HISTORICAL BACKGROUND X-rays were discovered on November 8, 1895, by Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen

(pronounced Rentken) He pioneered three key areas of x-ray imaging: 1. An x-ray photograph of his closed wooden box of weights clearly revealed its contents, thus presaging the security application found at every airport check-in 2. An x-ray image of his hunting rifle revealed a flaw inside the metal of the gun. This was the first time a hidden structural flaw had been exposed without destroying the object 3. He took a permanent x-ray photograph of his wife Berthas left hand, revealing the bones and the rings that she was wearing Image by Mr. Haschek and Dr. Lindenthal, in Professor Franz Exner's physicochemical institute in Vienna was obtained by injecting a mixture of lime, cinnabar (mercury) and petroleum in the hand of a cadaver By that time it was already too late for many of the roentgen ray pioneers. Mihran Kassabian (1870-1910) meticulously noted and photographed his hands during progressive necroses and serial amputations, hoping the data collected might prove useful after his death Roentgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901 Roentgen announced to the world the discovery of the new kind of ray in 1895, he called it the X-ray after the algebraic symbol for unknown quantity Otto Walkhoff, DDS, MD completed the first dental radiograph ever made on January 14, 1896 NATURE OF THE ATOM Matter is a physical manifestation possessing mass (occupies space and has weight) and having form or shape Elements are simple substances that cannot be decomposed by ordinary means There are 105 known elements at present The atom is the smallest particle of an element that has characteristic properties of that element

Each atom consists of a small nucleus, which has a positive charge and a number of lighter particles with negative charges called electrons, which move around the nucleus in definite orbits The atom is said to be neutral when the net number of positive charges of the nucleus (protons) equals the negative charges of the orbital electrons The electrons are kept in their orbits by the balance between: 1) The electrostatic attraction of unlike charges 2) The centrifugal forces of the fast moving electrons. ATOMIC NUMBER The atomic number, or Z number, is the number of protons in the nucleus or the number of electrons outside the nucleus Z numbers range from 1 for the simplest atom (hydrogen) to 105 for the most complex atom yet discovered (hahnium) ORBITAL ELECTRONS Electrons are very small particles carrying 1 unit of negative charge They revolve around the nucleus in well-defined shells that exist at varying distances from the nucleus A maximum number of seven potential electron-containing orbits or shells are designated as K, L, M, N, O, P and Q in order of increasing distance from the nucleus Electrons in the outermost shell are termed valence electrons and determine the chemical properties of the atom ELECTRON ORBITS OR SHELLS The electrons in an atom do not spontaneously fly off from the nucleus by centripetal force or, on the other hand, drop into the nucleus by electrostatic attraction (unlike charges attract), because in the normal atom there is a balance between centripetal force and electrostatic force This balance results in a definite electron path or orbit for each electron around the nucleus Each shell has a different energy level, which is dependent on the atomic number of the atom and distance the electron is from the nucleus The attraction force is greater when the electron shell is nearer the nucleus

Thus, it would require more work (energy) to remove an electron from the K shell and out of range of the nuclear electric field than to remove an electron from one of the outer shells BINDING ENERGIES The energy required to remove an electron from a particular shell is designated as binding energy of that shell The binding energy is characteristic of a given element and shell ELECTRON-VOLT Energy is measured by the amount of work done or the amount of work capable of being done The most useful unit of energy for our purposes is the electron-volt This is the kinetic energy of an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt Larger multiple units of the electron-volt are frequently used: kcV for 1000 or kiloelectron volts, and McV for 1 million or megaelectron volts IONIZATION Ionization is the process by which a neutral atom or molecule acquires either a positive or a negative charge When an atom loses or gains an electron, it is said to be ionized An ionized atom (called an ion) is not electrically neutral but carries a charge equal to the difference between the number of protons and electrons An atom that is not electrically balanced is called an ion In any ionization process, ion pairs are formed; it is this process that elicits chemical changes in matter When an x-ray transfers its energy to an orbital electron, it ejects it from the atom, and an ion pair is formed The atom becomes a positive ion (+1 charge) because it has lost an electron, and the ejected electron has a negative charge (-1); thus, an ion pair has been formed IONIZING RADIATION TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION Corpuscular or Particulate radiation Electromagnetic radiation

