine) is (forty-five percent) of (some number)", so the variable stands for a number, and the equation is: 9 = (0.45)(x) 9 0.45 = x = 20 Nine is 45% of 20. The format displayed above, "(this number) is (some percent) of (that number)", always holds true for percents. In any given problem, you plug your known values into this equation, and then you solve for whatever is left. Suppose you bought something that was priced at $6.95, and the total bill was $7.61. What is the sales tax rate in this city? (Round answer to one decimal place.) The sales tax is a certain percentage of the price, so I first have to figure what the actual tax was. The tax was: 7.61 6.95 = 0.66 Then (the sales tax) is (some percentage) of (the price), or, in mathematical terms: 0.66 = (x)(6.95) Solving for x, I get: 0.66 6.95 = x = 0.094964028... = 9.4964028...% The sales tax rate is 9.5%. In the above example, I first had to figure out what the actual tax was. Many percentage problems are really "two-part-ers" like this: they involve some kind of increase or decrease relative to some original value. Warning: Always figure the percentage of change relative to the original value.

Suppose a certain item used to sell for seventy-five cents a pound, you see that it's been marked up to eighty-one cents a pound. What is the percent increase? First, I have to find the absolute increase: 81 75 = 6 The price has gone up six cents. Now I can find the percentage increase over the original price. Note this language, "increase/decrease over the original", and use it to your advantage: it will remind you to put the increase or decrease over the original value, and then divide. This percentage increase is the relative change: 6 /75 = 0.08 ...or an 8% increase in price per pound. "Percent of" Word Problems: Markup and Markdown Examples Sections: Basic percentage exercises, Markup / markdown, General increase / decrease An important category of percentage exercises is markup and markdown problems. For these, you calculate the markup or markdown in absolute terms (you find by how much the quantity changed), and then you calculate the percent change relative to the original value. So they're really just another form of "increase - decrease" exercises. A computer software retailer used a markup rate of 40%. Find the selling price of a computer game that cost the retailer $25. The markup is 40% of the $25 cost, so the markup is: (0.40)(25) = 10 Then the selling price, being the cost plus markup, is: 25 + 10 = 35 The item sold for $35. A golf shop pays its wholesaler $40 for a certain club, and then sells it to a golfer for$75. What is the markup rate? First, I'll calculate the markup in absolute terms: 75 40 = 35 Then I'll find the relative markup over the original price, or the markup rate: ($35) is (some percent) of ($40), or: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2011 All Rights Reserved 35 = (x)(40) ...so the relative markup over the original price is: 35 40 = x = 0.875 Since x stands for a percentage, I need to remember to convert this decimal value to the corresponding percentage. The markup rate is 87.5%. A shoe store uses a 40% markup on cost. Find the cost of a pair of shoes that sells for$63. This problem is somewhat backwards. They gave me the selling price, which is cost plus markup, and they gave me the markup rate, but they didn't tell me the actual cost or markup. So I have to be clever to solve this. I will let "x" be the cost. Then the markup, being 40% of the cost, is0.40x. And the selling price of $63 is the sum of the cost and markup, so: 63 = x + 0.40x 63 = 1x + 0.40x 63 = 1.40x 63 1.40 = x= 45 The shoes cost the store $45. An item originally priced at $55 is marked 25% off. What is the sale price? First, I'll find the markdown. The markdown is 25% of the original price of $55, so: x = (0.25)(55) = 13.75 By subtracting this markdown from the original price, I can find the sale price: 55 13.75 = 41.25 The sale price is $41.25. An item that regularly sells for $425 is marked down to $318.75. What is the discount rate? First, I'll find the amount of the markdown: 425 318.75 = 106.25 Then I'll calculate "the markdown over the original price", or the markdown rate: ($106.25) is (some percent) of ($425), so: 106.25 = (x)(425) ...and the relative markdown over the original price is: x = 106.25 425 = 0.25 Since the "x" stands for a percentage, I need to remember to convert this decimal to percentage form. The markdown rate is 25%.

