Organ Systems

Introduction The human body is made up of several organ systems that all work together as a unit to make sure the body keeps functioning. There are ten major organ systems in the body, each of which plays a different role in helping the body work. Circulatory System This system is made up of the heart, blood, blood vessels, and lymphatics. It is the bodys delivery system, concerned with circulating blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to every part of the body. Digestive System The purpose of the digestive system is to turn the food you eat into something useful for the body. When you eat, your body uses this system to digest food so your cells can use it to make energy. The organs involved in this system include the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Endocrine System This system is made up of a collection of glands, including the pituitary and thyroid glands, as well as the ovaries and testes. It regulates, coordinates, and controls a number of body functions by secreting chemicals into the bloodstream. These secretions help control moods, growth and development, and metabolism. Integumentary System This system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Its main function is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature. Muscular System This system is made up of muscle tissue that helps move the body and move materials through the body. Quite simply, muscles move you. Muscles are bundles of cells and fibers that work in a simple way: they tighten up and relax. Nervous System The nervous system is the control center of the human body. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It receives and interprets stimuli and transmits impulses to organs. Your brain uses the information it receives to coordinate all of your actions and reactions. Reproductive System The human reproductive system ensures that humans are able to reproduce and survive as a species. It is made up of organs such as the uterus, penis, ovaries, and testes.

Respiratory System The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through breathing. It consists of the nose, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, bronchi, and lungs. Skeletal System The skeletal system provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting and protecting our bodies, allowing bodily movement, producing blood cells, and storing minerals. This system consists of bones, cartilage, and joints. Urinary System The purpose of the urinary system is to filter out excess fluid and other substances from your bloodstream. Some fluid gets reabsorbed by your body but most gets expelled as urine. The organs found in this system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Circulatory System
Circulatory System Problems and Diseases The major parts of the circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. There are many problems and diseases associated with them A healthy circulatory system is necessary for the body, since it is responsible for supplying nutrients and oxygen to the body cells and tissues. With each heartbeat, blood is pumped into the blood vessels in order to deliver the essential nutrients to various organs of body. Due to the importance of the circulatory system for survival, it is often referred to as 'the lifeline of the body'. As we all know, the circulatory system or cardiovascular system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The blood consists of red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, and blood plasma. Blood vessels, on the other hand, comprise the veins, arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. All of these parts contribute a lot to the proper unctioning of the circulatory system. An abnormality in any of these components result in medical conditions, which may vary from a mild symptom to a lifethreatening disease. There are two types of circulatory system problems, viz. congenital (present at birth) and acquired (developed after birth). Common circulatory system problems and diseases include the following. Aortic Aneurysm Aortic aneurysm is bulging in the wall of the aorta, the largest artery of the body. It is caused due to aortic dissection (tear in the aortic wall) or defect in the aortic wall. A rupture of the bulging may cause

heavy bleeding or hemorrhage. Aortic aneurysm can be developed as a complication of other diseases such as obesity, atherosclerosis, and high blood pressure.

Angina Angina is pain or discomfort in the chest area, which is caused due to blockage in the blood vessels leading to the heart. The symptoms of angina are observed when there is insufficient supply of oxygen and blood to the heart muscles. Usually, chest pain lasts for about 10 minutes. Arrhythmia Arrhythmia is a heart problem, characterized by irregularity in the heart rhythm. Symptoms of this system may vary from very slow to fast heart rhythm. Arrhythmia can be a congenital or an acquired problem. In case of acquired arrhythmia, it can occur at any stage of life. Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is hardening of the arterial wall (usually medium and large arteries) due to formation of plaque or atheroma. The plaque is composed of cholesterol, calcium, and fatty deposits. Atherosclerosis may hamper the blood circulation or at times, stops the blood flow. A person suffering from this problem experiences sharp pain in the affected area. High Blood Pressure High blood pressure or hypertension is a condition, when the systolic pressure exceeds 140 mmHg and diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mmHg. It is mostly caused due to hereditary reasons or unhealthy lifestyle habits such as heavy drinking and smoking. Peripheral Vascular Disease Peripheral vascular disease is a disorder in the blood vessels that are not part of the brain and heart. This disease is caused due to fatty acid deposits in the arteries of the leg portion. It can be hereditary or develop as a complication of obesity, high blood pressure, and smoking. In severe cases, heart disease can cause heart attack, heart failure, and several other fatal health problems. One word of advice for people who smoke cigarette and have circulatory problem would be to quit smoking, as it can worsen the existing condition by constricting the blood vessels. Problems and diseases related to the circulatory system may also be caused due to intake of certain drugs like oral contraceptives and diuretics. To avoid such a case, it is always advisable to consult and seek advice from a qualified health practitioner before self ingesting any type of drugs.