PARTICULATE RADIATION Particulate radiation are actually minute particles of matter that travel in straight lines at high speeds from their sources Although incredibly small, they possess mass All are charged electrically, except neutrons, and they all move extremely fast sometimes as fast as light Alpha Particles are composed of a combination of two protons and two neutrons It is the helium nucleus without orbital electrons Alpha particles are emitted only from the nuclei of heavy metals Compared with the other particles, the alpha particle is enormous and exerts a large electrostatic attraction They have little ability to penetrate tissues and give up their large energies within a very short distance in air (5 cm) and in soft tissue (100 um) Beta Particles (Negatrons) are emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atoms and possess 1 unit of negative charge They have very small atomic masses Beta particles more penetrating than alpha particles and may penetrate 10-100 cm of air and approximately 1-2 cm of soft tissue. Cathode Rays (Electrons) are streams of electrons passing from the hot filament of the cathode to the target of the anode in an x-ray tube Beta particles come from the nucleus of radioactive atoms, whereas the cathode rays originate from orbital electrons of the atoms of the filament material for an x-ray tube Protons are accelerated hydrogen nuclei Because protons are heavy, charged particles, they lose kinetic energy as they penetrate matter Neutrons carry no electron charge and have nearly the same mass as a proton The characteristic if being electrically neutral has proved of great importance in nuclear physics, because such a particle can penetrate into the nucleus of an atom without being subjected to the enormous forces of repulsion that resist the entrance of a positively charged particle ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

X-rays and gamma rays belong to a group of radiation called electromagnetic radiations Electromagnetic radiation is the propagation of energy through space accompanied by electric and magnetic force fields X-rays and gamma rays belong to a group of radiations called electromagnetic radiation X-rays are produced outside the nucleus in the electron orbital system Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus of a radionuclide Particulate and Electromagnetic Radiation NATURE OF X-RAYS The wave concept of electromagnetic radiation explains why it may be reflected, refracted diffracted, and polarized The particle concept is used to describe the interaction between radiation and matter X-ray Properties 1.They are weightless packages of pure energy (photons) without an electrical charge which travel in waves with a specific frequency at speed of 186,000 miles per second (speed of light) Properties of X-rays 2. Invisible, highly penetrating waves (electromagnetic waves) 3. Electrically neutral (cannot be deflected by electrical or magnetic fields) 4. Wide useful range of wavelengths (in medicine and dentistry = 0.01 - 0.05 nanometers [1 nm is equal to 1 billionth of a meter])

5. Most beams of x-rays are heterogeneous (consisting of rays of many different wavelengths)

6. They emerge from the tube in straight lines, diverging from the focus of the target of the anode

7. They are capable of ionizing gases because of their ability to remove orbital electrons from atoms 8. They travel at the same speed as light (186,000 miles per second in a vacuum)

9. They cause fluorescence of certain crystals 10. They affect photographic film (producing a latent image which can be developed chemically) 11. They produce chemical and biologic changes (this is essential in biologic cell damage and treatment of malignancies; these biologic changes depend on ionizations)

WAVE CONCEPT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION Electromagnetic radiation is the propagation of wave-like energy through space or mass at the speed of light (186,000 miles/sec or 3 x 108 m/sec) It is called electromagnetic radiation because the energy that is radiated is accompanied by oscillating electric and magnetic fields EXAMPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION: The radio waves that we hear The light waves we see The infrared waves that can take pictures in the dark The ultraviolet rays that cause sunburn The x-rays studied in this text The gamma rays of the atomic bomb The cosmic rays that hinder travel in space Electromagnetic waves need no such medium, as they can be propagated within and transmitted through a vacuum All waves have an associated wavelength and frequency The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two successive crests, or valleys, and is given the symbol (the Greek letter lambda, the symbol for length) Wave Concept of Electromagnetic Radiation Frequency of Wave Motion The number of waves passing a particular point during a specific period is called the frequency and is given the symbol (the Greek letter nu, the symbol for number) It is usually identified as oscillations per second or cycles per second