An item is marked down 15%; the sale price is $127.46. What was the original price? This problem is backwards. They gave me the sale price ($127.46) and the markdown rate(15%), but neither the markdown amount nor the original price. I will let "x" stand for the original price. Then the markdown, being 15% of this price, was 0.15x. And the sale price is the original price, less the markdown, so I get: x 0.15x = 127.46 1x 0.15x = 127.46 0.85x = 127.46 x = 127.46 0.85 = 149.952941176... This problem didn't state how to round the final answer, but dollars-and-cents is always written with two decimal places, so: The original price was $149.95. Note in this last problem that I ended up, in the third line of calculations, with an equation that said "eighty-five percent of the original price is $127.46". You can save yourself some time if you think of discounts in this way: if the price is 15% off, then you're only actually paying 85%. Similarly, if the price is 25% off, then you're paying 75%; if the price is 30% off, then you're paying 70%; and so on. "Percent of" Word Problems: General Increase and Decrease Examples (page 3 of 3) Sections: Basic percentage exercises, Markup / markdown, General increase / decrease Note that, while the values below do not refer to money, the procedures used to solve these problems are otherwise identical to the markup - markdown examples on the previous page. Growing up, you lived in a tiny country village. When you left for college, the population was 840. You recently heard that the population has grown by 5%. What is the present population? First, I'll find the actual amount of the increase. Since the increase is five percent of the original, then the increase is: (0.05)(840) = 42 The new population is the old population plus the increase, or: 840 + 42 = 882 The population is now 882.

Your friend diets and goes from 125 pounds to 110 pounds. What was her percentage weight loss? First, I'll find the absolute weight loss: 125 110 = 15 This fifteen-pound decrease is some percentage of the original, since the rate of change is always with respect to the original value. So the percentage is "change over original", or: 15 = (x)(125) 15 125 = x (See? The change, 15, is over the original, 125.) 15 125 = 0.12 The change is a percentage, so I need to convert this decimal to percentage form: She lowered her weight by 12%. Your boss says that his wife has put an 18 51 foot garden in along the whole back end of their back yard. He says that this has reduced the back-yard lawn area by 24%. What are the total dimensions of his back yard? What are the dimensions of the remaining lawn area? Since no suburban lot is going to be only eighteen feet wide (because then the house couldn't fit along the street frontage), the width of the lot must be the51-foot dimension. Now I need to figure out the length of the back yard. The area of the garden is: (18)(51) = 918 This represents 24% of the total yard area; that is, 24% of the original lawn area. This says that (918 square feet) is (twenty-four percent) of (the original), so:
918 = 0.24x 918 0.24 = x = 3825 The total back yard area is 3825 square feet. Since the width is 51 feet, then: 3825 51 = 75 The length then is 75 feet. Since 18 feet are taken up by the garden, then the lawn area is 75 18 = 57 feet deep. The back yard measures 51' 75' and the lawn measures 51' 57'.

Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science which uses various methods of empirical investigation[1] and critical analysis[2] to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity. For many sociologists the goal is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure.[3] The traditional focuses of sociology have included social stratification, social class, culture, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects, such as health, medical, military and penal institutions, the Internet, and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge. The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguisticand cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches to the analysis of society. Conversely, recent decades have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modellingand social network analysis.[4][5] Sociology should not be confused with various general social studies courses which bear little relation to sociological theory or social science research methodology. Walden Bello (born 1945) is a Filipino author, academic, and political analyst. He is a professor of sociology and public administration at theUniversity of the Philippines Diliman, as well as executive director of Focus on the Global South. Born in Manila, Philippines, he became a political activist following the declaration of Martial Law by then-President Ferdinand Marcos on September 21, 1972.[1] Bello currently sits as a member ofCongress in the Philippines' House of Representatives where he serves as the political party Akbayan's second nominee.[1] Walden Bello is the founding director of Focus on the Global South, a policy research institute based in Bangkok, Thailand. Prior to that he was executive director of the Institute for Food and Development Policy (Food First) in Oakland, California. Educated at Princeton University, where he did his Ph.D. in sociology in 1975, he subsequently taught at the University of California, Berkeley, where he was a research associate with the Center for South East Asian Studies. He is also a guest professor at Binghamton University, where his lectures focus predominantly on issues ofglobalization.[2] In 2003, Bello was awarded the Right Livelihood Award, whose website describes him as "one of the leading critics of the current model of economicglobalization, combining the roles of intellectual and activist."[3] Bello is also a fellow of the Transnational Institute (based in Amsterdam), and is a columnist for Foreign Policy In Focus. In March 2008 he was named Outstanding Public Scholar for 2008 by the International Studies Association.[4] Bello currently sits on the board of directors of the International Forum on Globalization.[2] Randy David hails from Pampanga and obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, major in Sociology, from the University of the Philippines in 1965.[1] He also pursued doctoral studies at the University of Manchester, though he opted not to complete them and chose instead to remain in the Philippines during the martial law government ofPresident Ferdinand Marcos.[1] A longtime professor in the Department of Sociology of the University of the Philippines, David first came into widespread prominence in 1986, when he accepted an offer by the Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation to host a public affairs talk show on IBC-13. The show, named Truth Forum, was notable as the only public affairs talk show during its time that was conducted in Filipino, rather than English. David later joined the newly re-established Associated Broadcasting Company as a newscaster and the host of a new talk show, Public Life with Randy David. After leaving the network in 1995, David hosted Public Life for GMA Network, and until 2003, Off the Record (with Katrina Legarda) for ABS-CBN, his last regular hosting stint to date. Since 1995, his newspaper column, Public Lives, has appeared every Sunday on the pages of the Philippine Daily Inquirer[1] On February 25, 2006, David was arrested in Santolan, Quezon City while celebrating the 20th anniversary of the first People Power Revolution. The reason for the arrest was the lack of permit to rally, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo having revoked all permits after she declared a state of national emergency just a few hours earlier.[2][3] He was later released with all charges dropped. In May, 2006, the Supreme Court declared that the arrests of David and his co-detainees were invalid.[4] David expressed interest in running for a congressional seat in Pampanga should Gloria Macapagal Arroyo run for Congressman in the 2010 general elections, a fight that has been dubbed by several Senators and mediamen as "David vs. Gloriath". [5] David later chose not to run, and Arroyo was elected to the seat in May 2010. Ledivina Vidallon Cario was a Filipino sociologist and political scientist. She was University Professor (the highest academic rank in theUniversity of the Philippines), and later University Professor Emeritus, at the National College of Public Administration and Governance of theUniversity of the Philippines Diliman (UP-NCPAG). She also once served as president of the Philippine Sociological Society. Cario also sat as dean of the College of Public Administration (UP-CPA), later the UP-NCPAG, for two terms and as vice president for public affairs under then University of the Philippines president Dr. Jose V. Abueva. Karina Constantino-David is a former Chairperson of the Civil Service Commission of the Philippines. Daughter to historian Renato Constantino, David earned a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology at the University of the Philippines Diliman in 1966. She completed academic requirements in the Master of Arts in Sociology program (orals lacking) from the same university in 1968. She obtained a Master of Arts in Economic and Social Studies from The Victoria University of Manchester in England in 1974.[1] Anthropology is a discipline that deals with the study of humans and human nature. It is a diverse subject, encompassing all the major aspects of humans (homo sapiens). Anthropology is classified into four branches, namely, biological anthropology, archeology, cultural anthropology and anthropological linguistics. People who specialize in any of these branches are referred to as anthropologists. They focus on the growth, development and interaction of cultures. A comparison of various cultures of the world is also carried out in order to examine the interrelationship between them.