Digestive System
Digestive System Disorders: Common Digestive System Diseases and Disorders

The digestive system is one of the essential body systems that carry out one of the vital and most crucial process in the body, which is the digestion and absorption of essential nutrients that the body needs. Because of digestion, the body is able to obtain all the necessary components from the food that we eat and utilize it for the bodys benefits. Digestive system disorders develop when there is a problem in the normal functioning of digestion. Digestive system disorders are most common of all health problems. Most of the digestive system disorders are results of poor eating habits or improper digestion. There are a wide number of common digestive system diseases and disorders. The following are brief descriptions of the common digestive system diseases. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) The most common of the digestive system diseases and disorders is GERD, in which the contents of the stomach, including acids, flow back onto the esophagus. This opposite action can cause irritation in the esophagus, thus resulting in heartburn and similar other symptoms. Besides having a weak esophageal muscle, most people who suffer from GERD almost always suffer from lifestyle and food choices that aggravate the condition. Foods high in fat, chocolate, alcohol and fried foods can exacerbate symptoms. Those who have hernias, are pregnant or obese are also at greater risk of developing GERD. This digestive system disease is also recognized as peptic esophagitis, GERD and reflux esophagitis. Irritable Bowel Syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome more commonly referred to as IBS - is another of the common digestive system diseases and disorders, which can cause troublesome and persistent symptoms. Irritable bowel syndrome occurs when the muscles in your large intestine (colon) start contracting faster or slower than usual. This causes abdominal pain, cramping and certain changes in normal bowel functioning like bloating, diarrhea, gas and most commonly, constipation. The main causes of irritable bowel syndrome are said to be improper diet with low-fiber content, emotional stress in your life, excessive use of laxatives, temporary bowel inflammation or infectious diarrhea. Diverticular Disease Common digestive system diseases and disorders also include diverticulitis. It is a common disease for people aged 60 and older. Diverticulitis especially affects the large intestine. Diverticular disease occurs in small pouches that bulge out in the colon. It is an inflammation or infection in the pouches. An individual suffering from diverticulitis, one of the common digestive system disorders, may have abdominal pain, abdominal tenderness and fever. In some cases, the bowel may perforate, become obstructed or bleed heavily. A perforated bowel is a medical emergency. It is important to diagnose and treat symptoms of diverticulitis when you first notice them. This will help prevent the symptoms from worsening and causing more serious problems of the digestive tract. Peptic Ulcer Disease Peptic ulcer, another one of the common digestive system diseases and disorders, refers to painful open sores in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. A peptic ulcer in the stomach is called a gastric ulcer. One that occurs in the duodenum is called a duodenal ulcer. When the stomach lining breaks down, increased irritation from stomach acid creates this digestive

system disorder. Abdominal discomfort is the most common symptom of both duodenal and gastric ulcers.

Hemorrhoids As the digestive system does include the tract and associated organs from mouth to anus, hemorrhoids are also one of the common digestive system diseases and disorders. Hemorrhoids (also commonly known as piles) are a fairly common condition that occurs when veins in the anus and rectum become swollen and inflamed, resulting in bleeding, itching and pain. Constipation or the irregular or infrequent evacuation of the bowels is the major cause of hemorrhoids. When the delicate blood vessels around the anus burst from pressure and straining, hemorrhoids form. Over-the-counter medications are available for mild cases of hemorrhoids. More serious cases may require surgery. These are only some of the many digestive system diseases and disorders. The digestive system is an allimportant part of the body that can determine the overall health of an individual. Digestive system disorders can affect anyone at any age. Due to poor diet and lifestyle today, digestive system disorders are extremely common. These disorders affect the digestive system badly and even make the body weak. It has been shown that by slowing down and reducing stress in ones life, many of the symptoms of the most common digestive system diseases may be reduced or prevented entirely. Preventing these digestive system diseases and disorders from happening may help save from a massive amount pain and much of grief.

Endocrine System
The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and release hormones that help control many important body functions, especially the body's ability to change calories into energy that powers cells and organs. The endocrine system influences how your heart beats, how your bones and tissues grow, even your ability to make a baby. It plays a vital role in whether or not you develop diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders, sexual dysfunction, and a host of other hormone-related disorders. DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DIABETES MELLITUS: pancreas does not secrete enough insulin cells cannot absorb glucose low energy levels, sugar in urine, more urine, thirst DIABETES INSIPIDUS: posterior pituitary does not make enough ADH or its effects are blocked, ADH helps absorb water in the kidneys low ADH causes large volumes of urine HYPERTHYROIDISM (GRAVES DISEASE):

hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland, thyroid may be malfunctioning or too much TSH from pituitary, increased metabolic rate, inc. heart rate, weight loss, sweating, high B.P., eyeballs protrude, hot