The unit of frequency measurement is the hertz (Hz) One hertz equals 1 cycle/sec, and 60 Hz is the standard 60 cycle/sec What are electromagnetic waves? Electricity can be static, like what holds a balloon to the wall or makes your hair stand on end. Magnetism can also be static like a refrigerator magnet. But when they change or move together, they make waves - electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field (which is shown in blue arrows) couples with a magnetic field (which is shown in red arrows). Magnetic and electric fields of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the wave Electromagnetic Waves have different wavelengths Radio waves are made by various types of transmitter, depending on the wavelength. They are also given off by stars, sparks and lightning, which is why you hear interference on your radio in a thunderstorm

Objects in space, such as planets and comets, giant clouds of gas and dust, and stars and galaxies, emit light at many different wavelengths Some of the light they emit has very large wavelengths - sometimes as long as a mile!. These long waves are in the radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum Large doses of radio waves are believed to cause cancer, leukaemia and other disorders Some people claim that the very low frequency field from overhead power cables near their homes has affected their health Microwaves are basically extremely high frequency radio waves, and are made by various types of transmitter. In a mobile phone, they're made by a transmitter chip and an antenna, in a microwave oven they're made by a "magnetron". Their wavelength is usually a couple of centimetres. Stars also give off microwaves. Microwaves cause water and fat molecules to vibrate, which makes the substances hot. Thus we can use microwaves to cook many types of food Microwaves have wavelengths that can be measured in centimeters! The longer microwaves, those closer to a foot in length, are the waves which heat our food in a microwave oven Microwaves are good for transmitting information from one place to another because microwave energy can penetrate haze, light rain and snow, clouds, and smoke

Shorter microwaves are used in remote sensing. These microwaves are used for radar like the doppler radar used in weather forecasts Microwaves, used for radar, are just a few inches long. This microwave tower can transmit information like telephone calls and computer data from one city to another Radar is an acronym for "radio detection and ranging". Radar was developed to detect objects and determine their range (or position) by transmitting short bursts of microwaves The strength and origin of "echoes" received from objects that were hit by the microwaves is then recorded Because microwaves can penetrate haze, light rain and snow, clouds and smoke, these waves are good for viewing the Earth from space darker clouds are warmer, while lighter clouds are cooler. Mobile phones use microwaves, as they can be generated by a small antenna, which means that the phone doesn't need to be very big. The drawback is that, being small, they can't put out much power, and they also need a line of sight to the transmitter. This means that mobile phone companies need to have many transmitter towers Prolonged exposure to microwaves is known to cause "cataracts" in your eyes, which is a clouding of the lens, preventing you from seeing clearly (if at all!) So don't make a habit of pressing your face against the microwave oven door to see if your food's ready! People who work on aircraft carrier decks wear special suits which reflect microwaves, to avoid being "cooked" by the powerful radar units in modern military planes Infra-red waves are just below visible red light in the electromagnetic spectrum ("Infra" means "below") You probably think of Infra-red waves as heat, because they're given off by hot objects, and you can feel them as warmth on your skin Infra-Red waves are also given off by stars, lamps, flames and anything else that's warm including you Infra-red waves are called "IR" for short. They are used for many tasks, for example, remote controls for TVs and video recorders, and physiotherapists use heat lamps to help heal sports injuries Shorter, near infrared waves are not hot at all - in fact you cannot even feel them These shorter wavelengths are the ones used by your TV's remote control The warmer the object, the more infrared radiation it emits

Because every object gives off IR waves, we can use them to "see in the dark". Night sights for weapons sometimes use a sensitive IR detector. Remember the film, "Predator"? Far infrared waves are thermal. In other words, we experience this type of infrared radiation every day in the form of heat! The heat that we feel from sunlight, a fire, a warm sidewalk are infrared You've probably seen TV programmes in which police helicopters track criminals at night, using cameras which can see in the dark These cameras use Infra-Red waves instead of "ordinary" light, which is why people look bright in these pictures Apart from remote controls, one of the most common modern uses for IR is in the field of security "Passive Infra-Red" (PIR) detectors are used in burglar alarm systems, and to control the security lighting that many people have fitted outside their houses These detect the Infra-Red emitted by people and animals The danger from too much Infra-Red radiation is very simple overheating Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see We see these waves as the colors of the rainbow Each color has a different wavelength Red has the longest wavelength and violet has the shortest wavelength When all the waves are seen together, they make white light When white light shines through a prism or through water vapor like this rainbow, the white light is broken apart into the colors of the visible light spectrum Light waves are given off by anything that's hot enough to glow This is how light bulbs work - an electric current heats the lamp filament to around 3,000 degrees, and it glows white-hot

