.Ar - Biblical Hebrew A Student Grammar (Lessons) - John A. Cook, Robert D. Holmstedt

Biblical Hebrew
An Illustrated Introduction
Lessons, Appendices, & Glossaries
John A. Cook
Robert D. Holmstedt
Illustrated by Philip Williams
Biblical Hebrew: An Illustrated Introduction (Draft Copy)
2011 by John A. Cook and Robert D. Holmstedt
All rights reserved.
For more illustrated Bible from Philip Williams, see
http://www.staircasestudio.com.
Preface
Background
As is the case with most elementary textbooks of Classical or Biblical Hebrew, this textbook
was born out of the authors dissatisfaction with the available grammars. Its development
began during our time at the University of Wisconsin as graduate instructors of first-year
biblical Hebrew courses, from 1996 to 2002. In our years of teaching Hebrew since graduate
school, in a variety of institutional contexts, we have continued to shape and alter the
textbook, refining its focus and distinctives. In this process we have come to realize that our
dissatisfaction is shared by other Hebrew teachers, despite the deluge of new Hebrew
textbooks in recent years, and that a market remains for a textbook with a different
approach for teaching biblical Hebrew, an approach grounded in modern methods for
teaching languages.
Distinctives
This textbook has seven (often interrelated) distinctives that justify its creation in the midst
of the mass of currently available textbooks.
1. Learning an Ancient Language and Second Language Acquisition
We have sought to incorporate more recent ideas about pedagogy into the shaping of the
grammar explanations and the exercises. The most obvious feature of the textbook
represents its unique strength: the use of illustrated episodes from Genesis to learn Hebrew.
Moreover, all the exercises based on the illustrated Readings use as much Hebrew as
possible. That is, we avoid using the model that dominates in other textbooks: the grammar-
translation model. Instead of teaching Hebrew as an object to be decoded and then re-coded
into the students native language (e.g., English), the goal of this textbook is to provide the
student with competency in reading, listening, and even producing Hebrew. In other words,
rather than mastering Hebrew for translation, our aim is that students achieve the ability to
comprehend biblical Hebrew texts. At the same time, we admit limits to such second-language
acquisition approaches in the teaching and learning of ancient, textual corpus-bound
languages. As such, there remains a philological realism to our pedagogy coupled with our
use of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) techniques. In particular, the exercises included in
the textbook center around self-contained narratives from the Bible, and include visual and
audio aids for vocabulary memorization and narrative comprehension. In addition, we have
provided audio-visual aids for developing oral fluency. Beyond this, there is the instructors
choice: he/she may maintain a text-based atmosphere, focusing on the given exercises, or
he/she may establish a conversation-based atmosphere, in which the given exercises are
used as a platform for extemporaneous modification (and thus greater competency in the
productive aspect of learning Hebrew).
2. Language Pedagogy and Grammar Presentation
One of the points of dissatisfaction with grammars currently on the market is that they have
tended to provide too much grammatical information for a first-year textbook. The effect is
that students are overwhelmed and instructors are faced with cutting out the unnecessary
clutter. Rather than produce a textbook that is a stand-in for an intermediate grammar, we
ii
have included a minimal amount of grammar to give students facility in reading actual
Hebrew texts, and have left to the instructors discretion the introduction of more advanced
descriptions. This approach, of course, also aligns with our SLA-influenced goals.
Organizationally, the most notable result of this approach is our decision to relegate
summaries of weak verb forms to an appendix along with the customary verb paradigms. In
this way we aim to give these discussions their proper place in grammar study, as
explanations of forms in the context of reading texts rather than complex morphological
explanations abstracted from the practice and skills of reading Hebrew.
3. Organization
The organization of the textbook centers around discrete grammatical issues. The lessons do
not present the grammar in the traditional sequence of phonology-morphology-syntax, but
recognize that language is learned in small chunks of information that alternate through the
various aspects of grammar (including a greater focus on syntax and semantics, areas
neglected by current introductory textbooks). The material is also organized to maximize
the use of repetition, a key to language acquisition. For example, paradigms are often
broken in to halves, so that presentation of the second half reinforces the material already
learned.
4. Text-Based Exercises
The lessening of the morphology burden in the grammar has allowed us space to
incorporate discussions of grammar that are conducive to reading and understanding
Hebrew literature. In particular, we have several lessons that introduce students to
important aspects of the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic systems of biblical Hebrew,
illustrated with examples from the same texts (Genesis episodes) used for the exercises.
5. Recognition of the Diversity of Hebrew in the Bible
Our choice of a particular corpus (discrete episodes from Genesis) to draw examples from for
the discussion of Hebrew syntax, semantics, and pragmatics comes out of a recognition that
Biblical Hebrew is not a monolithic or uniform language. Rather, preserved in the biblical
corpus and extra-biblical ancient epigraphs and texts (e.g., Ben Sira, Qumran) is an array of
grammatical peculiarities and divergences. Rather than fall into the philological trap of
attempting to be exhaustive, we have chosen to focus our analysis and draw our examples
from a small, uniform corpus of prose literature appropriate for first-year readings.
6. Modern Linguistic Background
Our textbook incorporates more recent linguistic explanations of biblical Hebrew in a way
that is as jargon-free as possible and understandable to beginning students. The currently
available textbooks of biblical Hebrew are astonishingly behind the times in their
grammar descriptions and terminology. Nineteenth-century theories of the Hebrew verb
continue to be presented not because they are correct, but because they work. However,
we are convinced that explanations should be presented that are both accurate and
understandable. Biblical Hebrew grammar instruction has also been plagued with
idiosyncratic and archaic vocabulary. In place of outmoded Latinate terms such as status
iii
constructus, we have sought to employ terms native to language itself and/or in current use
in Hebrew linguistic studies, such as nismach.
7. Non-Confessional Orientation
The textbook is non-confessional. Religious and theological aims for studying biblical
Hebrew have shaped the concerns of many textbooks to the point that they sometimes wed
their grammar lessons to theological insights from the text. Such overtly confessional
approaches unnecessarily preclude other interests in studying Hebrew, such as cultural or
linguistic insights. Although we are not adverse to confessional approaches to the Bible (one
author teaches at a theological seminary), we think that a textbook written without a
confessional stance will serve a wider community of language learners and institutions.
John A. Cook Robert D. Holmstedt
Wilmore Toronto
July 2, 2011
Table of Contents
Preface ..................................................................................................................................................i
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................1
Grammar Lessons
1. The Consonants ............................................................................................................................5
2. The Vowels ..................................................................................................................................11
3. " (Sheva) ................................................................................................................................15
4. (Dagesh) .............................................................................................................................17
5. Subject Pronouns Singular .....................................................................................................18
6. Copular Clauses ..........................................................................................................................21
7. Nouns Singular.........................................................................................................................23
8. The Article and the Interrogative ....................................................................................26
9. of Possession Singular.........................................................................................................27
READING #1 (The House)
10. Nouns Plural and Dual ............................................................................................................30
11. Subject Pronouns Plural .........................................................................................................33
12. . and .................................................................................................................................35
13. Conjunction and Prepositions ...............................................................................................37
14. (Questions) ...................................................................................................................42
READING #2 (Genesis 3 )
15. The Verb A Preview ................................................................................................................44
16. 3 Perfect Conjugation Singular ..........................................................................................48
17. of Possession Plural .............................................................................................................52
18. Introduction to Syntax and Word Order .................................................................................54
19. 3 Perfect Conjugation Plural ..............................................................................................58
20. (Bound Nouns) .............................................................................................................60
21. The Irreal Use of the Perfect Conjugation ...............................................................................63
22. Enclitic Pronouns Singular .....................................................................................................66
23. 3 Imperfect Conjugation Singular .....................................................................................69
24. The Infinitive ..............................................................................................................................71
25. The Adverbial Infinitive ............................................................................................................75
26. Objects .........................................................................................................................................77
27. 3 Imperfect Conjugation Plural ..........................................................................................80
vii
28. 3 Imperfect Conjugation of " ...........................................................................................82
29. < :?"< x ...............................................................................................................84
30. Main and Subordinate Clauses .................................................................................................87
31. Enclitic Pronouns Plural .........................................................................................................92
32. Adjectives ....................................................................................................................................95
33. Demonstrative Pronouns ..........................................................................................................99
34. Noun Pattern .................................................................................................................101
35. Past Narrative Conjugation .....................................................................................................103
36. < D ............................................................................................................................................106
37. E< ? :?"< ...........................................................................................................108
38. Dynamic and Stative Verbs .....................................................................................................111
39. Jussives and Imperatives .........................................................................................................112
40. Enclitic Pronouns with Verbs .................................................................................................116
41. Word Order and Topic & Focus ...............................................................................................119
42. Participles .................................................................................................................................122
43. The Foreground and Background of Narrative .....................................................................125
44. The Verb A Summary ............................................................................................................127
45. Numerals ...................................................................................................................................128
46. Topic ..........................................................................................................................................130
READING #11 (Genesis 1)
47. Masoretic Accents ....................................................................................................................132
48. Complements and Adjuncts ....................................................................................................134
49. Case Relations ...........................................................................................................................136
50. Lexical Semantics .....................................................................................................................138
viii
Appendices and Glossaries
Appendix A: Phonology ...................................................................................................................A1
1. From Biblical Hebrew to Masoretic Hebrew Vowels ................................................A1
2. Vowel Changes from Ancient to Tiberian Hebrew ......................................................A2
3. Vowel Letters .......................................................................................................................A4
4. Syllables, Vowels, and Word Stress ...................................................................................A5
5. The Definite Article .............................................................................................................A6
6. Attaching the Clitic Prepositions .......................................................................................A7
Appendix B: Nominal Morphology
1a. Noun Inflection .................................................................................................................A10
1b. Adjective Inflection ..........................................................................................................A10
2. Frequent Irregular Nouns ................................................................................................A10
3. Personal Pronouns ............................................................................................................A11
4. Demonstrative Pronouns .................................................................................................A11
5a. Enclitic Pronouns with Singular Nouns .........................................................................A12
5b. Enclitic Pronouns with Plural Nouns .............................................................................A12
5c. Enclitic Pronouns with , / , , and the Object Marker -/ ..................A13
Appendix C: Verb Morphology......................................................................................................A14
1a. The Strong Verb: attend to..................................................................................A14
1b. Recognizing the Derived ? " < .....................................................................................A16
2. Enclitic Pronouns with Verbs .............................................................................................A19
3. Introduction to Guttural Verbs ..........................................................................................A19
3a. I-Guttural Verbs .................................................................................................................A20
3b. II-Guttural Verbs ...............................................................................................................A22
3c. III-Guttural Verbs ..............................................................................................................A24
4. Introduction to Weak Verbs ...............................................................................................A26
4a. I- Verbs ............................................................................................................................A27
4b. III- Verbs ..........................................................................................................................A28
4c. I- Verb ..............................................................................................................................A31
4d. I-/ Verb ...........................................................................................................................A34
4e. III- Verb ...........................................................................................................................A38
4f. II-/ Verb ...........................................................................................................................A40
4g. II-III Verb ............................................................................................................................A43
4h. Doubly-Weak Verbs ...........................................................................................................A45
Appendix D: Using a Lexicon ........................................................................................................A48
Appendix E: Terminology .............................................................................................................A55
Hebrew-English Glossary ................................................................................................................G1
English-Hebrew Glossary ..............................................................................................................G46
Introduction
Hebrew is a Semitic Language
Ancient Hebrew emerged as a distinct dialect sometime in the 2
nd
millennium
B.C.E. in the region of Canaanthe land between the Jordan River Valley and
the Mediterranean Sea (see the map at right). In fact, one of the earliest refer-
ences to Hebrew calls it the language of Canaan ( $ ; Isa 19:18).
The language is also referred to in the Bible as ,/ Judahite (2 Kgs 18:26,
28, etc.), but by the Roman period it was known as Hebrew (Latin Hebraios, Is-
raeli Hebrew 0 ). However, in late antiquity, especially in Jewish literature,
it frequently was called the holy language ( 46 ) because Scripture
was written in the language.
Any notion that Hebrew was somehow special among languages since it was the
language of Scripture was dispelled in the 18
th
c., when philological study was
able to trace Hebrew back to the Semitic language family. It was in that century
that the name Semitic was coined to refer to languages spoken in those areas of
the Near East that the Bible purports to have been settled by descendants of
Shem:
To Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the elder brother of
Japheth, children were born. The descendants of Shem: Elam, Asshur,
Arpachshad, Lud, and Aram. (Genesis 10:21-22)
As one of the oldest and longest-used language families, the Semitic language
family is over 5000 years old. Its history can be traced back through written
evidence to the 3rd millennium B.C.E., although it was likely much older than
that. Though many branches of the family have fallen into disuse (e.g., Akkadi-
an, Phoenician; see diagram), the language family today consists of about 70
different languages or dialects spoken by nearly 500 million speakers.
Akkadian
EAST SEMITIC
South Arabian Ethiopian
SOUTH SEMITIC
Arabic
Phoenician Hebrew
Canaanite Aramaic
CENTRAL SEMITIC
WEST SEMITIC
SEMITIC
Biblical Hebrew: An Illustrated Introduction (2011 draft) 2
Several features distinguish Semitic languages from non-Semitic:
Semitic languages use common distinctive sounds in their alphabet such as the
guttural consonants (i.e., pharyngeal and laryngeal sounds made in the throat)
(see 2.5).
Semitic languages originally had only three vowelsa, i, ueach of which could be
pronounced long or short.
Semitic languages possess a large shared vocabulary: e.g., father ab (Hebrew), abba
(Aramaic), abu (Arabic).
The vocabulary of Semitic languages predominantly has triconsonantal roots.
Semitic words are formed from roots of three consonants. Different parts of speech
(verbs, adjectives, nouns) are derived by adding prefixes and/or suffixes and changing
the vowels which occur between the consonants. For example, the triconsonantal root
P-Q-D is associated with the following words:
paqad he attended to,
piqqed he mustered,
puqqad he was mustered,
pquda mustering,
mipqad appointed place.
According to the family tree for Semitic (above), Hebrew is classified as a Cent-
ral West Semitic language, and more specifically a member of the Canaanite
grouping. Features distinguishing Central West from South West Semitic lan-
guages include:
The development of the Suffix Pattern verbal conjugation
The change of w to y when the letter begins a word
The most notable distinguishing feature of Canaanite languages is the Canaan-
ite Shift: sometime in the second half of the 2
nd
millennium B.C.E. long a vowels
changed to long o vowels in Canaanite languages (e.g., peace Hebrew alm
versus Aramaic lm / Arabic salm).
The relative closeness of languages on the family tree is based on the degree of
similarity among languages. As a result, those languages most closely related to
Hebrew (e.g., other Canaanite languages like Phoenician and Moabite, and the
major West Semitic language Aramaic) often provide textual remains that shed
light on ancient Hebrew and ancient Israelite culture.
Hebrew is one of the most significant Semitic languages
Hebrew may be considered one of the most historically and religiously signific-
ant of the Semitic languages, both because of the size of its textual remains by
comparison with the other Semitic languages and the enduring religious
nature of the primary text. That is, the Hebrew Bible contains the single largest
body of ancient Semitic literature and has remained a core religious text for
Judaism and Christianity for over two thousand years. Indeed, the impact of
Hebrew on Western culture can scarcely be overstated.
While knowledge of Hebrew was preserved for
centuries mainly by Jewish scholars, Hebrew in-
creasingly gained wider attention during the
Renaissance and following. Christian scholars re-
vived the use of Hebrew in the study of the Bible
in the 15
th
century and in the 16
th
century it was
used increasingly for vernacular translations of
the Bible, such as Martin Luthers German trans-
lation (1534). This increased interest is manifest
in cultural artifacts like Rembrandts painting of
Moses with the ten commandments, in which the
second half of the commandments legibly appears (Exodus 20:1317):
< ? / ? F ? H IK LF ? ?
IK / $ / $ / I K F ? IK
You shall not kill. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not
testify against your neighbor as a false witness. You shall not covet your neighbors
house. You shall not covet your neighbors wife or his man servant or his
maidservant or his ox or his donkey or anything of your neighbors.
Hebrew was especially influential on the English language through the atten-
tion to the Hebrew Bible given by the Puritans in England. From 1549 Hebrew
was a required language for an M.A. at Cambridge. The poet John Milton (1608
1674) read and wrote Hebrew fluently, and was appointed Secretary for For-
eign Languages by Cromwell. The noted legal scholar John Selden (15841654)
studied biblical and talmudic legal writings in helping to reshape British juris-
prudence. Most importantly, the rather literal rendering of the Hebrew Bible
by the translators of the King James Bible (1611) has made numerous Hebrew
idioms and proverbial expressions commonplace in modern English.
to lick the dust (Ps 72:9)
to fall flat on ones face (Num 22:31)
heavy heart (Prov 25:20)
to pour out ones heart (Lam 2:19)
the land of the living (Job 28:13)
nothing new under the sun (Eccl 1:9)
sour grapes (Ezek 18:2)
rise and shine (variant on arise,
shine in Isa 60:1)
pride goes before a fall (Prov 16:18)
the skin of my teeth (Job 19:20)
to put words in ones mouth (Exod 4:15)
like a lamb to the slaughter (Isa 53:7)
a drop in a bucket (variant on a drop from
a bucket in Isa 40:15)
a fly in the ointment (from Eccl 10:1)
to see the writing on the wall (from Dan 5:5)
a man after his own heart (1 Sam 13:14)
In addition, many Hebrew words, like amen, have entered into the English lan-
guage. Others include abbot, alphabet (through Greek alpha-beta < alef-bet),
Armageddon (from har megiddo mount Megiddo), behemoth, camel, cherubim, hal-
lelujah, hosanna, jubilee (from the 50th year celebration when all slaves were to
be set free), leviathan, mammon, manna, messiah, rabbi, sabbath, sack, satan, seraph-
im, shibboleth, sodomy (after city of Sodom), and Torah. The Hebrew Bible is also
the origin of many proper names in English, such as Adam, Eve, Noah, Abraham,
Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, Rachel, and many more. In fact, the name Michael,
which comes from Hebrew , who is like God?, may be humanitys old-
est continuously used name. It entered English and other European languages
from Hebrew, but before Hebrew it existed in Eblaite, a Semitic language from
around 2300 B.C.E. that is closely related to Akkadian.
The Puritan reverence for Hebrew carried over to the North American schools,
beginning with Harvard and Yale. In these early schools, which were influ-
enced very much by Cambridge and Oxford, the study of Hebrew sometimes
rivaled that of Greek and Latin, to the point that several early commencement
addresses were given in Hebrew. Moreover, the mark of Hebrews influence on
these schools endures in one of Harvards com-
mencement anthems (a metrical rendering of
Psalm 78) and Yales coat of arms (right). The
Hebrew motto (Urim and Thum-
mim) is accompanied by the Latin rendering lux
et veritas (light and truth). The Urim and
Thummim in the Hebrew Bible is a device or pro-
cess for divination associated with the priestly
breastplate (Exod 28:30). However, the Hebrew
roots are related to the Hebrew word for light
and integrity.
Ancient Hebrew: a window onto ancient Israel
Just as ancient Hebrew has influenced later culture, the language is itself the
product of an ancient culture. Studying ancient Hebrew thus provides a win-
dow into that culture inasmuch as it provides an entry into a different world-
view than our own. Understanding the ancient Israelite worldview through
ancient Hebrew helps us appreciate its contribution to our own modern world-
view and at the same time may free us to examine issues from a viewpoint dif-
ferent from our own. In turn, we may come to understand our own worldview
more deeply through comparison with that of ancient Israel as manifest in an-
cient Hebrew.
1. The Consonants
The Hebrew - (alphabet) is composed of the following.
It consists of 23 consonants read right-to-left.