HYPOTHYROIDISM (GOITER): an iodine deficiency causes less thyroxine to be released by the thyroid gland thus causing low metabolic rate, weight gain, cold, slow pulse, puffy, also low thyroxine breaks the negative feedback loop thus the pituitary keeps releasing TSH causing the thyroid to swell up HYPOTHYROIDISM (CRETINISM): in babies normal thyroxine levels at birth via the mother through the placenta low thyroxine after birth abnormal bone development, mental retardation, low body temp., lethargy, stunted growth HYPOTHYROIDISM (MYXEDEMA): in adults low thyroxine low metabolic rate, lethargy, weight gain, edema, hair loss DWARFISM: the anterior pituitary does not release enough growth hormone reduced muscle and bone growth, stunted GIGANTISM: the anterior pituitary releases too much growth hormone bones and muscles grow to abnormally large sizes SADS (Seasonal Affective Disorder): pineal gland behind the eye releases too much melatonin cells prepare for winter, sleepy, sad, tired, gain weight, depressed ACROMEGALY: anterior pituitary releases too much growth hormone after the growth plates have fused together, bones can no longer grow in length but instead widen & thicken

Integumentary System
This system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Its main function is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature. DISEASES OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Acne

Acne is a skin disease marked by pimples on the face, chest, and back. The most common skin disease. Increased levels of androgens (male hormones) cause the sebaceous glands to secrete an excessive amount of sebum into hair follicles. The excess sebum combines with dead, sticky skin cells to form a hard plug that blocks the follicle. Bacteria that normally lives on the skin then invades the blocked follicle. Weakened, the follicle bursts open, releasing the sebum, bacteria, skin cells, and white blood cells into the surrounding tissues. A pimple then forms. Athletes foot Athletes foot is a common fungus infection in which the skin between the toes becomes itchy and sore, cracking and peeling away. Properly known as tinea pedis, the infection received its common name because the infection causing fungi grow well in warm, damp areas such as in and around swimming pools, showers, and locker rooms (areas commonly used by athletes). Burns There are few threats more serious to the skin than burns. Burns are injuries to tissues caused by intense heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn), or certain chemicals (such as acids). Dermatitis Dermatitis is any inflammation of the skin. There are many types of dermatitis and most are characterized by a pink or red rash that itches. Two common types are contact dermatitis and seborrheic dermatitis. Psoriasis Psoriasis is a chronic (long-term) skin disease characterized by inflamed lesions with silvery-white scabs of dead skin. Normal skin cells mature and replace dead skin cells every twenty-eight to thirty days. Psoriasis causes skin cells to mature in less than a week. Skin cancer Skin cancer is the growth of abnormal skin cells capable of invading and destroying other cells. Skin cancer is the single most common type of cancer in humans. The cause of most skin cancers or carcinomas is unknown, but overexposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is a risk factor. Basal cell carcinoma is the most common form of skin cancer, accounting for about 75 percent of cases. It is also the least malignant or cancerous (tending to grow and spread throughout the body). In this form of skin cancer, basal cells in the epidermis are altered so they no longer produce keratin. They also spread, invading the dermis and subcutaneous layer. Shiny, dome-shaped lesions develop most often on sunexposed areas of the face. The next most common areas affected are the ears, the backs of the hands, the shoulders, and the arms. Squamous cell carcinoma affects the cells of the second deepest layer of the epidermis. Like basal cell carcinoma, this type of skin cancer also involves skin exposed to the sun: face, ears, hands, and arms. The cancer presents itself as a small, scaling, raised bump on the skin with a crusting center. It grows rapidly and spreads to adjacent lymph nodes if not removed. If the lesion is caught early and removed surgically or through radiation, the patient has a good chance of recovering completely. Malignant melanoma accounts for about 5 percent of all skin cancers, but it is the most serious type. It is a cancer of the melanocytes, cells in the lower epidermis that produce melanin. In their early stages, melanomas resemble moles. Soon, they appear as an expanding brown to black patch. In addition to invading surrounding tissues, the cancer spreads aggressively to other parts of the body, especially the lungs and liver. Overexposure to the Sun may be a cause of melanomas, but the greatest risk factor seems to be genetic.

Vitiligo Vitiligo is a skin disorder in which the loss of melanocytes (cells that produce the color pigment melanin) results in patches of smooth, milky white skin.