The surface of the Sun is around 5,600 degrees, and it gives off a great deal of light White light is actually made up of a whole range of colors, mixed together Light waves can also be made using a laser. This works differently to a light bulb, and produces "coherent" light Lasers are used in Compact Disc players, where the light is reflected from the tiny pits in the disc, and the pattern is detected and translated into sound or data Lasers are also used in laser printers, and in aircraft weapon aiming systems Too much light can damage the retina in your eye This can happen when you look at something very bright, such as the Sun Although the damage can heal, if it's is too bad it'll be permanent Ultra-Violet light is made by special lamps, for example, on sun beds It is also given off by the Sun in large quantities We call it "UV" for short Sun Tan Detecting fake money Light cure composite UV in discos (glow in the dark) Sterilization Sunlight (vitamin D) The OZONE layer protects the earth from the heat of the sun Filters about 95% of heat Only 5% heat UV reaches earth surface Sunburn basal cell CA Cataract blindness A drink of Barium Sulphate This will absorb X-rays, and so the patient's intestines will show up clearly on a X-Ray image

cancers They have the smallest wavelengths and the most energy of any other wave in the electromagnetic spectrum These waves are generated by radioactive atoms and in nuclear explosions Gamma-rays can kill living cells, a fact which medicine uses to its advantage, using gamma-rays to kill cancerous cells Radioactivity is particularly damaging to rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells This also explains why damage is done by radiotherapy to other rapidly dividing cells in the body such as the stomach lining (hence nausea), hair follicles (hair tends to fall out), and a growing foetus (not because of mutations, but simply major damage to the baby's rapidly dividing cells) Gamma rays cause cell damage and can cause a variety of cancers Cause mutations in growing tissues, so unborn babies are especially vulnerable PARTICLE CONCEPT OF ELECTRMAGNETIC RADIATION Short electromagnetic waves, such as x-rays, may react with matter as if they were particles rather than waves These particles are actually discrete bundles of energy having no mass, and each of these bundles of energy is called quantum or photon These photon travel at the speed of light The amount of energy carried by each quantum photon depends on the frequency (v) of the radiation If the frequency (vibrations per second) is doubled, the energy of the photon is doubled The unit used to measure the energy of photons is the electron-volt (eV) WHAT ARE X-RAYS? X-rays are weightless packages of pure energy (photon) that have no electrical charge and travel in waves with specific frequency at a speed of 3 x 108 m/sec Their energies depend on the frequency of their wavelengths The greater the frequency of their wavelength, the greater the energy of the photon The greater the energy of the photon, the more readily it will penetrate matter

PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS X-rays are invisible and weightless, they cannot be seen, heard, felt, or smelled X-rays travel in straight lines; they can be deflected from their original direction, but the new trajectory is linear X-rays travel at the speed to light (3 X 108 m/sec) X-rays have a wide range of wavelengths, 0.01-0.05 nm, in length X-rays Cannot be focused to a point; over distance the beam diverges much like a beam of light Because of their extremely short wavelengths, they are able to penetrate materials that absorb and reflect visible light X-rays are differentially absorbed by matter; this absorption depends on the atomic structure of the matter and the wavelength of the rays (it is this property that produces an image on a photographic film, which in turn can be made visible by chemical developing X-rays cause certain substances to fluoresce, that is, to emit radiation of longer wavelength (it is this property that makes it possible to use intensifying screens in radiography X-rays produce biological changes that are valuable in radiation therapy but necessitate caution when used for diagnostic purposes X-rays can ionize gases, that is remove electrons from atoms to form ions, which can be used for measuring the controlling exposure (ionization chambers)