Some Famous Anthropologists Indeed, the work of anthropologists helps in understanding the human origins and civilization. Following are some eminent anthropologists that have contributed a lot in understanding this subject. Franz Boas (1858 - 1942) Franz Boas, honored as the founder of modern anthropology and the father of American anthropology, was born on July 9, 1858, in Germany. He received a doctorate in physics and post-doctorate in Geography. Boas was remembered as the first person to apply scientific knowledge in studying society and human culture. He studied extensively on the Kwakiutl Indians, which led him to establish the relationship between culture and race. According to Boas, a collection of data from every aspect was the most important element for understanding the culture. His major publications include The Mind of Primitive Man (1911), Anthropology and Modern Life (1928) and Race, Language, and Culture (1940). Margaret Mead (1901 - 1978) Margaret Mead, a pioneer of cultural anthropology, was born on December 16, 1901, in Philadelphia. She contributed a lot in understanding the modern concepts of western and American culture. Mead published several books on contemporary issues and primitive societies. She was a strong supporter of women's rights. Her most renowned works are Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), Growing Up in New Guinea (1930), Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935) and Blackberry Winter: My Earlier years (1972). Ruth Benedict (1877 - 1948) Ruth Benedict, a famous American cultural anthropologist, was born on June 5, 1877, in New York City. She was a student of Franz Boas, whose ideology was clearly evident in her work. Benedict's most noted work was the Patterns of Culture (1934) in which she stated that every culture has originated from human potentialities over a period of time. She is remembered as one of the pioneers to apply anthropology in studying the aspects of advanced societies. Other significant publications include Zuni Mythology (1935), Race: Science and Politics (1940) and The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (1946). Ralph Linton (1893 - 1953) Ralph Linton, a famous cultural anthropologist, was born on February 27, 1893, in Philadelphia. He started his career as an archeologist and conducted extensive research in ethnography of various regions, including Madagascar. After receiving his doctoral degree, Linton published The Tanala, a Hill Tribe of Madagascar in 1933. He unraveled the distinction between status and role, which is one of the major landmark in anthropology. Linton's most renowned works include The Study of Man (1936) and The Tree of Culture (1955). Claude Lvi-Strauss (1908) Born on 28 November, 1908, in Paris, Claude Lvi-Strauss studied law and philosophy. Though he continued his further studies in philosophy, structural anthropology was his major interest. His major works include Structural Anthropology (1958) and Totemism (1962), The Raw and the Cooked (1969) and The Savage Mind (1972). Lvi-Strauss developed the theory of binary opposites, for example, good vs. bad, raw vs. cooked, etc. According to Claude Lvi-Strauss, culture is a system of communication in the society. He interpreted human culture on the basis of linguistics, information theory and cybernetics. Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/famous-anthropologists.html Introduction to Sociology/Famous Sociologists < Introduction to Sociology Sociologist Comte, Auguste Time Period 1798-1857 School of Thought positivism structural functionalism;solidarism socialism; conflict theory social darwinism Most Well-Known Contribution coined the term "Sociology"; founder of positivism; developed the Law of three stages well-known for several books, including: Suicide, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life; The Division of Labour in Society; started the first journal of sociology; also asserted that there are social facts explained the origins and functioning of Capitalism; advocated socialism; argued that the history of all societies is rooted in class conflict created a lengthy volume on sociology; applied Darwinian evolution to social life; coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" most well-known for his work on social structure and life in large cities most well-known for his book The Theory of the Leisure Class symbolic interactionism most well-known for his concept of the looking-glass self

Durkheim, mile 1858-1917

Marx, Karl Spencer, Herbert Simmel, Georg

1818-1883 1820-1903 1858-1918

Veblen, Thorstein 1857-1929 Cooley, Charles Horton 1864-1929

Sociologist Mead, George Herbert Weber, Max Parsons, Talcott

Time Period 1863-1931 1864-1920 1902-1979

School of Thought symbolic interactionism verstehen structural functionalism ethnomethodology symbolic interactionism