Warts Warts are small growths caused by a viral infection of the skin or mucous membrane. The virus infects the surface layer. Warts are contagious. They can easily pass from person to person. They can also pass from one area of the body to another on the same person. Hand warts grow around the nails, on the fingers, and on the backs of the hands. They appear mostly in areas where the skin is broken. Foot warts (also called plantar warts) usually appear on the ball of the foot, the heel, or the flat part of the toes. Foot warts do not stick up above the surface like hand warts. If left untreated, they can grow in size and spread into clusters of several warts. If located on a pressure point of the foot, these warts can be painful. Alopecia Areata Is an autoimmune skin disease that causes the bodys immune system to attack the hair follicles, causing baldness in patches. Seborrheic Dermatitis An advanced form of seborrhea, is a non-contagious skin disease that causes excessive oiliness of the skin, most commonly in the scalp, caused by overproduction of sebum, the substance produced by the body to lubricate the skin where hair follicles are present. Seborrhea is the form of the disease where oiliness only occurs without redness and scaling. The disease commonly occurs in infants, middle-aged people, and the elderly, and is commonly known in infants as cradle cap Paronychia Is an often tender infection of inflammation around the base of the nail fold. It can start suddenly (acute paronychia) or gradually (chronic paronychia). Accute Paronychia Acute paronychia develops over a few hours when a nail fold becomes painful, red and swollen. Yellow pus may appear under the cuticle. In some cases fever and painful glands under the arms accompany a particularly severe case of acute paronychia. It is usually due to Staph bacteria germs. Chronic Paronychia Chronic paronychia is a gradual process and much more difficult to get rid of. It may start in one nail fold but often spreads to several others. Each affected nail fold (the skin that lies next to the nail) becomes swollen and lifted above the nail. It may be red and tender from time to time, and sometimes a little thick pus (white, yellow or green) can be expressed from under the cuticle.

Muscular System

The system of the body which facilitates its movement is termed as muscular system. Muscles form 40% weight of our body. Apart from carrying out body movements, the muscular system is also responsible for heat generation and in maintaining the stability of the body. In the vertebrates, functioning of muscles is controlled by the nervous system. Different types of muscles which together form the human muscular system are cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscles.

Disorders of the Muscular System The disorders and problems related to the muscular system are explained in the following paragraphs. Orofacial Myology Disorders: The orofacial myological disorders are a set of disorders that affect the muscles surrounding the face, jaw, lips and mouth. There are many different types of orofacial myological disorders like blocked nasal airways, dental malocclusions, speech problems, atypical swallowing and chewing patterns, abnormal posture of the orofacial musculature while resting, etc. The different causes of orofacial myological disorders could be as follows: imbalance in dental growth, obstructions or constrictions in the upper airway, low body tone, low-lying tongue resting posture, inadequate cranial and facial bone development, inadequate neck and head muscle development, etc. The treatment measures used for orofacial myological disorders include restoration of correct/proper swallowing patterns, re-education of muscle movement and establishment of adequate labial-lingual postures. Atony: In this disorder, muscles lose their elasticity. Loss of elasticity and thereby, strength of muscles is the reason why atony is considered dangerous. This disorder of muscles is exhibited through different conditions (or probably symptoms) such atonic seizures, uterine atony and gastrointestinal atony. The atonic seizures are characterized by alterations caused in the brain for a temporary period which in turn is caused by lapse in the muscle tone. In gastrointestinal atony, muscles lose their propulsive ability. This condition is also described as decrease in motor activity of the gastrointesinal tract. In uterine atony, muscles of the uterus lose their tone. Contraction of uterine muscles is responsible for compression of blood vessels and thereby, the coagulation of blood. Loss of muscle tone hampers the process of blood coagulation and causes acute hemorrhage. Myopathy: It is one of the many disorders of muscular system; it is characterized by muscle weakness which results from improper functioning of muscle fibers. The different muscle disorders like stiffness, muscle cramps and spasms could also be associated with myopathy. There are many types of myopathies and hence, the treatment for each of them is different. Treatment measures used for myopathy could be the ones which target a specific cause or those dealing with symptoms only. Physical therapy, drug therapy, acupuncture, surgery and bracing for support are amongst the treatment measures used for myopathy. Pelvic Floor Muscle Disorder: In the pelvic floor muscle disorder, muscles that form the pelvic floor remain in a contracted/tightened position. Causes of the pelvic floor muscle disorder are not exactly known however, possible reasons behind tightening of muscles could be stress, trauma, etc. One might also suffer from problems such as frequent urination or pain in the pelvic region. Treatment measures used for pelvic floor muscle disorder include physical therapy, muscle relaxation, biofeedback and use of medications like Tamsulosin. Diastasis Recti:

It is a disorder where the rectus abdominis muscle, which is normally joined by the linea alba gets separated into left and right halves. This disorder mainly affects pregnant women and newborn babies. Complications such as development of ventral hernia or umbilical cord are treated by means of surgeries. In case of adults, it becomes important to perform surgeries in extreme cases; physiotherapy is used for disorders of a lesser degree/intensity.