Five letters have alternate final forms that are used when the letter occurs
at the end of a word.
Regular form:
Final form: X e.g.,
Six letters, (mnemonically referred to as the (BeGaD
KeFaT), can appear with a dot in them called a [ (dagesh qal).
Three of these letters have two pronunciations: one with the [ , and
one without it.
like b in Boy BUT like v in Voice
like k in Keep BUT like ch in BaCH
like p in Pie BUT like f in Fish
AND like g in Give
AND like d in Dog
AND like t in Tide
Notice that the Hebrew alphabet has several letters which are
pronounced the same.
and [silent]
and like v in Voice
and like ch in Bach
and / like t in Tide
and like k in Keep
and like s in Sit
There are four consonants, each pronounced in the back of the throat, that are
often called gutturals: . Note the following characteristics:
1) Gutturals (and ) are not lengthened and do not allow (dagesh
chazaq) (see 4).
2) Gutturals prefer a-class vowels nearby, i.e., before or after.
$ [ya- amod] he will stand
3) Gutturals , , and at the end of a word are sometimes preceded by an
a-class helping vowel called a F (patach genuvah) stolen F
(traditionally called a furtive patach).
[ruach] wind, spirit
4) Gutturals usually have a ] (chatef sheva) (see 3).
[ asher] (instead of * )
Name (Final) Form Pronunciation Script Print
lef
bet
gmel
dlet
he
vav
zyin
chet
tet
yod
kaf
lmed
mem
nun
smech
yin
pe
tsde
qof
resh
sin
shin
tav

]
^

X
^

_
()
()
()
()
()

glottal stop or silent
b in Boy
v in Voice
g in Give
d in Dog
h in Hat
v in Voice
z in Zip
ch in BaCH
t in Tide
y in Yellow
k in Keep
ch in BaCH
l in Letter
m in Mother
n in Noon
s in Sit
pharyngeal or silent
p in Pie
f in Fish
ts in caTS
k in Keep
r in Race
s in Sit
sh in SHin
t in Tide
. (Write)
Write out a full line of each consonant of the Hebrew alphabet (use the alphabet chart on p.
7 as a guide).
. (Fill in the Blank)
1. Fill in the blank with the missing consonant according to the order of the alphabet
(ignore the absence/presence of ), e.g., .
_ _ (
_ _ (
_ _ _ (
_ (
_ (
_ (
_ (
_ (
_ (
_ (
_ (
_ _ _ (
2. Fill in the blank with an English word which has the sound of the Hebrew letter in it (do
not use the words given in the chart above): e.g., as in b oat .
as in ______ (
as in ______ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in ______ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in ____ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in ______ (
as in ______ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
as in ______ (
as in _____ (
as in _____ (
5 / 7 . (Match the letters/words)
1. Draw lines to connect each letter with its corresponding final form:

X
2. Draw a line from the Hebrew proper name to the English equivalent.
Judah
Jacob
Levi
Israel
Philistine
Shadrach
Abraham
Adam
Moses
Pharaoh
Tamar
Esau
Rachel
Hezekiah
Joseph
Canaan
Solomon
Nebuchadnezzar
Leah
Sarah

5 . (Find the words)
Find the names of the letters of the alphabet in the puzzle (no left-to-right or otherwise
backwards ones).

; ( (Verses)
1. Say aloud the names of the letters in the following verse.

Thus says YHWH: Act with justice and righteousness, and deliver from the hand of the
oppressor anyone who has been robbed. And do no wrong or violence to the alien,
the orphan, and the widow, or shed innocent blood in this place. (Jer 22:3)
2. Circle the letters which are final form.

. . . to seize spoil and carry off plunder; to assail the waste places that are now
inhabited, and the people who were gathered from the nations, who are acquiring
cattle and goods, who live at the center of the earth. (Ezek 38:12)
2. The Vowels
The Tiberian system of Hebrew vowels has the following characteristics:
The vowels appear under, over, or following the consonant they are pro-
nounced after.
] is pronounced [yad] hand
The sign represents both a-class b (qamets) and u-class b
(qamets-chatuf ). Distinguishing which vowel it represents in a given word
depends on knowing in what type of syllable it occurs.
Certain vowels are sometimes written as a vowel point and a consonant
(see chart below; c shureq always appears with the vowel letter).
When , or are used in this way they are called vowel letters. They are
not consonants in these cases.
Appendix
A.3
Appendix
A.4
The chart below presents the Tiberian vowels by class (a-class, i-class, or u-
class). The X is simply to show the position of the vowel.
Name Form Pronunciation Class
ptach
F X
qamets(-he)
( ) b X/ X
a in Father a-class
segol
X e in Met
tsre(-yod)
( )K X/ X ey in They
chreq(-yod)
c () X/ X ee in Seen
i-class
qamets-chatuf
b X
chlem(-vav)
(] ) X/X
o in Go
qibbuts
d X
shreq
c X
u in Rude
u-class
. (Write)
1. a) Write each of the Tiberian Hebrew vowels with each of the consonants; b) Pronounce
aloud the combination of consonant and vowel as you write them,
e.g., .
2. Without looking at the chart above, read aloud the name of each vowel and write the
correct sign under, over, or following the .
( c
K (
c (
( b
( F
( d
(
(
( b
( K
] (
c (
Appendix
A.12
5 . (Find the words)
Find the names of the Hebrew vowels in the puzzle (no left-to-right or otherwise backwards
ones).
b
d
]
K
c