Most Well-Known Contribution developed symbolic interactionism well known for several books, including The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism formalized the theory of structural functionalism developed the methodological and theoretical approach of ethnomethodology most well-known for his ideas involving dramaturgy and his books Stigma and The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life most well-known for his cultural capital and habitus

Garfinkel, Harold 1917Goffman, Erving Bourdieu, Pierre 1922-1982 1930-2002

Marketing is the process of communicating the value of a product or service to customers. Marketing might sometimes be interpreted as the art of selling products, but selling is only a small fraction of marketing. As the term "Marketing" may replace "Advertising" it is the overall strategy and function of promoting a product or service to the customer. From a societal point of view, marketing is the link between a societys material requirements and its economic patterns of response. Marketing satisfies these needs and wants through exchange processes and building long term relationships. The process of communicating the value of a product or service through positioning to customers. Marketing can be looked at as an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, delivering and communicating value to customers, and managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its shareholders. Marketing is the science of choosing target markets through market analysis and market segmentation, as well as understanding consumer buying behavior and providing superior customer value. There are five competing concepts under which organizations can choose to operate their business; the production concept, the product concept, the selling concept, the marketing concept, and the holistic marketing concept. The four components of holistic marketing are relationship marketing, internal marketing, integrated marketing, and socially responsive marketing. The set of engagements necessary for successful marketing management includes, capturing marketing insights, connecting with customers, building strong brands, shaping the market offerings, delivering and communicating value, creating long-term growth, and developing marketing strategies and plans.[1] Importance of Marketing Author: Exforsys Inc. Published on: 6th Nov 2009 | Last Updated on: 4th Jan 2011 Marketing is a very important aspect in business since it contributes greatly to the success of the organization. Production and distribution depend largely on marketing. Many people think that sales and marketing are basically the same. These two concepts are different in many aspects. Marketing covers advertising, promotions, public relations, and sales. It is the process of introducing and promoting the product or service into the market and encourages sales from the buying public. Sales refer to the act of buying or the actual transaction of customers purchasing the product or service. Since the goal of marketing is to make the product or service widely known and recognized to the market, marketers must be creative in their marketing activities. In this competitive nature of many businesses, getting the product noticed is not that easy. Strategically, the business must be centered on the customers more than the products. Although good and quality products are also essential, the buying public still has their personal preferences. If you target more of their needs, they will come back again and again and even bring along recruits. If you push more on the product and disregard their wants and the benefits they can get, you will lose your customers in no time. The sad thing is that getting them back is the hardest part. Marketing Promotes Product Awareness to the Public It has already been mentioned in the previous paragraph that getting the product or service recognized by the market is the primary goal of marketing. No business possibly ever thought of just letting the people find out about the business themselves, unless you have already established a reputation in the industry. But if you are a start-out company, the only means to be made known is to advertise and promote. Your business may be spending on the advertising and promotional programs but the important thing is that product and company information is disseminated to the buying public. Various types of marketing approaches can be utilized by an organization. All forms of marketing promote product awareness to the market at large. Offline and online marketing make it possible for the people to be educated with the various products and services that they can take advantage of. A company must invest in marketing so as not to miss the opportunity of being discovered. If expense is to be considered, there are cost-effective marketing techniques a company can embark on such as pay-per-click ads and blogging. Marketing Helps Boost Product Sales Apart from public awareness about a companys products and services, marketing helps boost sales and revenue growth. Whatever your business is selling, it will generate sales once the public learns about your product through TV advertisements, radio commercials, newspaper ads, online ads, and other forms of marketing. The more people hear and see more of your advertisements, the more they will be interested to buy. If your company aims to increase the sales percentage and double the production, the marketing department must be able to come up with effective and strategic marketing plans. Marketing Builds Company Reputation