Laminopathy: It is a genetic disorder in which mutations tend to occur in those genes which encode the proteins present in nuclear lamina. Along with muscular dystrophy, many other symptoms like dysplasia, diabetes and lipodystrophy are exhibited by people suffering from laminopathy. The treatment measures used for laminopathy are supportive and symptomatic. Those who suffer from muscular dystrophy are treated with the help of physical therapy. Central Core Disease: It is a congenital myopathy, first described in 1956 by Shy and Magee. Symptoms of this disease are decreased muscle tone, weakness of facial muscles, hip dislocation, scoliosis, etc. There is no specific treatment for this disorder however, use of triggering anesthetics and muscle relaxants is avoided. Relatives of patients could be screened for the purpose of detecting mutations of RYR1 type. Zenker's Degeneration: Various infectious diseases like typhoid fever, toxemia, etc. cause the degeneration of skeletal muscles; this condition is referred to as Zenker's degeneration. In this disorder, muscles become friable and pale, lose their cross striations, might rupture or exhibit a hyaline appearance. Arthrogryposis: The arthrogryposis disorder, also known as Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita is characterized by joint contractures, fibrosis and muscle weakness. Disorders of the muscular system are numerous and many underlying causes are behind them. The examples mentioned in the article are just a snapshot of various disorders of muscular system. Further research should help you understand more about these disorders.

Nervous System
Disorders of the Nervous System
Introductory Note: Knowledge of the human nervous system and familarisation with the key terms associated with it is an essential part of training in many therapies - such as Massage, Aromatherapy, Acupuncture, Shiatsu, and many others.

This page summarises basic information about some of the most common diseases and disorders of the nervous system. The following table lists key terms in alphabetical order.

Term
Bell's Palsy

Definition
A form of Neuritis that involves paralysis of the facial nerve causing weakness of the muscles of one side of the face and an inability to close the eye.

Cause
Unknown. (Recovery may occur spontaneously.)

Effect
Paralysis of the facial nerve; weakness of the muscles of one side of the face; may result in inability to close the eye. (In some cases the patient's hearing may also be affected in such a way that sounds seem to him/her to be abnormally loud. Loss of taste sensation may also occur.)

Cerebal Palsy

A nonprogressive disorder of movement resulting from damage to the brain before, during, or immediately after birth.

Cerebal Palsy is attributed to damage to the brain, generally occuring before, during, or immediately after birth. It is often associated with other neurological and mental problems.There are many causes including birth injury, hypoxia, hypoglycaemia, jaundice and infection.

The most common disability is a spastic paralysis. Sensation is often affected, leading to a lack of balance, and intelligence, posture and speech are frequently impaired. Contractures of the limbs may cause fixed abnormalities. Other associated features include epilepsy, visual impairment, squint, reduced hearing, and behavioural problems. Motor Neurone disease primarily affects the cells of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, the motor nuclei in the brainstem, and the corticospinal fibres. Multiple Scerosis affects different parts of the brain and spinal cord, resulting in typically scattered symptoms. These can include:
Unsteady gait and shaky movement of the limbs (ataxia); Rapid involuntary movements of the eyes (nystagmus); Defects in speech pronunciation (dysarthria);

Motor Neurone Disease

A progressive degenerative disease of the motor system occurring in middle age and causing muscle weakness and wasting. A chronic disease of the nervous system that can affect young and middleaged adults. The course of this illness usually involves recurrent relapses followed by remissions, but some patients experience a chronic progressive course.

Some forms of Motor Neurone Disease are inherited.

Multiple Sclerosis

The myelin sheaths surrounding nerves in the brain and spinal cord are damaged, which affects the function of the nerves involved. The underlying cause of the nerve damage remains unknown.

Spastic weakness and retrobulbar neuritis (= inflammation of the optic nerve).

Myalgic A condition characterized Encephalomyelitis by extreme disabling (ME) fatigue that has lasted for at least six months, is made worse by physical or mental exertion, does not resolve with bed rest, and cannot be attributed to other disorders.

Unknown. Often occurs as a sequel to such viral infections as glandular fever.

Extreme disabling fatigue that has lasted for at least six months, is made worse by physical or mental exertion, does not resolve with bed rest, and cannot be attributed to other disorders. The fatigue is accompanied by at least some of the following:
Muscle pain or weakness; Poor co-ordination; Joint pain; Sore throat; Slight fever; Painful lymph nodes in the neck and armpits; Depression; Inability to concentrate; General malaise.

Neuralgia

Maybe due to previous attack of shingles (Postherpetic Neuralgia). A disease of the peripheral nerves showing the pathological changes of inflammation. (This term may also be less precisely used to refer to any disease of the peripheral nerves, usually causing weakness and numbness.) Degenerative disease process (associated with aging) that affects the basal ganglia of the brain. Associated with a deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Also associated with aging.