F
b
K
c

c

. (Fill in the Blank)
1. Identify a close sounding English word for each Hebrew word, e.g., = car.
= ( ______
= ? ( ______
= ( ______
= ( ______
= ( ______
= ( ______
= ( _____
= ( _____
______ = (
______ = (
______ = (
______ = (
= ( ______
______ = (
______ = f (
= ( _____
= ( _____
______ = (
= K ( ______
= ( ______
= ( ______
______ = (
_______ = (
______= (
2. Spell how these English words sound with Hebrew letters, e.g., bed = .
a. shed =
b. sheet =
c. see =
d. said =
e. road =
f. ooze =
g. root =
h. soul =
i. hot =
j. near =
k. say =
l. peat =
m. key =
n. ray =
o. vote =
p. coal =
q. tar =
r. sew =
s. name =
t. cave =
u. cots =
v. red =
w. doze =
x. go =
3. ? (Sheva)
The vowel system created by the Tiberian Masoretes (6th c. C.E.) required that
every consonant have some sort of vowel sign, except at the end of a word.
The ? (sheva, nothingness), was used to fill in the places where a regular
vowel did not belong. At the end of a syllable, it is a silent place marker, show-
ing that the syllable is closed:
g [mid-bar]
However, at the beginning of syllables (whether at the beginning or in the
middle of a word), the ] is pronounced like the hurried a as in above and
transliterated with :
at the beginning of a word: - [sh-mo]
in the middle of a word: in --^ [yish-m-ru]
Note: If two ] are adjacent in a word, the first is silent and the second is vocal.
Under the guttural consonants the ] is often modified so that it has a bit
more sound.
instead of *
This type of ] is called ] (abbreviated ] ) and is a combination of
the ] and one of the three basic vowel classes:
Sign Name Pronunciation Class
X chatef-ptach F a in Arse a class
X chatef-segl e in Excse i class
X chatef-qamets b o in Omt u class
Appendix
A.1
Appendix
A.4
B 5 ) New Words (
*YHWH (unpronounceable)
master, lord; Lord (of God)
God, gods
] /
]j ;
?
*Note: The pronunciation of the divine name of Israels God, ] / , has been lost
because early in Jewish reading tradition out of divine reverence the title ] was
pronounced in its place (as indicated by the vowels; see Jer 22:3 below), or ?
when it appeared in conjunction with ] (e.g., Ezek 17:9 above 3). Later tradition
also used ha-shem the name in place of ] / . Scholars think the name might
have been originally pronounced as yah-weh. The form Jehovah derives from a
misapplication of the vowels of ] j to the consonants of the divine name .
.
Write each ] with each of the guttural consonants, pronouncing aloud the
combination of consonant and vowel as you write them, e.g., .
EF . (Read)
Identify each ] as silent or vocal and then practice reading the following verses until you
can do so smoothly.
]/ / ] < / $/ m ^/ ]j
m o m p ?/ <
Say: Thus says the Lord YHWH: Will it prosper? Will he not pull up its roots, cause its
fruit to rot so that it withers; so that its fresh sprouting leaves fade? No strong arm or
mighty army will be needed to pull it from its roots. (Ezek 17:9)
4. (Dagesh)
In 1 you learned about the six consonants ( ) called
(BeGaD KeFaT) letters. Only these six consonants can have a dot called a
H (dagesh qal) in them.
A [ in , , and marks their pronunciation as a stop (i.e., [b], [k], [p],
in which the air flowing through the mouth is stopped) instead of the corres-
ponding continuant (i.e., [v], [ch], [f], in which the air flows through the mouth
continuously).
A [ appears in a letter wherever there is not a vowel (or vocal
] ) preceding it:
at the beginning of a word:
[da-var] word
at the beginning of a syllable following a closed syllable
g [mid-bar] wilderness
The same dot can represent another type of called the (dagesh
chazaq, strong ). A can occur in any consonant (except guttur-
als and ) and lengthens it.
q- = [biq-qesh] he sought
The letters can also have a . In addition to lengthening the
consonant, this also makes the pronunciation of , , and a stop just
like the [ .
= - [hab-ben] the son/child
Appendix
A.4
EF . (Read)
Practice reading the following verses until you can do so smoothly and then identify each
as a [ or .
m /
0 ? / / w d /
^
The Chaldeans who are fighting against this city shall come, and kindle this city with
fire and burn it, along with the houses upon whose roofs they burned incense to Baal
and poured libations to other gods so as to anger me. (Jer 32:29)
.
Place a [ in each letter requiring it in the following verse; be able to explain why.
]/ ] / / bz ]/
| d] z/ F
Thus says YHWH: Act with justice and righteousness, and deliver from the hand of the
oppressor anyone who has been robbed. And do no wrong or violence to the alien,
the orphan, and the widow, or shed innocent blood in this place. (Jer 22:3)
5. Subject Pronouns Singular
Hebrew has a set of pronouns that are used as subjects of clauses. These cor-
respond to English I, you, he/she, we, they.
^ I (am) Joseph (Gen 45:3)
The following chart lists the singular subject pronouns.
Plural
11
he 3MS
she 3FS
you 2MS
you 2FS
I ^ 1S
Notice that Hebrew distinguishes masculine from feminine in the third person
(he vs. she) and the second person (you [masculine] vs. you [feminine]), but not
in the first person.
B 5 ) New Words (
peace (greeting) M
word, thing M

(0)
yes*
no

?
*Note: The word , while frequent in Biblical Hebrew, usually means thus, so and
not yes. Affirmative responses are more frequently expressed by repeating the
question in statement form. The latter meaning yes is found in Modern Hebrew and
is included here because it is useful for constructing dialogue.
. K ) (Each to his neighbor = Dialogue
1. Break into groups of 2 and introduce yourselves to each other (the brackets indicate that
you must make the proper choice between the two given options):
#2 #1
. ( . (

( ?

^ ( .
Appendix
B.3
^ ( .

^ , ( ? .

?

^ , ( .

?

( ?

2. Now form new groups of 3 people and take turns introducing the other people in the
group to each other using the second- and third-person (i.e., and ).
LM . ) (Translate
Translate these simple sentences (the names are from characters in the book of Genesis).
( ^ . . ^ ( ] / . .
^ ( . . ( . .
( m . . ( z/ . .
( m ^ . . ( m . .
^ ( z . . ( .6 $ .
6. Copular Clauses
As you have already seen with the example in the previous section, ^ I
(am) Joseph (Gen 45:3), Hebrew does not always use a copular (i.e, linking)
verb to be.
In fact, there are four ways to indicate the to be copula. Below are three meth-
ods, while the fourth is presented in 12.
Two nominal items, such as two nouns or a pronoun and noun, may be
linked by means of the verbal copula ] to be.
] the snake was crafty (Gen 3:1)
In addition to the verb ] , Hebrew occasionally uses the third-person
subject pronouns as non-verbal copulas.
] Ham is the father of Canaan (Gen 9:18)
However, more often than not the copula is omitted, especially in present
tense contexts.
p ^ naked (am) I or I (am) naked (Gen 3:10)
This last type of copular clauses does not have an overt verb, but a covert or
null copula. The tense of the null copula clauses is often present, but may be
past or future depending on the context.
B 5
is/was (3MS)
is/was (3FS)
who?
name M
]
o/

( )
man M
woman F
young man M
young woman F
( ])
( ])
(0/)
(/) m $
. (Names)
Break into groups of 2 and quiz one another on your names and the names of your other
classmates; be sure to intermix the different types of copular expressions:
#2 #1

/ /
o//] / .
^
) verbless (

/

/
? / o//]

) verbless (
^
. LM
Translate these copular sentences.
. .m $ o / (
( ] / ? . .
( . .
( . . ?
( . ? ?
( . . ] $
( . .m$
.
Write one example of each type of copular clause from your vocabulary.
.
.
.
7. Nouns - Singular
The lexicon (i.e., vocabulary) of a language may be divided into grammatical
words and lexical words. Grammatical words signal relationships between
words. Examples include conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns and articles (see
13).
Nouns are lexical words. That is, nouns have semantic contentthey refer to
an entity in the external world. Thus, the noun book refers to a concrete object
(a group of pages bound between a cover), whether real or hypothetical.
Hebrew nouns, most of which are formed from a triconsonantal root ( N ),
are inflected for gender and number. That is, endings added to the c tell
you if it is masculine or feminine and singular or plural.
Note: Though the natural gender of animate objects often corresponds to their
grammatical gender, (e.g., man is masculine, whereas woman is
feminine), grammatical gender is essentially a syntactic agreement property of
language (e.g., verb inflection must reflect the gender of the subject noun).
Nouns that are masculine do not have an explicit singular inflectional ending:
brother; $ young man
Most nouns that are feminine have an explicit singular inflectional suffix:
Many end with - , that is XXX.
z ground; cattle; m teaching
Some nouns end with -, that is, XXX.
0 covenant; kingdom; sin
However, nouns referring to paired body parts are feminine, but do not
have an overt grammatical gender inflection.
] hand; ^ eye; c foot
Note: Some nouns, like mother, or body parts (above), are grammatically
feminine even though they do not have a morphologically feminine gender marking
(e.g., - ). However, only in cases where the shape of a noun does not indicate its
gender do we include the abbreviations m. or f. in the vocabulary lists.
Dual Plural Singular
10 10
stallion
Masculine
mare
Feminine
B 5
ground F
covenant F
(z) z
(0) 0
son M
daughter F
(^ )
()
father M
mother F
()
( )
Appendix
B.1a
OP . (Masculine and feminine)
Circle the correct pronoun for each noun and translate.

.m $ (

. (

. (

. $ (

. (

. (

.0 (

. z (

. LM7 (Fill in the Blank and translate)
Choose the correct gender copula to fill in the blank and translate.
( . .
( ? .
] /o /
/
( . .
( .0 .
8. The Article and the Interrogative
Several grammatical words are clitics. Clitics are words that cannot stand on
their own; they only appear attached to another word.
More specifically, the article , the interrogative , several frequently used
prepositions and the conjunction (see 13) are proclitics, i.e., clitics that are
attached to the front of their host words.
The article indicates that a noun is definite (Hebrew has no indefinite art-
icle like English a/an). The form of the article is attached to the front of the
word it modifies and a in the first letter of the host word.
g = g + the wilderness
The interrogative marks a clause as yes-no question (like the English punc-
tuation ? does). It is very similar in form to the article .
Is there peace to him? (i.e., Is he well?) (Gen 29:6)
Note: The vowel with the article and the interrogative may be identical in some
cases; a practical way of telling them apart in some cases is that the article attaches
to nouns whereas the interrogative, since it must be attached to the first word of a
clause, is most often attached to a verb (e.g., }/ ), negative (e.g., ? ), or even
preposition (e.g., ).
Appendix
A.5
/
] /o /
B 5
what? house M (| ) ^
/ . (What is it?)
You and a partner take turns drawing a vocabulary item from 6-7 while the other one
guesses what it is using the following expressions; if you are unable to guess what it is, ask
for the answer with the expression ? / (What is it?).
#2 #1
?

- ?

.
Add the definite article to six vocabulary items from 5-7 and translate.
. .
. .
. .
9. of Possession Singular
The clitic preposition to, for can express possession in copular clauses.
/ b ]
Lot had sheep, cattle, and tents (Gen 13:5)
Note: When (or other clitic prepositions; see 13) is attached to a noun with the
article, the vocalization of the article is retained but the is replaced by the (or
other clitic preposition). E.g., ^ ] the child had a house.
When enclitic pronouns (see also 22) are attached to they may function as
possessive pronouns similar to English mine, yours, his, hers.
all that (belonged) to him or all that (was) his (Gen 13:1)
The singular forms are listed below.
Plural
17
he has/his
3MS
she has/hers
3FS
you have/yours I
2MS
you have/yours X
2FS
I have/mine
1S
B 5
land, earth F
king M
(m) c
() X
S /T . (What do you have?)
1. Break into groups of 2 and take turns asking each other about your possessions using the
vocabulary from 67; try to vary the copula construction you use.
#2 #1

.

I
?