In order to conquer the general market, marketers aim to create a brand name recognition or product recall. This is a technique for the consumers to easily associate the brand name with the images, logo, or caption that they hear and see in the advertisements. For example, McDonalds is known for its arch design which attracts people and identifies the image as McDonalds. For some companies, building a reputation to the public may take time but there are those who easily attract the people. With an established name in the industry, a business continues to grow and expand because more and more customers will purchase the products or take advantage of the services from a reputable company. Marketing plays a very essential role in the success of a company. It educates people on the latest market trends, helps boost a companys sales and profit, and develops company reputation. But marketers must be creative and wise enough to promote their products with the proper marketing tactics. Although marketing is important, if it is not conducted and researched well, the company might just be wasting on expenses and time on a failed marketing approach. The 3C's and 4P's of Outdoor Marketing By Anthony Free When I was working on my MBA, I took a very insightful class called Marketing Strategy that drilled the concept of the 3C's and 4P's into my brain. If you have not heard of this marketing concept, briefly reviewed, it is understanding your Customer and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of your Competition and your Company, then taking this knowledge and adjusting your Price, Product, Place of distribution and type of Promotion to maximize your sales and profitability. When I started my own company, I sought to take this concept a step further and applying its principles to Outdoor Marketing. Customer Applying this principle to outdoor marketing requires different thought than developing a TV or radio spot then deciding on which stations to play it. For instance, you must understand where does your customers travel, shop, work, eat and enjoy life outside of the home? Moreover, what are their likes and dislikes? You must truly get to know your customers because this information will be crucial in your outdoor marketing efforts and specifically in determining exactly where to place your ads. Competition You are not the only one who wants your potential customers. Undoubtedly, you have competition. To effectively communicate to those customers, you will need to differentiate your company from your competition and focus on your strengths and on their weaknesses. Furthermore, be sure to expand your idea of competition. You not only have direct competitors (i.e. Ford dealership vs. Toyota dealership), but you also have indirect competitors (i.e. Ford dealership vs. Mass Transit). Broaden your horizon and give adequate thought as to their strengths and weaknesses. Think like a consumer. If you understand your customers, you will know where to advertise to reach them and your competition may not. Don't be afraid to directly compare your strengths to their weaknesses in your outdoor advertising. Make your competitors defend themselves. The business arena is not the place to play nice guy. Company First and foremost list what your company can do well and, more importantly, what it cannot. It is quite painful to admit that you do not excel in all areas of your business but it is better to understand it now and not misstep and let your customers down by promoting something that you can't delivery on. Once you have this list, can you effectively communicate what your company does utilizing outdoor media? Can you get across your primary focus and your main strengths? Can you make it simple enough? Focus on your top two strengths that intersect with the top wants of your target customers and place your ads where they frequent. Furthermore, depending on what you want to communicate, you will need to choose the appropriate outdoor media of which there are many. Price If your company cannot afford to advertise on traditional billboards, which can average $2,000 per month for a major highway billboard, then you should look into other forms of outdoor and out-of-home media. You can advertise at bus stops, in malls, on diner placemats, and of course my favorite, on receptacles. The price for this media can range anywhere from $50 to $500 per month depending on which you choose and where they are located. If you are a smaller company with a small budget for advertising, alternative out-of-home media, as opposed to the traditional highway billboard, will be most effective for you. You will not be able to take the shotgun approach and advertise everywhere. You will have to be more like a sniper and target your customers (not literally, of course) using the information you've gathered when analyzing your customers. Place Where you advertise will be dictated by how you analyzed your target customer. Thus it is vitally important to truly understand your customer otherwise you could develop a fantastic message that falls on deaf ears. If your target customers are college students, you should place your message around bookstores, coffee shops, bars, and late night eateries. If your target customers are professionals, then you should place your ads on mass transit, highways into town, bus stops, and lunch-time eateries. If your target customers are stay-at-home moms, you should place your ads in malls, shopping centers, and grocery stores. Take note of your best customers and you'll know exactly where to place your ads. Product Your product will most likely have many features. Depending on where you are advertising and which segments of your customer base will see your message, you will want to showcase different features of your product or service. If your message is in an upscale part of town, you will want to focus on your service and how you are customer-oriented. If you are placing your message in a lower-scale section of town, then you'll want to focus on value and your guarantee. Promotion In promoting or advertising your product or service, you can choose many avenues. The most common form that is most prominent is, of course, the television commercial. However, internet advertising has become extremely popular since most people now have access to it.