A severe burning or stabbing pain often following the course of a nerve. Inflammation of the nerves, which may be painful.

Neuritis

Parkinson's Disease

Tremor, rigidity and poverty of spontaneous movements. The commonest symptom is tremor, which often affects one hand, spreading first to the leg on the same side then to the other limbs. It is most profound in resting limbs, interfering with such actions as holding a cup. The patient has an expressionless face, an

unmodulated voice, an increasing tendency to stoop, and a shuffling walk. Sciatica A common condition arising from compression of, or damage to, a nerve or nerve root. Usually caused by degeneration of an intervertebral disc, which protrudes laterally to compress a lower lumbar or an upper sacral spinal nerve root.The onset may be sudden, brought on by an awkward lifting or twisting movement. Pain felt down the back and outer side of the thigh, leg, and foot. The back is stiff and painful. There may be numbness and weakness in the leg.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproductive system diseases is a generic term that refers to all the diseases that affect the organs of reproductive system in human beings. This includes all the inherited or acquired diseases, abnormal functioning of the glands related to secretion of sex hormones, infections and other diseases erupting from unknown causes. Diseases of reproductive system need immediate attention as the chances of transmission of the disease to healthy individuals is high, if the disease happens to be a sexually transmitted one. Given below is the list of reproductive system disorders in men and women. Reproductive System Diseases in Women Amenorrhea Amenorrhea refers to a condition in which an individual fails to menstruate. It is classified into two types, primary amenorrhea and secondary amenorrhea. Primary amenorrhea is the abnormal delay for the menstrual cycle to initiate, whereas secondary amenorrhea is the abrupt cessation of menstrual cycle after years of regular menses. Secondary amenorrhea occurs in women who have not yet reached perimenopausal age. Cervical Erosion Cervical erosion is the condition in which ulcers are formed in the cervix region. It is characterized by bright red, pink spots around the cervical opening. During the onset of the disease, patches of mucous are shed by the body. Cervicitis It is basically an inflammation of uterine cervix. Many mucous glands are present in this region which constantly keep the vagina well lubricated. However, this creates a conducive environment for the growth of bacteria and other microbes. Thus, vaginal infections can be transmitted to the uterine cervix, leading to cervicitis. Oligomenorrhea Oligomenorrhea is a condition characterized by prolonged gaps between two menses. Typically, a woman menstruates every 25 to 30 days, however, in oligomenorrhea, the woman only menstruates for 4 to 9 times in a year. Oligomenorrhea may cause due to estrogen deficiency and may lead to infertility.

Puerperal Fever It is also called childbed fever as it mostly occurs within 10 days of childbirth or miscarriage. The raw placenta, after separation becomes very prone to infections and lacerations. This disease is characterized by a very high fever, which must be reported to the physician.

Reproductive System Diseases in Men Gynecomastia This disorder is due to abnormal enlargement of breasts in men. It is mainly attributed to hormonal imbalance. Once, the male hormone androgen takes over after puberty, the development of breasts stops. Usually, gynecomastia afflicts only one breast. Hydrocele In this disease, fluid accumulates in and around the testes. It is usually reported in older males of age 40 and above. A direct physical injury to testes or other internal disturbances are usually the cause of hydrocele. This is an asymptotic condition and it may further lead to testicular tumors if it goes untreated for a longer time. Priapism This condition refers to painful erection. Normally, when the penis gets erect, the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum become engorged with blood so as to render the hardness to the penis. In priapism, the enlarged parts become tender and painful, leading to constant pain during erection. Although, the person may experience pleasurable sensation for some time, the pain quickly takes over again. Prostate Disorders Prostate gland is a major functional gland in men. Any abnormality or dysfunction with this gland results in plethora of diseases and disorders. Enlarged prostate and prostate cancer are such diseases that mainly afflict men in sixties and seventies. Besides these, there are several other diseases of reproductive system which affect a large number of population. As mentioned above, the symptoms of reproductive diseases must be immediately reported to the physician for early diagnosis and treatment.

Respiratory System

Conditions affecting the Respiratory System

This page includes some basic information about certain common conditions of the respiratory system / disorders of the respiratory system. The following table lists them in alphabetical order.

Term
Asthma

Definition
Bronchial Asthma is the condition of subjects with widespread narrowing of the bronchial airways, which changes in severity over short periods of time (either spontaneously or under treatment) and leads to cough, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing.

Cause
May be precipitated by exposure to one or more of a wide range of stimuli, including allergens, drugs (such as aspirin and other NSAIDs and beta blockers), exertion, emotion, infections, and air pollution.The onset of asthma is usually early in life and in atopic subjects may be accompanied by other manifestations of hypersensitivity, such as hay-fever and dermatitis; however the onset may be delayed into adulthood or even middle or old age.