X
2. Now form new groups of 3 people and ask one another about the other persons
possessions, replacing the first- and second- person expressions with third person.
. LM
Translate the following possessive copula sentences.
. . ^ (
. . ? (
. . o/ m $ (
. . 0 ? (
.X c ( .
. . (
. o/ ( .
.I ( .
. . z (
. . (
. (Write)
Write five possessive copula sentences using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
GO TO READING #1
10. Nouns Plural and Dual
Singular nouns were introduced in 6. Here the plural and dual (= two) noun
forms are introduced.
^ stallion
Masculine
^F mare
Feminine
There are some frequently occurring irregular nouns that do not follow
this paradigm. These irregular forms must be memorized (paradigms of
the most common irregular nouns are in Appendix B.2).
Appendix
B.1a
Appendix
B.2
father(s)
woman/women ]
man/men ]
The use of the dual is largely confined to things that occur naturally in
pairs (eyes, feet, hands, etc.). Remember that paired body parts are femin-
ine (see 7).
hand(s) ^ }] ]
ear(s) ^$
foot/feet ^ f c
eye(s) ^$ ^
sandal(s) ^ $ $
B 5
brother(s) M
sister(s) F
head(s) M
foot/feet F
( )
()
( m) p
(^ f) c
hand(s) F
ear(s) F
eye(s) F
(^ }]) ]
(^$)
(^$) ^
. . . . ) (Change to
Make the indicated change to each sentence as indicated by the arrow ( ) and translate (see
Appendix B.2 for irregular noun forms and above list for frequently occurring dual nouns).
( dual sing ] m . .
( pl sing . .
( sing pl m ^ . .
( sing dual ^$ . .
( pl sing p . .
LM .
Translate these simple sentences.
^ ( 6 $ . .
( ] ? ^ f . .
( ^$ . .
( ] . .
z ( < . .
.
Write five sentences with plural nouns using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
11. Subject Pronouns Plural
Below is the full set of independent personal pronouns, including the singular
pronouns, which you already learned in 6.
they 3MP he 3MS
they 3FP she 3FS
you 2MP you 2MS
you 2FP you 2FS
we $ 1P I ^ 1S
B 5
are/were (3M/FP)
servant(s) M

(,)
city/cities F
all, every
(0)
/
Appendix
B.3
. LM7 (Fill in the Blank and translate)
Choose the correct gender and number third-person pronominal copula to fill in the blank
and translate.
( ] . .
z ? ( I . ?
( ] c . .
( . .
LM .
Translate these sentences.
. .X 0 (
. .] (
///
///
///
///
. ., (
. . (
. ./ (
.
Write five sentences with plural nouns using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
12. V and
Two grammatical words, ~ and , indicate existence and non-existence, re-
spectively. They are used as dummy subjects in existential null-copula clauses.
m L there is much to me (= I have much) (Gen 33:9)
^ there was no water in it (Gen 37:24)
Both function words are also used as copulas, linking a subject and a predicate
in a copular clause.
]/ ~ surely, YHWH is in this place (Gen 28:16)
/ and look Joseph was not in the pit (Gen 37:29)
B 5
there ADV place M ()
LM .
( m . .
. . ~ (
. . L (
. . (
. . I ~ (
.
Write five sentences with a ~ or copula using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
13. Conjunction P and Prepositions , , , and
Conjunctions are grammatical words that serve to connect words, phrases,
clauses, and sentences to each other syntactically, e.g., and, or, but. (Cf. lexical
words, discussed in 7.)
The basic Hebrew conjunction (and the most frequent word in the Hebrew
Bible) is the proclitic conjunction: / or . Clitics are phrase-level morph-
emes or words that are phonologically attached to the preceding (proclitics)
or following (enclitics) word.
^/ ] days and years (Gen 1:14)
The conjunction has two functions:
1) It connects words and phrases together , signaling a coordinating relation-
ship (it may be translated with and, or, or but).
X / the people and the king
2) It marks the beginning of a new clause and is untranslatable (the type of
clause and the context determine the type of connection required for Eng-
lish translation).
/ ? $ (and) God said, Let there be light! (Gen 1:3)
Prepositions are another type of grammatical word; they relate a noun, noun
phrase, or clause syntactically to other words in the sentence.
For example, the English preposition into in the following clause relates the
noun phrase the store to the verb phrase they ran:
They ran into the store.
Thus, prepositional phrases serve to specify the location, direction, manner,
means, time, possession, etc., for other constituents such as verb phrases, noun
phrases, and clauses.
The most common prepositions in Hebrew are the four proclitic prepositions:
in, at
like, as
to, for
from, out of, more than (in comparisons)
These proclitic prepositions attach to the following word, or they may have
pronouns attached, just as you have already seen with (see 9). However,
differs from the other three proclitic prepositions in that it is usually written
as a separate word; in such cases it is connected to the noun with a
(maqqef), a graphic sign ( ) which indicates that the two words are stressed as
a single unit. This is its usual form before a noun with the article.
X from the king
Attached to the following word, takes the form or (before gutturals)
+ from there
+ from a man
Appendix
A.6
Other prepositions are not directly attached to the following word, but may be
cliticized with . The diagram below illustrates how the most common pre-
positions work to relate nouns temporally or spatially.
The circle represents an activity. Those prepositions to the left of the circle re-
late nouns before temporally or behind spatially. Those to the right relate
after temporally or in front of spatially. Prepositions indicating above and
below as well as within are also clearly situated.
The vertical line to the right represents a static entity, such as a person or
house. The prepositions relating to towards, with, or alongside are thus
situated appropriately to the line.
B 5 ) New Words (
heavens M (ONLY PL)
upon, over PREP
before PREP
^

~
waters M (ONLY PL)
sea M
with PREP
^
( $ ) ]

. LM7
Choose the most appropriate preposition to fill in the blank and translate (if more than one
makes sense, translate both).
( . .^
/ ( ? . .
( . .
( ? ] 6 $ . .
( / m ] / . .
/ /
//
/~/
/ /~
/ /
LM .
~ ( ] / . .
( ~ < . .
. . ^ (
. . ^ ~ (
. .c ] (
.
Write five sentences with a proclitic preposition and/or conjunction using your vocabulary
or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
14. (Questions)
While a yes-no question in Hebrew is indicated by the proclitic at the be-
ginning of the clause, questions that expect an answer relating to circum-
stances (e.g., who? what? why?) are introduced by a small set of grammatical
words.
(Question Words) K ,
Who? (see 8)
What? (see 8)
Why?
How?
How much, how many?
When?
Where?
From where?
To where?

,
X , /
/
F
, ,
^
] ,
B 5
sacrifice that is wholly burnt F ()
LM .
? ? (
? ? (
? ? (
? ?^ (
? ? / (
.
Write five interrogative sentences using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
GO TO READING #2
15. Verbs A Preview
Like most lexical words in Hebrew, verbs can be derived from a triconsonantal
c (see 7). Vowel patterns and affixes (e.g., prefixes, suffixes, or infixes) are
applied to a c to derive a verb in a certain ? P (binyan) and to indicate the
verbs conjugation and person, gender, and number. This information is
called a verbs parsing.
[?P (constructions) are the patterns by which verbs are formed. The
^ ] / indicate a verbs voicewhether active, passive, reflexive, or caus-
ative. Each ]/ has a distinctive pattern of vowels and affixes. There are
seven primary ^ ] / , whose traditional names derive from the 3MS Per-
fect form of the root to do.
Note: The form by which Hebrew verbs are listed in a lexicon or dictionary is the 3MS
[ of the Perfect conjugation, e.g., he guarded.
Name Example Meaning
[ or

he guarded
basic active conjugation ( [ means light,
easy)
^
^
he was guarded
originally reflexive, often passive in meaning

d
he gathered
(someone/thing)
active conjugation with lengthened middle
consonant

he/it was gathered
passive conjugation associated with

[
he/it gathered together
reflexive conjugation associated with

X
he/it threw (something)
causative, active conjugation

X
he/it was thrown
causative, passive conjugation, associated
with
The meanings supplied above are a guide for each ]/ but are not accurate for
every c , because the ^ ] / inconsistently derive verbs from other verbs or
from m . The limits of their consistency is outlined in the following
guidelines, which are helpful to understanding the syntax of verbal sentences:
and derive passive verbs from and , respectively.
^ and derive intransitive verbs, and sometimes derive pass-
ive verbs from [ and , respectively.
[ ,, and derive verbs from E .
Because this inconsistency of verb derivation, the meaning of a verb is not pre-
dictable from the meaning of its c . The meaning of each verb (consisting
of a N in a ? P ) must be memorized individually.
Conjugation in ancient Hebrew denotes the aspect, or view of a verbs
event: the b/Perfect conjugation views an event as a whole
(perfective); the ^ /Imperfect conjugation views only part of an event
or an event in progress (imperfective).
The conjugations do not signify tense, like English conjugations do (e.g., Simple
Past). However, the perfective and imperfective aspects constrain the tempor-
al interpretation of events so that ]/Perfect is predominantly used to de-
scribe past time events, whereas the F[ /Imperfect is predominantly used to
describe non-past time events (i.e., present or future).
b/Perfect
Conjugation
whole view aspect
(perfective)
usually past time
reference
^ /Imperfect
Conjugation
partial/in progress view
aspect (imperfective)
usually non-past
time reference
Inflectional affixes mark the agreement features of a verb:
person (1, 2, or 3)
gender (M or F; no distinction made in 1st person forms)
number (S or P)
All of the inflected verb conjugations are based on two morphological pat-
terns:
The Suffix Pattern, which uses inflectional suffixes:
< second person, masculine, singular (2MS)
< second person, masculine, plural (2MP)
The Prefix Pattern, which uses primarily prefixes, sometimes along
with suffixes:
^ third person, masculine, singular (3MS)
^ third person, masculine, plural (3MP)
B 5
throw HI (HO)
do/make (something) Q (NI)
guard Q (NI)
direct object marker
voice, sound M
(X ) X
( L)
( ^ )
,
()
speak PI
gather PI (PU)
send Q (NI)
people M

() d
( ^ )
( )
Change the following verbs from passive to active or active to passive as indicated by the
arrow ( ) and translate (all the verbs are 3MS).
( pass act . .
( act pass X . .
( pass act d . .
( act pass ^ . .
( pass act . .
LM .
( ] / m . .
( m ^ . .
( ? ]/ . .z
( ? m . .
. .^ ^ / (
.
Write five verbal (3MS) sentences using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
16. H Perfect Conjugation Singular
The Perfect is the only conjugation built on the Suffix Pattern. (Conjugations
built on the Prefix Pattern are introduced in 23.) The Perfect does not signify
tense (i.e., past, present, or future), but perfective aspect: it views an action or
event as a whole, whether that event is set in the past, present, or future.
Note: The nature of the whole view of the perfective aspect means that it is most
often used with past temporal reference, which is why we use the English Simple Past
or variety of Perfect (has/have/had) in the illustrations.
The chart on the next page presents the singular inflection of the [ Perfect
conjugation. The suffixes attached to the verb are also listed separately.
Appendix
C.1a
Plural
19
he guarded 3MS
she guarded m 3FS
you guarded < 2MS
you guarded < 2FS
I guarded < 1S
The verb ] (be) is both frequent and irregular. Here is the singular inflec-
tion of the [ Perfect conjugation.
Plural
19
he was ] 3MS
she was o/ 3FS
you were o ^ 2MS
you were ^ 2FS
I was | ^ 1S
B 5
hear, listen Q
take, receive Q

[
sit, inhabit Q
way, road M/F
]
Xc
call Q
walk, go Q
mb
X
. LM7
Choose the correct verb form to fill in the blank and translate.
( . .
Appendix
C.4e
( / b0 .^ .
( ] / m " I ? ".
.
( Xc $ . .
( / b0 " m . ".
LM .
( ? ]/ . z * [
.
. . $ mb ^ (
*rib
. .Xc < (
$ ( X X ^ . .
] ( . .
. . (
( b0 <b/ .6 $ .
o/ c/ ( .m ^ .
.
Write five verbal sentences using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
17. of Possession Plural
Singular pronominal possession (I have, You have, He has, She has) was in-
troduced in 9 above as a copular expression that uses the enclitic pronouns
with the proclitic preposition to, for. Below both the plural and singular
forms are given.
they have/theirs 3MP he has/his 3MS
they have/theirs 3FP she has/hers 3FS
you have/yours 2MP you have/yours I 2MS
you have/yours 2FP you have/yours X 2FS
we have/ours 1P I have/mine 1S
The combination of enclitic pronouns with the other proclitic prepositions, ,
, and (see 13) is similar to their combination with proclitic .