While both have the advantage of wide reach, television advertising is very expensive and internet ads can get lost in the thousands of ads that are there. The best scenario is a complete marketing campaign that includes out-of-home media. Why? Because out-of-home media can help to reinforce your existing message and you can also talk to consumers when they are out trying to make their purchase decision. With a properly placed message, you can directly influence that decision. You can place your ad near the place of business of your largest competitor. You can also place your ad near a synergistic business (i.e. if you are a tailor, you could place an ad near a fabric store). Out-of-home media provides much latitude to what you want to say to whom and when. And do not limit yourself to thinking that out-of-home media, and more specifically outdoor media, is only billboards. There are a myriad of alternative outdoor mediums that target pedestrian traffic. Through such media, you can have a more robust outdoor ad because pedestrian foot traffic is slow and unlike a moving vehicle on the highway, if a pedestrian wants to read your ad, he or she can simply stop walking and take notice. You can also better target your message to consumers who will be most receptive to it because everyone goes somewhere at sometime. Your job is to learn this information about your customers and place your ad there through ubiquitous advertising tools such as the AshCan. In summary, following the above steps will aid you in better understanding your business, its strengths and weaknesses and how to sell your strengths to the appropriate consumers at the right place with the right message. Always consider out-of-home media as you can narrowly target your best potential customers and not spend a fortune doing it. Remember, think like the big guys and perform with the nimbleness and friendliness of a little guy and you cannot go wrong. Anthony Free is the President of Clean Media - Home of the AshCan, a new innovative advertising solution that combines the utility of a smoking receptacle with the functionality of being able to advertise prominently on its sides. [http://www.clean-media.com] Anthony Free is a graduate of the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University with an MBA concentration in marketing and Cornell University with a B.S. in Electrical Engineering. He has worked for ExxonMobil, Priceline.com, and Sunoco before most recently venturing out of his own to start Clean Media. THE MARKETING CONCEPT Introduction Company Orientations to the Marketplace What philosophy should guide a company marketing and selling efforts? What relative weights should be given to the interests of the organization, the customers, and society? These interest often clash, however, an organizations marketing and selling activities should be carried out under a well-thought-out philosophy of efficiency, effectiveness, and socially responsibility. Five orientations (philosophical concepts to the marketplace have guided and continue to guide organizational activities: 1. The Production Concept 2. The Product Concept 3. The Selling Concept 4. The Marketing Concept 5. The Societal Marketing Concept The Five Concepts Described The Production Concept. This concept is the oldest of the concepts in business. It holds that consumers will prefer products that are widely available and inexpensive. Managers focusing on this concept concentrate on achieving high production efficiency, low costs, and mass distribution. They assume that consumers are primarily interested in product availability and low prices. This orientation makes sense in developing countries, where consumers are more interested in obtaining the product than in its features. The Product Concept. This orientation holds that consumers will favor those products that offer the most quality, performance, or innovative features. Managers focusing on this concept concentrate on making superior products and improving them over time. They assume that buyers admire well-made products and can appraise quality and performance. However, these managers are sometimes caught up in a love affair with their product and do not realize what the market needs. Management might commit the better-mousetrap fallacy, believing that a better mousetrap will lead people to beat a path to its door. The Selling Concept. This is another common business orientation. It holds that consumers and businesses, if left alone, will ordinarily not buy enough of the selling companys products. The organization must, therefore, undertake an aggressive selling and promotion effort. This concept assumes that consumers typically sho9w buyi8ng inertia or resistance and must be coaxed into buying. It also assumes that the company has a whole battery of effective selling and promotional tools to stimulate more buying. Most firms practice the selling concept when they have overcapacity. Their aim is to sell what they make rather than make what the market wants. The Marketing Concept. This is a business philosophy that challenges the above three business orientations. Its central tenets crystallized in the 1950s. It holds that the key to achieving its organizational goals (goals of the selling company) consists of the company being more effective than competitors in creating, delivering, and communicating customer value to its selected target customers. The marketing concept rests on four pillars: target market, customer needs, integrated marketing and profitability. Distinctions between the Sales Concept and the Marketing Concept: 1. The Sales Concept focuses on the needs of the seller. The Marketing Concept focuses on the needs of the buyer.