Effect (Symptoms)

Treatment: is with bronchodilators, with or witho corticosteroids, usually administered via aerosol or d powder inhalers, or if the condition is more severe vi nebulizer. Oral corticosteroid are reserved for patients who fail to respond adequately to these measures. Severe asthmatic attacks may need large doses of corticosteroids.Avoidance of known allergens, especially t house dust mite, allergens arising from domestic pets, a food additives, will help to reduce the frequency of attac as will the discouragement of smoking.

Cardiac Asthma occurs in left ventricular heart failure and must be distinguished from bronchial asthma, as the treatment is quite different. Bronchitis Acute Bronchitis: Is caused by viruses or bacteria. Coughing The production of mucpurulent sputum. Narrowing of the bronchi due to spasmodic contraction.

Chronic Bronchitis: Is not primarily an inflammatory condition, although it is frequently complicated by acute infections.

The disease is particularly prevalent in Britain in association with cigarette smoking, air pollution, and emphysema.

The patient coughs up excessive mucus secrete by enlarged bronchial mucus glands. The bronchospasm canno always be relieved by bronchodilator drugs. Severe emphysema causes breathlessness/severe breathing difficulty, which is made worse by infections.

Emphysema

Pulmonary emphysema: The air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs are enlarged and damaged, which reduces the surface area for the exchange of

Normal lung tissue contains:

oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Over-expansion of aveloar sacs leads to: Loss of elasticity Loss of surface area Loss of lung capacity Insufficient take-up of oxygen It is particularly common in men in Britain and is associated with chronic bronchitis, smoking, and advancing age. Air may escape into the tissues of the chest and neck from leaks in the lungs and oesophagus; occasionally air escapes into other tissues during surgery, and bacteria may form gas in soft tissues. The presence of gas or air gives the affected tissues a characteristic crackling feeling to the touch, and it may be visible on X-rays. It is easily absorbed once the leak or production is stopped. Pollens of grasses, trees, and other plants.

Surgical emphysema:

The presence of gas or air gi the affected tissues a characteristic crackling feelin to the touch.

Hay Fever

A form of allergy due to the pollen of grasses, trees, and other plants, characterized by inflammation of the lining of the nose and sometimes of the conjunctiva.

The symptoms of sneezing, running or blocked nose, and watering eyes are due to histamine release and often respond to treatment with antihistamines.If the allergen identified it may be possible t undertake desensitization. Pain on deep breathing. A characteristic rub can heard through a stethoscope.

Pleurisy

Inflammation of the pleura.

Often due to pneumonia in the underlying lung. The normally shiny and slippery pleural surfaces lose their sheen and become slightly sticky, so that there is pain on deep breathing. Pleurisy is always associated with some other disease in the lung, chest wall, diaphragm, or abdomen. Bacteria Pneumonias may be classified in different ways: According to X-ray appearance, According to the infecting organism, According to the clinical environmental circumstances under which the infection is acquired (e.g. community-

Pneumonia

Inflammation of the lung caused by bacteria, in which the air sacs (alveoli) become filled with inflammatory cells and the lung becomes solid.

Symptoms include those of a infection: Fever, Malaise, Headaches etc., together with Cough and chest pai

Treatment: Appropriate antibiotic therap based on the clinical situatio and on microbiological studie results in complete recovery

acquired pneumonia, hospitalacquired (nosocomial) pneumonia). Rhinitis Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose. It may be caused by: Virus infection (acute rhinitis), An allergic reaction (allergic rhinitis).

the majority of patients.

In atrophic rhinitis the muco membrane becomes thinned and fragile. In perennial (or vasomotor) rhinitis there is overgrowth o and increased secretion by, t membrane.

Tuberculosis

An infectious disease caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis and characterized by the formation of nodular lesions (tubercles) in the tissues.

Bacillus inhaled into the lungs: In pulmonary tuberculosis formerly known as consumption and pthisis (wasting the bacillus is inhaled into the lungs where it sets up a primary tubercle and spreads to the nearest lymph nodes (the primary complex). Natural immune defences may heal it at this stage; alternatively the disease may smoulder for months or years and fluctuate with the patients resistance. Many people become infected but show no symptoms. Others develop a chronic infection and can transmit the bacillus by coughing and sneezing. Bacillus entering by mouth (usually in infected cows milk): Set up a primary complex in the abdominal lymph nodes, leading to peritonitis, and sometimes spread to other organs, joints, and bones.

Symptoms of the active disea include fever, night sweats, weight loss, and the spitting o blood. In some cases the bac spread from the lungs to the bloodstream, setting up millio of tiny tubercles throughout th body (military tuberculosis) migrate to the meninges to cause tuberculous meningitis

Treatment:Tuberculosis is curable by various combinati of antibiotics. Preventative measures in the UK include t detection of cases by X-ray screening of vunerable populations and inoculation w BCG vaccine of those with no immunity to the disease.