Because in it he rested from all his work. (Gen 2:3)
I / ]
No one is discerning and wise like you. (Gen 41:39)

Send one from you (P). (Gen 35:11)
Note: The proclitics and use different forms with some enclitic pronouns:
uses - and uses a reduplicative form (i.e., + ) with some pronouns.
In addition to the possessive copular use of the proclitic with enclitic
pronouns, in non-copular clauses the construction is a prepositional phrase.
F]
He gave (to) me bread. (Gen 28:20)
| ?
Did he not said to me, She is my sister. (Gen 20:5)
Appendix
B.5
B 5
give, place, set Q F] bread M
LM .
( ? ?
? ? ~ (
. . ^ (
. . c (
. . L (
( . . F]
.
Write five verbal (3MS) sentences using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
18. Introduction to Syntax and Word Order
Syntax is the system of relationships among constituents.
Constituent is the label used for the individual words or phrases (e.g., nouns/
noun phrases, verbs/ verb phrases, prepositions/ prepositional phrases) that
relate to each other to form a larger, more complex unit called a clause.
A basic definition of a clause is that it is the combination of at least two con-
stituents: a subject and a predicate.
b <
was angry Pharaoh (Gen 41:10)
predicate subject
Subjects are usually nouns, noun phrases, or some other nominal constituent
(such as a substantive adjective).
Note, however, that an overt subjectone you can actually seeis often not
present, because Hebrew allows the subject to be null. In the same way that a
null copula (see 6) is not explicitly there, and we must assume some form of
be for the clause to make sense, so too a subject may not be explicit but we
have to assume it is there since a clause without a subject makes no sense.
/ mb X/
and the darkness (he) called night (Gen 1:5)
In Gen 1:5 there is no overt subject. The he is assumed (both because it makes
sense in the context and it is suggested by the 3ms verb mb). So, be on the
lookout for null subjects -- you will find many!
Predicates may be verbal (e.g., a Perfect, Imperfect, or Past Narrative conjuga-
tion) or nominal (e.g., an adjective, Participle, or a prepositional phrase).
Verbal Predicate:
z ? ]/ m $
and YHWH God called to the man (Gen 3:9)
Nominal Predicate (in a Null Copula Clause):
~ X
darkness (was) upon the surface of the deep (Gen 1:2)
Like English, Hebrew is primarily a Subject-Predicate word order language.
This means that in normal (without emphasis) indicative clauses, the subject
precedes the predicate (regardless of whether the predicate is a verb, adjective,
etc.). For instance:
? ]/ 4 ] /
Now the serpent was craftier than any wild animal that YHWH God had
created (Gen 3:1)
However, you will have noticed by now that many clauses in ancient Hebrew
are not Subject-Predicate in order.
/$
So when Joseph came to his brothers (Gen 37:23)
As illustrated in Gen. 37:23, whenever a grammatical word or phrase, like
when, stands at the front of the clause, the word order of the remain-
ing clause is inverted, i.e., it becomes verb-subject. (Note that this inversion
does not happen with participial or null copula clauses.)
The words, like , that trigger this inversion include the relatives and ,
the interrogatives , , , etc., negatives ?, , and most other gram-
matical words, e.g., , , , and .
There are only a few grammatical words that do not generally trigger Predic-
ate-Subject word ordernotably the conjunction, , and .
B 5
eat Q
. ) (Find
Find and circle the subject noun and predicate verb in each example (if the subject is null,
then insert a where you think it ought to be) and translate.
( . . ] /
( z . . . .
( $ ] . .
( / m . m .
( / 6 $ Xc X . .
. MP ) (Add and change
Add the given words to the front of each normal subject-verb example and then change
the word order accordingly; then translate.
( 0 + .
( + () ? .
( L 6$ + .
( + ? m m .
( + 6 $ . Xc X
.
Write two Subject-Verb sentences and two Verb-Subject sentences using your vocabulary or
glossary.
.
.
.
.
GO TO READING #3
19. H Perfect Conjugation - Plural
In 16 the singular inflectional suffixes of the [ Perfect were introduced. Here
the plural inflectional suffixes are added.
they guarded 3P
he guarded 3MS
she guarded m 3FS
you guarded < 2MP you guarded < 2MS
you guarded < 2FP you guarded < 2FS
we guarded < 1P I guarded < 1S
For comparison, here is the [ Perfect paradigm (singular and plural) of ] .
they were 3P
he was ] 3MS
she was o/ 3FS
you were ^ 2MP you were o ^ 2MS
you were ^ 2FP you were ^ 2FS
we were ^ 1P I was | ^ 1S
B 5
stand Q know Q }]
5 ^ . ) (Parse the words
Identify the person, gender, and number of these [ Perfect verbs and translate.
( . < ( .
Appendix
C.4e
^ ( .
( .
g ( .
g] ( .
( .
( .
( .
( .
. LM7
Fill in the blank with the correct form of the provided verb and translate.
( . .
/ ( . .
( $ $ . .
( ^ .^f .
( .< .

.
Write five sentences with a [ Perfect verb in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
20. (Bound Nouns)
Hebrew does not have any equivalent to the English preposition of. Instead,
similar of-relationships are expressed by using the bound-form of a word.
The relationship between the bound word and the following non-bound form is
called : it consists of two elements: the bound word, or X^ (suppor-
ted), followed by the host, or X (supporting), for the bound word.
X the word of the king
the king (the) word of
X X^
Below is a chart summarizing the noun both in and not in form:
^ f 0 S
K K S[
Masculine
^ F g z z S
w g g g S[
Feminine
Meaning of the :
Two nouns in are treated as a compound: the X^ is bound to
the X noun so that the two words are stressed as one. This phenomen-
on is similar to the stress change in English compounds: a whte hose
versus the Whtehouse.
X word
X^ ]/ the word of YHWH (Ezek 1:3)
Note: Because nouns in are treated as a compound they are often attached
with a (see 13).
A X^ noun cannot have a definite article. However, if the X noun is
definite (e.g., it is a proper noun or has the article), then the X^ in-
herits this definiteness.
]/ / the prophets of YHWH (proper noun) (1 Kgs 18:4)
c the gold of the land (article) (Gen 2:12)
B 5
tent M
. LM
Translate the following sentences and phrases.
.z ( .
( L ] . .
( m mb ] / c $ . .
( ^ f f .m .
( ? . .
.
Write five phrases using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
21. The Irreal Use of the Perfect Conjugation
Biblical Hebrew verbs are associated with two distinct moods: real or
indicative mood verbs are used to make statements; verbs associated with
irreal or non-indicative mood express events that are removed from, but in
some way related to, the reality of the speakers situation (e.g., a conditional
event, an event as an outcome of another, a commanded event, an instructed
event, etc.).
You studied for Hebrew class. (real)
Study for Hebrew class! (irreal)
If we go to class we will study Hebrew. (irreal)
Several verb conjugations only express one or the other of these moods: the
Past Narrative conjugation (35) expresses real mood while the Jussive and
Imperative system (39) express irreal mood. However, the Perfect and
Imperfect (23) may both express either real or irreal mood.
The real and irreal moods are distinguished throughout the verb conjugations
by word order: clauses with real mood have Subject-Verb word order; irreal
mood clauses have inverted Verb-Subject word order. This word order distinc-
tion is particularly important for distinguishing when the Perfect (or Imper-
fect) expresses real or irreal mood:
/ (subject-verb)
(and) his father kept the word (Gen 37:11)
0 I I ? ]/ / (verb-subject)
(so) YHWH your God shall keep for you the covenant (Deut 7:12)
Note: Often the subject in Hebrew is not explicit; in such cases, it is impossible to
identify whether a Perfect expresses real or irreal mood based on the word order.
However, because most Irreal Perfects are prefixed with the conjunction (which
serves in this case to mark the beginning of the clause, see 13), the presence of the
conjunction is a good introductory way to distinguish the irreal from the real use of
the verb.
The most common function of the Irreal Perfect is to mark (semantically)
subordinate clauses. These are equivalent to English clauses beginning
with if/when/so that/in order that/because (i.e., conditional, purpose, result,
or causal clauses), in which irreal events are related to the reality of the
speakers situation.
For I have chosen him so that he might command his sons and his
household after him so that they might keep the way of YHWH (/
]/ Xc ) to practice righteousness and justice so that YHWH might
bring about for Abraham that which he promised. (Gen 18:19)
If he leaves his father then he shall die. ( ] / )
(Gen 44:22)
Note: The Perfect may appear in both the subordinate clause and the governing
clause in constructions like the conditional clause above.
Another common function of the Irreal Perfect is to mark instructions and
commands (i.e., events imposed on a listener by the speaker).
(And) he should stand and say ( / / ) I do not wish to marry
her. (Deut 25:8)
] < / (And) you must keep the commandment.
(Deut 7:11)
B 5
day M
forget Q
( ] )

rest Q
seventh

. LM
Translate the following sentences.
Xc4 / ( .]/ .
( [/ .^ .
( / I / . .
( c ]/ . .
.0 / ( .
. / ( .
.
Write five sentences with an Irreal Perfect verb in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
22. Enclitic Pronouns - Singular
English uses different pronominal forms based on the pronouns role in a sen-
tence: e.g., he/she for subject (Nominative case), his/hers for possession (Genit-
ive case), and him/her for object (Accusative case).
In Hebrew only the subject (nominative) pronouns are independent (5 and
10). A set of enclitic pronouns fills the roles of possession/genitive and object/
accusative.
Enclitic pronouns express posse ssion on nouns.
+ 0 my word
my word me + word of
f + m his teaching
his teaching him + teaching of
Note: When enclitic pronouns are added to feminine singular nouns, the X^ form
(i.e., the form ending with a ) is used.
Enclitic pronouns make a noun definite; nouns with enclitic pronouns
cannot also have the article.
Either m his teaching or m the teaching, BUT NOT BOTH
Below are the basic forms of singular enclitic pronouns with nouns (see Ap-
pendix B.5 for a full paradigm of examples):
Plural
31
his , - - * 3MS
hers -, - * 3FS
your I- 2MS
your X- 2FS
mine - 1S
Note: The asterisked forms (*) are used when attached to plural nouns.
First, note how similar these pronouns lookyou already know them from the
possessive (see 9, 17)! In fact, just as with , these pronouns can be added
also to and .
+ I I in/at/against you (MS)
in you you + in/at
+ with her
with her her + with
Second, the forms may be slightly different depending on whether the noun to
which they are added is singular or plural:
+ his word
his word him + word of
+ m his words
his words him + words of
B 5
deed, work M
behold, see! INTJ
( )

find Q
go forth Q

]
. LM
( .IL * | .
( ^ [ b0 . .
( mb < I / . .
*favor
( . ] / .
( m [ f / c / $ .
.
?" |" < ( ?
( < " ?I " ?
.
Write five sentences with a Perfect or Irreal Perfect verb and an enclitic pronoun in each
using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
GO TO READING #4
Appendix
B.2
Appendix
B.2
23. H Imperfect Conjugation Singular
The Perfect and Imperfect were introduced in 15 as the main conjugations.
The Perfect was described as expressing perfective aspect, and a paradigm was
given in 16 and 19. The Imperfect Conjugation was described as expressing
imperfective aspect: it has a partial view of an action or event, whether that
event is set in the past, present, or future.
Note: The nature of the partial view of the perfective aspect means that it is most
often used in a non-past (present or future) temporal setting, which is why we use
the English Future tense (will do) in our illustrations.
The Imperfect is the main conjugation built on the Prefix Pattern. However,
other conjugations, such the Imperative and the Jussive, are also based on the
Prefix Pattern (see 39). The singular paradigm for the [ Imperfect is given
below.
Plural
27
he will guard ^ 3MS
she will guard 3FS
you will guard 2MS
you will guard 0 2FS
I will guard 1S
The Imperfect can express both real and irreal mood like the Perfect conjuga-
tion (21), and is distinguished from indicative uses of the Imperfect in the
same wayby Verb-Subject word order. The Irreal Imperfect can express the
same range of irreal modality as the Irreal Perfect, though most frequently it
expresses categorical negative prohibitions (with ?).
| ? /| ? <| ?
Do not kill. Do not commit adultery. Do not steal. (Exod 20:13-15)
B 5
reign, become king Q X blood M
seek Q
( )
f
Identify the person, gender, and number of these [ Imperfect verbs and translate.
X?^ (
(
(
(
. LM
.z I pg ( .
. ^ [/ IL ^ (
.
( " . " .
( m <b ^ . *^ " m "
.
*laugh
Appendix
C.4e
Appendix
C.3c
( 6 $ ".I/ " .
.
Write five sentences with a [ Imperfect verb in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
24. The Infinitive
Infinitives, in contrast to the finite conjugations (e.g., Perfect and Imperfect),
are not inflected for person, gender, or number. Below is the Infinitive form in
all seven primary ^ ] / .
Example ? P
[
^
[

[
X
X
Form: The Infinitive may have enclitic pronouns attached that express the sub-
ject or object of the infinitive.
XK your saying (Jer 2:35)
I< to keep you (Ps 91:11)
The Infinitive functions as follows:
It can serve as the subject of another verb.
z ?
the man being alone is not good (Gen 2:18)
It can serve as the object of another verb.
}] ?
Behold, I do not know (how) to speak (Jer 1:6)
It can express purpose/result, usually with a preposition.
$ ]
that Saul had gone out to seek his life (1 Sam 23:15)
It can be explanatory after the main verb (i.e., by -ing).
[
Keep (ADV INF) the sabbath day by sanctifying it (Deut 5:12)
It can express a temporal meaning with the or prepositions.
^ ] ?
David was thirty years old when he became king (2 Sam 5:4)
m]
When he became king he struck down the whole house of Jeroboam
(1 Kgs 15:29)
B 5
create Q m light M
night M
(0)
/
Identify the ] / of these Infinitives.
( .
K ( .
X ( .
( .
X ( .
( .
. LM
( ? ./ 0 m
.
( ? ]/ . z 4
.
( ? } X m .
.
( m ** * ^ .
.
( m . ]
.
.
Write three sentences with an Infinitive form in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
*feast
**be
weaned N
.
.
25. The Adverbial Infinitive
The Adverbial Infinitive is neither a noun nor verb (and perhaps is not really
an infinitive). It has no inflectional affixes and does not specify a time or aspect
of the action or event. The forms for all seven primary ^ ] / are provided in
the chart below.
Example ? P
[
,^ ^
[