2. The Sales Concept is preoccupied with the sellers need to convert his/her product into cash. The Marketing Concept is preoccupied with the idea of satisfying the needs of the customer by means of the product as a solution to the customers problem (needs). The Marketing Concept represents the major change in todays company orientation that provides the foundation to achieve competitive advantage. This philosophy is the foundation of consultative selling. The Marketing Concept has evolved into a fifth and more refined company orientation: The Societal Marketing Concept. This concept is more theoretical and will undoubtedly influence future forms of marketing and selling approaches. The Societal Marketing Concept. This concept holds that the organizations task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of target markets and to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors (this is the original Marketing Concept). Additionally, it holds that this all must be done in a way that preserves or enhances the consumers and the societys well-being. This orientation arose as some questioned whether the Marketing Concept is an appropriate philosophy in an age of environmental deterioration, resource shortages, explosive population growth, world hunger and poverty, and neglected social services. Are companies that do an excellent job of satisfying consumer wants necessarily acting in the best long-run interests of consumers and society? The marketing concept possibily sidesteps the potential conflicts among consumer wants, consumer interests, and long-run societal welfare. Just consider: The fast-food hamburger industry offers tasty buty unhealthy food. The hamburgers have a high fat content, and the restaurants promote fries and pies, two products high in starch and fat. The products are wrapped in convenient packaging, which leads to much waste. In satisfying consumer wants, these restaurants may be hurting consumer health and causing environmental problems. Market "market forces" redirects here. For the novel by Richard Morgan, see Market Forces. For other meanings of market, see market (disambiguation). A market is one of many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange. While parties may exchange goods and services by barter, most markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services (including labor) in exchange for money from buyers. It can be said that a market is the process by which the prices of goods and services are established. For a market to be competitive, there must be more than a single buyer or seller. It has been suggested that two people may trade, but it takes at least three persons to have a market, so that there is competition on at least one of its two sides.[1] However, competitive markets rely on much larger numbers of both buyers and sellers. A market with single seller and multiple buyers is a monopoly. A market with a single buyer and multiple sellers is a monopsony. These are the extremes of imperfect competition. Markets vary in form, scale (volume and geographic reach), location, and types of participants, as well as the types of goods and services traded. Examples include: Physical retail markets, such as local farmers' markets (which are usually held in town squares or parking lots on an ongoing or occasional basis), shopping centers and shopping malls (Non-physical) internet markets (see electronic commerce)

Stock markets, for the exchange of shares in corporations Artificial markets created by regulation to exchange rights for derivatives that have been designed to ameliorate externalities, such as pollution permits (see carbon trading) Illegal markets such as the market for illicit drugs, arms or pirated products In mainstream economics, the concept of a market is any structure that allows buyers and sellers to exchange any type of goods, services and information. The exchange of goods or services for money is a transaction. Market participants consist of all the buyers and sellers of a good who influence its price. This influence is a major study ofeconomics and has given rise to several theories and models concerning the basic market forces of supply and demand. There are two roles in markets, buyers and sellers. The market facilitates trade and enables the distribution and allocation of resources in a society. Markets allow any tradable item to be evaluated and priced. A market emerges more or less spontaneously or is constructed deliberately by human interaction in order to enable the exchange of rights (cf. ownership) of services and goods. Historically, markets originated in physical marketplaces which would often develop into or from small communities, towns and cities.[

Ad hoc auction markets Markets for intermediate goods used in production of other goods and services Labor markets International currency and commodity markets