Skeletal System The adult human skeletal system comprises 206 bones and the associated cartilage, tendons, ligaments as well as teeth. The bones are connected to each other through ligaments and to muscles through tendons. The skeletal system forms a supportive framework for the human body, and provides stable anchoring points for soft tissues. The skeletal system not only protects vital organs, like brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, etc., but also acts as a reservoir of minerals, like calcium and phosphorous which are supplied to various body parts through blood. The process of formation and development of blood cells (hematopoiesis) occurs in the bone marrow of long bones. Along with the muscles, our skeletal system forms a leverage system that helps us to move our limbs and perform various activities.

The tissues of the skeletal system are affected by degenerative wear and tear, infectious agents, genetic anomalies, etc. Some of the commonly known diseases, disorders and medical conditions of the skeletal system have been described below. Congenital and Hereditary Achondroplasia: It is an autosomal dominant disorder that affects growth and development of long bones. It is characterized by bone deformation, leading to disproportionate shortness of the extremities (legs, arms, fingers and toes) relative to the trunk. Achondrogenesis: It includes a set of disorders resulting due to growth hormone deficiency, which leads to altered bone and cartilage development. The infants are stillborn or die shortly after birth. Clubfoot: Also known as talipes equinovarus, it is the most common congenital disorder which affects joints of the feet. In babies born with this disorder, one foot or both the feet point downwards and inwards, making it difficult for them to walk and move around. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses: Inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, this disorder involves the development of benign (noncancerous) bone tumors called exostoses. Such tumors cause uneven limb growth and limited joint movements. Osteogenesis Imperfecta: Also known as brittle bone disease, this genetic anomaly leads to underproduction of cartilage causing fragile bones, loose joints, and blue sclerae. It is also inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. Osteopetrosis: It is a rare inherited disorder wherein bone reabsorption is altered due to dysfunctional osteoclasts. This leads to increased bone density and hardening of bones. Spina Bifida: It is a neural tube defect in which the skeletal tissues surrounding the spinal cord remain underdeveloped. Under normal conditions, the two sides of each vertebra join together to form a column around the spinal cord. In case of this disorder, such fusion does not take place in certain vertebrae, leaving a slit in the spinal column.

Cancers Osteosarcoma:

It is a type of bone cancer that involves the growth of cancerous tumors in the fast-growing regions of bones. It mostly occurs during childhood and adolescence, with the average age of diagnosis being 15 years. Chondrosarcoma: It is a malignant bone cancer that originates in the cartilage. Pelvic bones, shoulder bones, and the upper part of limbs are the most common sites of origin. It is more common in adults. Ewing's Sarcoma: It is a type of primary bone cancer and may originate in the long bones, pelvic bones or even flat bones of the skull. It is more common in children and generally develops during puberty. The cancer then metastasizes to other body tissues as well.

Others Arthritis: It is a group of diseases involving inflammation of joints. Autoimmunity, wear and tear of the joints and associated tissues, and infection are the common causes. Depending on the cause and the tissue affected, about 100 different types have been identified. Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis are some of the common types. Bursitis: It implies the inflammation of fluid-filled sacs called bursae, which serve as a cushion between the bone, and the tendons and/or muscles present in joints. Shoulders, knees, elbows and hips are the commonly affected joints. Such inflammation can occur due to infections, trauma, or aging. Osteomyelitis: It is the result of bone infection, either contracted through another infected organ of the body or after surgeries involving metal plates and rods. It is characterized by severe pain and inflammation in the infected bone, fever, chills, nausea, and weakness. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common causative agent. Osteoporosis: It is one of the most common bone diseases, and is characterized by reduction in bone mineral density. It is the result of an imbalance in the bone formation and bone reabsorption processes. The bones become weak and tend to get fractured easily. Rickets: This disorder involves the softening and weakening of bones due to the deficiency of vitamin D, calcium and phosphate. The symptoms include pain and tenderness of bones, muscle cramps, dental and skeletal deformities, etc.

Scoliosis: Scoliosis is a condition involving excessive or abnormal curvature of the spine. It may be idiopathic (spontaneously arising), congenital or neuromuscular. It is characterized by chronic backache and lower back pain as well as difficulty in bending, twisting or lifting objects. Kyphosis: This is also a condition of abnormal spine curvature, and is characterized by formation of a hunchback. Infections, connective tissue disorders, degenerative spine diseases, and muscular dystrophy, are some of the causes.

Osteonecrosis: Insufficient blood supply to large joints such as hips, shoulders, elbows and knees leads to death of the bone tissues in that area. This is termed as osteonecrosis. This can occur due to injury, trauma, radiation therapy, fractures, and bone dislocations.

Urinary System