[
X
X
The Adverbial Infinitive functions as follows:
It is an adverb when it is used with a finite verb of the same root and ]/
it expresses a modal nuance (e.g., doubt, necessity, possibility) as the
context dictates.
? ]/
carefully keep the commandments of YHWH your God (Deut 6:17*)
X? X? will you really reign over us? (Gen 37:8)
It is occasionally used to replace finite verb forms, especially Imperatives.
[
keep the sabbath day by sanctifying it (Deut 5:12)
B 5
visit, attend Q [
Identify the ] / of these Adverbial Infinitives.
( .
X? ( .
X ( .
^ ( .
. LM
( ? 6 ^ 6 m ^ . .
. ( .
( ? X? X?
.
.
Write three sentences with an Adverbial Infinitive in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
26. Objects
Object is the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun that is the receiver
or goal of the action of a verb. Syntactically, an object noun phrase functions
as the complement of a transitive verb; the presence of an object is necessary for
a transitive verb to be completed (see 29).
For example, in Moses struck the rock, the noun phrase the rock is the object in
that it is affected by the action of the verb struck. The noun phrase the rock
is also the complement in that without it the clause Moses struck would be
ungrammatical (i.e., the transitive verb would not be completed).
To understand Hebrew syntax, it is useful to distinguish between two types of
objects: objects that are simply nouns or noun phrases and objects that are pre-
positional phrases. Which of these two types of objects is used is dependent
upon the verbsome verbs select nouns as their objects, while others select a
prepositional phrase. Which preposition is used also depends on the verb being
modified.
Nouns that are the objects of verbs are either preceded by the untranslatable
function word or nothing at all. In contrast, prepositional phrases that are
objects are never preceded by .
For instance, the verb , touch, often takes as its object a prepositional
phrase:
? ? X 0
?/ |
and from the fruit of the tree that is in the middle of the
garden, God said, you shall not eat from it and you shall not
touch it, lest you die. (Gen 3:3)
Object nouns that are preceded by the function word are individuated (i.e.,
they are strongly characterized as distinct entities or individuals), which
means that they are also often marked with the article.
[ He visited the people
the people [object he visited
marker]
Object nouns preceded by are usually the semantic patients of their verbs,
i.e., they are effected (caused) or affected (changed) by the verbal action.
Note: The object marker is sometimes attached to the noun with a (see 13
within the discussion of ); in this case, the vowel is a .
m ^ He judged Israel
Israel [object he judged
marker]
B 5
between PREP
righteousness F

bz
come, enter Q
judgment, justice; custom M
judge, govern Q

. LM
^ ( ] / .IL ^ .
.^ o^/ . .
/ I ( m I .
.
Xc4 / ( ] / bz .
.
mb ( . .
.
Write five transitive (with an object) sentences using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
Appendix
C.4f
Appendix
C.4g
.
.
GO TO READING #5
27. H Imperfect Conjugation Plural
In the chart below the plural forms of the [ Imperfect Verb are included with
the previously learned singular forms (see 23).
they will guard ^ 3MP he will guard ^ 3MS
they will guard ]< 3FP she will guard 3FS
you will guard 2MP you will guard 2MS
you will guard ]< 2FP you will guard 0 2FS
we will guard ^ 1P I will guard 1S
B 5
gather Q b kill Q
thus, so ADV
f

Identify the person, gender, and number of these [ Imperfect verbs and translate.
^ (
m^ (
]g (
<g (
^ (
(
X?^ (
^ (
6 (
^ (
. LM7
Fill in the blank with the correct Imperfect form of the provided verb and translate.
( . .
] ( . .
( $ . .
Appendix
C.3a
( . .
? ( . .
.
Write five sentences with a [ Imperfect verb in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
28. H Imperfect Conjugation of ?
The verb ] (be) is both frequent and irregular. Here is the paradigm of the
[ Imperfect Conjugation of the verb (for the Perfect form, see 16 and 19).
2ms
Appendix
C.4a
they will be ^ 3MP he will be L ^ 3MS
they will be ]L 3FP she will be L 3FS
you will be 2MP you will be L 2MS
you will be ]L 2FP you will be ^ 2FS
we will be L^ 1P I will be L 1S
B 5
also ADV
famine M

m
year F (^ ) ]
. LM
( c ]L m ~ ^ m . .
. L^ }] ( .
., ^j L^ $ / ( .
.o ? <^ / ( .
. * ^ ( .
*circum-
cise Q/N
Appendix
C.4e
Appendix
B.5c
.
Write three sentences with an Imperfect form of in each using your vocabulary or
glossary.
.
.
.
29. P :[?P
The and are the other two active ^ ] / (versus passive or reflex-
ive) alongside of [, and they are the most frequent of the seven primary
^ ] / after [.
Note: In characterizing the patterns of the ^ ] / , R indicates a verbal root
consonant, and the subscripts
1 2 3
indicate the position of the consonant within the
triconsonantal c .
The ]/ is characterized by a lengthened R
2
where possible (i.e., gutturals
and cant be lengthened) and by:
an i- class vowel under R
1
in the Suffix Pattern
d he gathered
an a - class vowel under R
1
in the Prefix Pattern
[/ he will gather
The ]/ is characterized by a i-class theme vowel (i.e., the vowel
between R
2 and R3) and by:
an - prefix (or with an i-class vowel) in the Suffix Pattern
X he threw X
an a - class prefix vowel in the Prefix Pattern
X $ he will throw X
X throw X! (MS Imperative)
Note: The Imperative has a prefix instead of a , , , or .
See Appendix C for a full paradigm of the ^ ] / / .
Some and verbs display a uniform valency-increasing relationship
(factitive and causative voice, respectively) with the [ verb of the same c :
X he was king
X he made (someone) king
he was heavy, honored
he considered [someone] honored
he made [someone] honored, heavy
However, in many other cases, these ^ ] / derive verbs directly from m ,
and therefore they have no systematic syntactic or semantic relationship with
other ^ ] / ; often the c does not occur in the other active ^ ] / :
he spoke (not used in [)
he commanded (not used in [)
to rose early [in the morning] (not used in [ or )
X he threw [something] (not used in [ or )
B 5
complete, finish PI
spoil, destroy HI
ten M/F
make heavy, honor PI

m/

bless PI
make successful, show
experience HI
cause to swear an oath HI
make someone king HI
Xf/XK

X
Identify conjugation, person, gender, and number of these and verbs and
translate.
(
z (
][ (
0} (
X (
[/ (
]<} (
(
(
(
. LM
$ ( ] Xf m . .
} ( . .
Appendix
C.3b
^ [ / I < / ( . .
( I ] ? ^ . .
.m ? (
.
.
Write five sentences with a or verb in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
30. Main and Subordinate Clauses
One way to classify clauses is by how they relate to each other. There are two
basic types: main clauses and subordinate clauses. A main clause is one that
can stand on its own; that is, it is not grammatically controlled by another
Appendix
B.5c
clause. In contrast, a subordinate clause is one that is grammatical controlled
by another clause.
Related to this classification is the distinction between the two ways that
clauses relate to each other: coordination and subordination.
Coordination is the linking of two or more clauses that are of equal syntactic
status; i.e., there is no syntactic hierarchical relationship between the two or
more clauses.
$ $ $ < $
and she took some of its fruit and she ate (it) and she gave (it)
also to her husband beside her and he ate (Gen. 3:6)
Coordination is most often marked with coordinating conjunctions: / and,
or, but, but. (See 13 for a discussion of / and why it is not al-
ways appropriate to translate it when it links clauses.)
However, it is not uncommon for the coordinating conjunction to be absent,
resulting in asyndesis, or unmarked coordination. Compare these two clauses:
the first (Gen. 37:13) has two verbs that are coordinated by the conjunction ,
the second has two verbs without explicit coordination.
I/ ... m^ $
Israel said to Joseph: ... come and I shall send you to them
(Gen. 37:13)
I < ] X $
He said to him: Go, please, see about the welfare of your
brothers (Gen. 37:14)
Subordination is the linking of two or more clauses so that they have different
syntactic status, i.e. one clause is syntactically dependent on the other.
~ ^/ ? _
because God knows that on the day you eat from it your eyes
shall be opened (Gen. 3:5)
The first in Gen. 3:5 indicates that this clause provides the reason for the
serpents previous statement (that the humans would not die from eating the
forbidden fruit). The second indicates that what follows is the complement
of the verb _ .
Traditionally, clauses in coordinate relationship are said to form a compound
sentence, whereas those in subordinate relationship form a complex sentence.
Subordination in English is usually marked with a subordinating conjunction:
when, if, although, since, because, while, after, before, etc. Hebrew also has subor-
dinating conjunctions (besides ); the most commonly used ones are listed here:
before
because, when, if, that, though
just as, when
if not
while, until
in order to, so that
~

after
if, though
who/which, that
if
therefore
lest, so that not
K

Ancient Hebrew, in contrast to Indo-European languages (such as English), has
very few subordinating conjunctions, and (perhaps relatedly) the coordinating
conjunction / came to be employed not just to mark coordination, but to mark
the beginning of any type of clause (see 13). This explains why often times
clauses which are syntactically coordinate in Biblical Hebrew may in fact be se-
mantically subordinate. Consider the following segments from parallel material
in Kings and Chronicles.
I4] F /
Go up and (= so that, or because) I will place them in your
hand (1 Chr. 14:10)
] I4]
Go up because I will surely place the Philistines in your hand
(2 Sam. 5:19)
B 5
open Q
afraid ADJ
test PI
[
K]
^
now ADV
anything PRON
die Q

LM7 . ) (Find and translate

Find the subordinating conjunction(s) in each of the following examples from Readings 5
and 6 and translate them.
( ] ] / .
.
. }] ?
.
( [/ ] ^ .
.
( X ?
.
Appendix
C.4a & 4f
( K/ }] ? ? .
.
( LM
Based on the context, provide a translation of the between the following clause pairs a
translation that is not simply and but interprets the contextual relationship.
. ^ / .^$
.
( . ^$ .
( ? ^ m . . . /
.
( ? / /
.
( . ? ?/ Ig] ?
.
Appendix
C.4e
.
Write two sentences with subordinate clauses using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
GO TO READING #6
31. Enclitic Pronouns
In 22 you learned the singular enclitic pronouns. Here is the full paradigm,
adding the plural forms. (Again see Appendix B.5 for a full set of examples):
their -, - 3MP his , - - * 3MS
their -, - 3FP hers , - * - 3FS
your - 2MP your I- 2MS
your - 2FP your X- 2FS
our - 1P mine - 1S
Note: The asterisked forms (*) are used when attached to plural nouns.
You also learned that enclitic pronouns can combine with prepositions. This is
true for the direct object marker as well:
+ to/for me or mine
to me me + to/for
+ him (as object of a verb)
Note: The object marker takes the form / with enclitic pronouns, versus
/ without.
+ to/for me or mine
upon us us + upon
Note: Some prepositions with enclitic pronouns follow the pattern of singular nouns
(e.g., ,) while others follow the pattern of plural nouns (e.g., , ,). Still
other prepositions have different forms with versus without enclitic pronouns (e.g., -
versus and - versus ; see Appendix B.5c for details).
B 5
two M (F) (^ F ) ^$ strength, power M
cut Q

f
Change the following enclitic pronouns as indicated by the arrow ( ) and translate.
( pl sg . .
( 2nd 3rd . .
( pl sg | . .
( pl sg o . .
( masc fem . .
LM .
( ? Xf o . .
. g }/ / (
.
.0 < ~ ( .
( ~ L c/ . .
. . / (
.
Write five sentences with an enclitic pronoun in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
Appendix
C.3b
32. Adjectives
Adjectives modify nouns by specifying attributes of the noun.
a nation (that is) righteous (= a righteous nation (Isa 26:2)
Biblical Hebrew has relatively few pure adjectives; more frequently the
relationship is used to modify nouns.
46 in the place of holiness
= the holy place ( ) (Lev 10:17)
b in a place (that is) holy
= in a holy place (adjective) (Lev 7:6)
Adjectives have the following characteristics:
Adjectives are declined with the same endings as nouns, except that they
do not have dual endings and do not have restricted gender (see next
point).
Plural Singular
S
S[
Masculine
S
S[
Feminine
Adjectives must agree with the modified noun in both gender and number
(dual nouns are modified by plural adjectives).
a man (who is) righteous (= a righteous man) (Gen 6:9)
< ] men (who are) evil (= evil men) (2 Sam 4:11)
m ^ }] hands (that are) weak (= weak hands) (Job 4:3)
Adjectives may be used predicatively, substantivally, and comparatively:
Predicatively: the Adjective may describe a quality of a noun as part of
the predicate; when it it used this way, the verb ] is often omitted.
(When the verb ] is omitted, the tense of the clause must be determ-
ined by context.)
the word (is) good (Deut 1:14)
c the land (is) good (Deut 1:25)
The verb ] is not always omitted, though.
] the serpent was crafty (Gen 3:1)
/ o/ m Rachel was beautiful of form (Gen 29:17)
Adjectives that specify attributes of nouns also function predicatively in a
relative clause. Such adjectives are often introduced by the relative
marker (morphologically identical with the article ).
the city that (is) great (Gen 10:12)
The use of the to introduce a relative clause is clear in cases where the
noun is not definite but the adjective has the .
m// Xc4
a path that (is) good and that (is) right (1 Sam 12:23)
As with the more common relative marker, , the relative is not al-
ways present to introduce the relative (such relatives are called un-
marked and are quite common in English, too):
a city (that is) great (Josh 10:3)
Substantivally: Adjectives can serve as nouns within the syntax of clause;
this often occurs with a common noun, such as man, is simply assumed.
(Note that this does not mean that such adjectives are nouns or have be-
come nouns; they simply stand in place of an assumed noun.)
m ]/ so that the righteous are as the wicked (Gen 18:25)
Comparative and superlative use of adjectives: Hebrew has no comparat-
ive or superlative noun-endings like English -er (e.g., bigger) or -est (e.g.,
biggest). Instead, the simple adjective is often used and the comparative
or superlative meaning must be discerned from the larger context.
his brother who (was) young er (Gen 48:19)
Note: comparison is often expressed with the preposition .
(she is) better than her (Judg 15:2)
my daughter who (is) old est (1 Sam 18:17)
Note: superlative is also expressed by a phrase in which both X^ and
X use the same noun.
z 46 holy of holies = most holy (Exod 29:37)
B 5
together, altogether ADV
many, much ADJ
nation M
$
(f) m
(^)
righteous ADJ
lift up, carry Q
great ADJ
small ADJ

]
b
. LM
( ] . .
.m ] ] $ c o ] ?/ (
.
Appendix
C.4d
( m f .X^]
.
/ ( m .*/ L^
.
( j / m
.
.
Write five sentences with an adjective in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
Appendix
C.4e
Appendix
C.4e
*mighty ADJ
33. Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are deictic (pointing) words (e.g., this, that, those in
English). They are similar to adjectives in that they either modify a noun (pre-
dicatively in a relative clause) or stand in place (substantivally) of a noun. How-
ever, the demonstratives cannot be the X^ form (whereas adjectives can be
bound)that is, the substantival use of demonstratives is limited to the subject
or complement positions.
this nation (noun modifier)
this (is) the word (noun substitute)
0 all these words (Gen 29:13) (noun modifier)
send this one (F) away (2 Sam 13.17) (noun substitute)
Demonstrative pronouns are classified as near or far based on their deictic
meaning. The far demonstratives are identical with the third-person personal
pronouns.
Plural Singular
these this

Masculine

Feminine
Near
those

that

Masculine

Feminine
Far
B 5
behind, after PREP, ADV, CONJ K ,
. LM
( ? 0 * .
.
g ] 0 ( ] / m .
.
<b ( b0 "? w" /
.
f ( ] / m .0
.
( m ^ . c ] .
.
Write five sentences with a demonstrative in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
Appendix
C.4d
*sign F
.
.
.
34. Noun Pattern
Nouns that follow the pattern were originally monosyllabic (i.e., one-syl-
lable) nouns in the masculine singular and exhibit a distinct noun pattern.
nouns originated as single-syllable nouns to which a helping
vowel was added; the result was the creation of a new, second syllable.
The original vowel in the first syllable is regularly altered.
* X king
Note: A guttural second or third root consonant can affect the vowels.
* $ $ ( instead of ) young man
(gutturals prefer a-class vowels)
Masculine nouns are stressed on the initial syllable (originally the
only syllable) in the singular form.
servant
Feminine nouns come in two forms: those with feminine gender in-
flection (e.g., m $ ) and those without (e.g., L ). Those with feminine
gender inflection ( - ) are stressed on the final syllable.
*$ + m $ young woman; P p /
*$ L life; P /
nouns exhibit their original vowel with some suffixes.
*< + < my land
nouns use a two-syllable base pattern in the plural.
SINGULAR *X X
PLURAL *X (like )
B 5
seed M ( m) f life, self F (/) L
. LM
( m * K ? c / ^ .
.
( 6 $ $ / o / ] / ] [ .
.
/ ( 6 $ . .<} X
c / ( ~ X X ~ m ^ .
.
*in the
beginning
K < / | 0 p ( L /
. .
.
Write five sentences with a noun in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
GO TO READING #7
35. Past Narrative Conjugation
Languages typically use a past tense or perfective aspect verb form to narrate
past events (e.g., English Simple Past). Some languages, however, may devote a
particular verb form entirely to literary narrative (e.g., French Pass Simple).
Ancient Hebrew has an archaic past tense verb that is mostly restricted to liter-
ary Past Narrative passages.
X $ b $ $ $
He ate, he drank, he rose, he went. (Gen 25:34)
The Past Narrative conjugation, like the Imperfect, is built on the Prefix Pat-
tern. In the most cases the only distinguishing feature between these two con-
jugations is that the Past Narrative form is prefixed with a conjunction with
the distinct vowel pattern $ .
^ he will guard (Imperfect)
$ he guarded (Past)
Note: The distinct vocalization of the Past Narrative conjunction ($ ) is regularly
obscured in the first-person singular form, because the cannot be lengthened. The
is also regularly dropped from the forms with a inflectional prefix.
] I guarded (Past)
[/$ he gathered (Past)
Similar to the case of other grammatical words (see 18), the distinct vocaliza-
tion on the Past Narrative triggers Verb-Subject word order, so that this most
common type of clause in the Hebrew Bible is always Verb-Subject. For in-
stance, in Gen. 22:3 the Past Narrative form $ precedes the subject
m.
H m $
Abraham rose early in the morning. (Gen 22:3)
B 5
garment M (,) clothe HI
command PI

. LM
( m$ ? / mb X / .
.
( $ m f / * < / .
.
$ ( ] / m *b " m ".
.
( $ b0 _ $ j ] 6 $ ] .
.
( m$ ^ 6 $ | ?" $ /$ Xc/$
] . ".
.
Write a brief narrative (of 3-5 sentences) using your vocabulary or glossary.

Appendix
C.4c
*laugh
Appendix
C.3b;
4b, c, e
Appendix
C.4b
Appendix
C.4a
*their pos-
sessions

.
36. P ^
/ $ , the 3MS Past Narrative form of ] , is extremely frequent. There are two
distinct functions of this form in narrative.
Note: The same phonological principle accounts for the lack of the in / $ as in
the forms with a inflectional prefixnamely, that certain consonants
( , , , , , and sibilants: , , ,) when vocalized with ] drop the a
lengthening . This principle is sometimes referred to mnemonically as
s/^ or ^ d .
Often it functions just like other Past Narrative forms with the meaning of
was, became, or came.
/$ ]/ /$
YHWH was with Joseph and he became a successful man (Gen 39:2)
]/ /$
The word of YHWH came (lit. was) to Samuel (1 Sam 15:10)
Just as frequently, however, the form introduces a circumstantial clause
in a narrative; often such a clause opens or (less often) closes a narrative
episode.
$ /$
and then at about that time (lit. and it was at that time and) Abimelek
said . . . (Gen 21:22)
0 /$
It was after these things . . . (Gen. 22:1)
^ ? Xc/$ m K /$
p ^ $
After the death of Abraham God blessed Isaac his son. Isaac settled
near Beer-lahai-roi. (Gen 25:11)
Note: Genesis 25:11 concludes the narrative of Abrams death and Isaacs burial of
him before beginning the geneaology of Ishmael (Gen 25:1218).
B 5
burn, be kindled Q
nose, face, anger M
run Q
m
(^ )
gift, grain offering F

bring, make enter HI
not translated; introduces direct
speech COMP
/

. LM
( 0 " m K ]j /$
$ ".I .
.
Appendix
C.4b
( / H /$ $ ? o " m
"?X g
.
( $ ] K /$ ^ [ / z 0 ] .
.
/$ ( * 6 $ . m $
.
.
Write three sentences containing / $ using your vocabulary or glossary.

.

.
.
37. 7P [ :[?P
The ^ and are the primary passive/reflexive ^ ] / . The ^
more frequently derives a passive of a [ verb than it derives a reflexive mean-
Appendix
C.4e
Appendix
C.4f
*news,
report
Appendix
C.4f
ing of a c , whereas the derives reflexive verbs from m . In all
cases, both ^ ] / focus on the recipient of the action.
The ^ ]/ is characterized:
an ^ prefix in the Suffix Pattern
^ he/it was guarded
a lengthened R
1
with (a-class b), and a i-class prefix vowel in the Pre-
fix Pattern
^ he/it will be guarded
be guarded! (MS Imperative)
Note: The ^ Imperative has the expected Prefix Pattern vowels, but has a
prefix consonant (cf. the Imperfect , , , inflectional prefixes).
The ]/ is characterized by a lengthened R
2
and an a -class vowel under
R
1
, as well as by:
a prefix in the Suffix Pattern
[ he gathered together [with others]
a following the inflectional prefix in the Prefix Pattern
^ [ he will gather together [with others]
[ gather together [with others] (MS Imperative)
Note: One can think of the of the charcteristic prefix being replaced by the
inflectional prefix in the Prefix Pattern. However, the prefix reappears in the
Imperative (cf. the prefix in the ^ Imperative), making the
MS Imperative and 3MS Perfect forms (as well as the Infinitives 2425) identical.
See Appendix C for a full paradigm of the ^ ] / / .
Ancient Hebrew had a Qal Passive ] that fell into disuse and was replaced by
^ . Therefore, although ^ may derive reflexive verbs from roots (below),
very frequently, if a c appears in both [ and ^ , the grammatical rela-
tionship between the ^ ] / is one of active-passive voice:
he guarded
^ he/it was guarded
^ and both derive verbs from m with reflexive-voice, that is,
an activity that in some way reflects upon or affects the subject of the action
(much like middle voice in some European languages). In such cases, the mean-
ing cannot be systematically derived from the same c in the active ^ ] / .
L /
As a shadow when it declines, I am gone away/vanished (Ps 109:23)
? X X $
Enoch walked/conducted himself in accordance with God (Gen 5:22)
Identify the conjugation, person, gender, and number of these ^ and verbs and
translate.
K^ ( .
[ ] ( .
] ( .
[^ ( .
^ ( .
$ ( .
.
Write 3 sentences with a ^ or verb in each using your vocabulary or glossary.
.
.
.
38. Dynamic and Stative Verbs
A basic division among verbs is that between dynamic and stative. Dynamic
verbs refer to events or movements. Stative verbs refer to states or qualities.
In English, stative verbs are distinguished from dynamic verbs not only by
their basic meaning (i.e., state versus event), but in their semantic limitations:
stative verbs do not usually appear in progressive conjugations (*He was know-
ing) or as imperatives (*Know!).
In Biblical Hebrew, stative verbs not only have semantic limitations (they are
frequently used intransitively, i.e., without an object), but are also distin-
guished from dynamic verbs morphologically in the [.
The vowel patterns in dynamic and stative verbs usually contrast with
each other in both the Suffix Pattern and Prefix Pattern.
Dynamic Suffix Pattern = he guarded
Stative Suffix Pattern = he is/was heavy
b he is/was small
Dynamic Prefix Pattern = ^ he will guard
Stative Prefix Pattern = ^ he will be heavy
^ he will be small
Note: All III-Guttural verbs follow the Prefix Pattern of the stative verbs, whether
they are semantically dynamic or stative: ^ .
Stative verbs do not have an active Participle form (see 42), but often
have an adjective form equivalent to the 3MS Perfect form.
3MS Perfect = he is/was heavy
MSA Adjective = heavy
Stative verbs in the Perfect conjugation may express a present state or a
past state.
z o /
(and) their sin, indeed, is very heavy (= serious) (Gen 18:20)
H m^ ~/
(and) Israels eyes were heavy (= dim) from age (Gen 48:10)
Stative verbs may express either a state or the inception of or entrance
into a state (i.e., became).
]/ ~ ob g
for their outcry has become great before the YHWH (Gen 19:13)
GO TO READING #8
39. Jussives and Imperatives
Biblical Hebrew has two distinct moods: the real and irreal (21). There are two
irreal verb conjugations in Biblical Hebrew: Jussives and Imperatives. (In con-
trast, the Imperfect and Perfect conjugations may express real or irreal mood
as indicated by their word order; see 21, 23.)
The Jussive conjugation occurs in all three persons and expresses both
positive and negative commands or wishes. When expressing a negative
command or wish, the Jussive is preceded by (never ?).
IL ^ ]/ ^
May YHWH judge between me and between you (Gen. 16:5)
IL do not hide your face from me (Ps 102:3)
The Jussive forms follow the Prefix Pattern and are identical to the Imper-
fect forms with two exceptions:
The first-person Jussive forms (sometimes referred to as Cohortatives) of-
ten end with - in all ^ ] / .
H
let me/I shall guard m 1S
let us/we shall guard m ^ 1P
The termination probably originally expressed action to/toward the
speaker or on behalf of the speaker, and it periodically occurs on the Im-
perative and Past Narrative forms with this meaning. However, it has be-
come conventionalized (i.e., it regularly appears) on the first-person
Jussive forms so that its original sense is not always evident.
The second- and third-person Jussive forms are shortened versus the
Imperfect. In the ]/ they have a K theme vowel instead of
c .
X $ let him make (someone) king (Jussive)
versus
X$ he will make (someone) king (Imperfect)
With some weak verb m , a shift of the stress to (i.e., the front
of the word) results in a vowel change in the post-stress syllable (see Ap-
pendix C.4 for the weak verbs).
6] let him stand up ([ Jussive of )
versus
] he will stand up (Imperfect)
The Imperative verb occurs only in the 2 nd person . It expresses positive
commands and wishes (it cannot be negated).
I$ Guard your life very much (Deut 4:9)
The form of the Imperative is identical to the Jussive minus the prefix.
H [ 7
2MS 2MS [ 2MS [ 2MS X 2MS
0 2FS 0 2FS [ 2FS [ 2FS 2FS
2MP 2MP [ 2MP [ 2MP 2MP
]< 2FP ]< 2FP ] [ 2FP ] [ 2FP ] 2FP
guard gather reign
The forms of the irreal conjugations are sometimes followed by ] . This word
most often signals a polite request or command (e.g., English please), though it
is not always necessary (or easy) to translate.
X ] /
now, speak, please, to the king (2 Sam 13:13)
B 5
pour out, shed (blood) Q X flee Q f
Identify the ^ ] / , conjugation, person, gender, and number of these Imperative and
Jussive verbs and translate.
( .
/ ( .
0 ( .
( .
]< } ( .
$ ( .
. LM
I f / 6 ^ / ( ]m .
.
< IL ] " $ ( . ".
$ ( ] / 6 $ " I c ".
.
( I " 6 $ m ".
.
Appendix
C.4f & 3c
Appendix
C.4c
Appendix
C.4d
$ ( < z "
".g
.
.
Write five sentences with Jussive or Imperative verb in each using your vocabulary or
glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
40. Enclitic Pronouns with Verbs
In 31 we discussed enclitic pronouns expressing possession with nouns and
objects when following prepositions or the object marker ( / ). Enclitic
object pronouns can also directly follow verbs. When the verb is finite (versus
the Infinitive) these pronouns express the object of the verb (equivalent to en-
clitic pronouns with the object marker).
= He guarded him
Below is a summary of the enclitic pronouns on verbs (see Appendix C.2 for a
full paradigm with examples).
them
-
3MP him
- / -
3MS
them
-
3FP her
- , -
3FS
you
-
2MP you
I-
2MS
you
-
2FP you
X-
2FS
us
-
1P me
^-
1S
Note: Sometimes there is an extra between the enclitic pronoun and an Imperfect
verb. (Usually the is assimilated.)
Note: Generally, Suffix Pattern/Perfect verbs use an a-class vowel (usually ) before
enclitic pronouns, while Prefix Pattern verbs use an i-class vowel (usually ).
B 5
eye, spring F ,^ NIS messenger, angel M X
Identify the conjugation, person, gender, and number of these verbs and the person, gender,
number of the enclitic pronoun and translate.
( .
^ b ( .
< ( .
^m ( .
Ig ( .
$ ( .
f ( .
< / ( .
. LM
$ ( z/ ".| ?" $ .
".I g }] " $ (
.
( $ 6 $ < / ^ .
.
( $ ^ ^ " ".
.
X $ ( ] / .g ^
.
Appendix
C.3b
Appendix
C.4f
Appendix
C.4d
.
Write five sentences with a verb with enclitic pronoun in each using your vocabulary or
glossary.
.
.
.
.
.
41. Word Order and Topic and Focus
In 18 Ancient Hebrew was described as a language with Subject-Verb basic
word order, but in which this order is often inverted due to some sort of trig-
ger at the front of the clause (e.g., ). In addition to inversion to Verb-Subject
order triggered by grammatical words, word order changes can also be
triggered by a Topic or Focus constituent.
Topic and Focus constituents are usually placed at the front of the clause
(this is sometimes referred to as fronting). The fronting of a Topic or Focus
constituent almost always results in Verb-Subject order.
Topic constituents are used to direct the reader very specifically to what the
clause is about, as in Now lets talk about grammarwhat fun it is! Focus constitu-
ents present contrasts (or in fuzzy terms, emphasis) and often follow a Topic,
as with the word fun in Now lets talk about grammarwhat fun it is!
There are many, many examples in the Hebrew Bible for which the Predicate-
Subject (where the predicate is a verb, null-copula, or participle) order has
been triggered by a fronted Topic or Focus constituent. We will return to issue
of Topic in 46; for now, let us consider a few examples of Focus.
<$
His brothers saw that him [Joseph] their father loved more
than any of his brothers (Gen 37:4)
At the front of Gen 37:4 is the Focus object phrase: . The fronting of this Fo-
cus phrase also results in the inversion of the word order for the rest of the
clause: Verb-Subject ( ).
/[/$ /
His brothers were jealous of him, but his father kept the
matter (in mind) (Gen 37:11).
In Gen 37:11 what looks like a basic Subject-Verb clause in the second half has
actually been set up by the context, that is, by the contrast with Josephs broth-
er, to be a Focus.
Gen 22:12 illustrates Predicate-Subject inversion in a verbless clause. (Remem-
ber that null-copula and participial clauses are not inverted by grammatical
words [see 18]; when they are inverted it is always due to Topic or Focus.)
}] ` KP
Now I know that a God-fearer (are) you (Gen 22:12)
The (Focus) predicate ? K/ is before the subject because God
(speaking through his messenger) is telling the Abraham that he has recog-
nized exactly what kind of loyal follower Abraham is.
Gen 3:5 illustrates Predicate-Subject inversion with the participle _ (the par-
ticiple is not triggered by grammatical words like ):
b ^^ ~ ^/ ?
m] g ?
because God knows that on the day you eat from it, your eyes
will be opened and you will become like gods . . . (Gen 3:5)
In this case, the serpent in Genesis 3 wants Eve to believe that God is well aware
of the effects of eating the forbidden fruit and that He is trying to keep Eve and
Adam from something desirable.
When we turn our attention to irreal clauses (in which the normal word order
is Verb-Subject), it makes sense that the focusing and fronting of a subject trig-
gers inversion back to Subject-Verb order. In Gen 44:33, the subject noun
is focused and thus fronted.
^j I ] ~ / / $
Now, please let your servant stay instead of the boy as a
servant to my lord; and let the boy go up with his brothers
(Gen 44:33)
The result of the focusing and fronting of the subject noun, is that it now pre-
cedes the irreal verb $ , producing Subject-Verb order in a irreal clause
(which is normally Verb-Subject order).
5 ^ ) (Parse the words
Identify the word order in the clauses below from Readings 8-9 (some are given with a bit of
context, in gray) and offer an explanation using the concepts of Topic, Focus, and triggered
inversion.
( $ X 0 , 0"
".' ?' ?

.
( g$

.
( $ ".] p m] I 6 "

.
( ~ ",<^ ]/" m m $ "
".m~ ]/

.
GO TO READING #9
42. Participles
Participles are adjectives that have ^ ] / distinctions (like verbs). Unlike the
finite conjugations (i.e., the Perfect, Past Narrative, and Imperfect), Participles
are only marked for gender and number (not person).
Participles are declined like adjectives, illustrated below with the H Active
Participle:
Plural Singular
0
S
K
S[
Masculine
m / c
S
c / f
S[
Feminine
The pattern of the [ Active Participle pattern is distinct from both the Suffix
and Prefix Patterns. In contrast, the Participle forms of the other ^ ] / are
closely related to the two basic patterns:
The ^ Participle is similar to the Suffix Pattern Perfect conjugation,
except that it has a b-theme vowel instead of a F .
^ (MS Participle) versus ^ (the 3MS Perfect)
The, , and Participles are based on the Prefix Pattern
with a prefixed :
[ (MS Participle; cf. 3MS Imperfect [/ )
[ (MS Participle; cf. 3MS Imperfect [ ^ )
X (MS Participle; cf. 3MS Imperfect X$ )
Like Adjectives (see 32), Participles may be used substantivally, or predicatively:
Substantivally: Some participles are regularly used as agentive nouns;
their meaning is derived from the action or function that the agents regu-
larly perform/fulfill.
m ^ the judges of Israel (Num 25:5)
Predicatively: The Participle may describe an action or event in a clause;
when it used this way, the main verb ] is often omitted and the predic-
ate expresses progressive aspect (the temporal location [tense] of the
event is derived from the context).
^ p ]
Moses was shepherding the sheep of Jethro (Exod 3:1)
]/
Samuel (was) lying in the temple of YHWH (1 Sam 3:3)
Participles are often introduced by a - prefix. In these cases, the func-
tions as a relative marker (as opposed to the definite article), and the
participle functions predicatively within a relative clause that modifies a
noun.

the man who lies with the woman (Deut 22:22)
The use of the to introduce a relative clause (as opposed to being the
article) is clear in cases where the noun is not definite but the participle
has the .

a highway that goes up from Bethel to Shechem (Judg 21:19)
As with the more common relative marker, , the relative is not al-
ways present to introduce the relative (such relatives are called un-
marked and are quite common in English, too):
| ^ K f
Alas, nation (that is) sinning, people (that is) heavy of iniquity, seed
(that is) doing evil, sons (that are) acting corruptly (Isa 1:4)
The ]/ [, in addition to the Active Participle (above), has a Passive Parti-
ciple with a theme vowel; it is also declined as an adjective.
Plural Singular
0
S
K
S[
Masculine
m
S
f
S[
Feminine
Most occurrences of the [ Passive Participle are predicative. The Passive Par-
ticiple functions as the main verb in a clause with a sense similar to the English
Past Participle in similar passive constructions, such as you are blessed. The
temporal location (tense) is derived from the context.
o
because you have done this, you (are) cursed (Gen 3:14)
Like the Active Participle, the Passive Participle may be the main verb within a
relative clause, with or without a :
] c |
I made the earth with my arm that (was) stretched out (Jer 27:5)
43. The Foreground and Background of Narrative
The majority of the Hebrew Bible is narrative. Because Hebrew has a Past Nar-
rative verb form, this discourse type is readily identifiable. The main thread or
foreground of narrative discourse features the Past Narrative verb.
0 /$
It was after these things (Gen 22:1a)
The Past Narrative clause in Gen 22:1 indicates that the reader is supposed to
understand that this story is picking up with events that happened after the
last story (Genesis 21). But when something is included that is not part of the
development or progression of the plot action, the narrator avoids using the
Past Narrative verb.
? ]/ 4 ] /
Now the serpent was craftier than any wild animal that YHWH God had
created (Gen 3:1)
In Gen 3:1, the serpents relevant qualities are mentioned as scene-setting in-
formation that is not part of the plot action.
In addition to communicating background information, the narrator also
avoids using the Past Narrative verb to portray events in an order other than
their occurrence in the narrative.
]<[ X L ^ / < $ ] m $
Abraham lifted his eyes and looked, andlook!a ram behind (him)
had been caught in the thicket by its horns (Gen 22:13)
In Gen 22:13, the ram as not caught in the thicket right as Abraham looked or
after he looked, but obviously before he looked up. Thus, the Past Narrative
verb is avoided and this preceding event is described with the Perfect verb
L .
Similarly, in Gen 2:6, the narrator uses the Imperfect and Irreal Perfect verbs to
report events that contribute to the setting (the state of creation) rather than
the main plot line of the narrative, which begins with God creating man in
verse 7.
z ~ b / c $ /
(and) mist would come up from the earth and would water the entire
surface of the ground (Gen 2:6)
Summary:
Discourse material that is presented with the Past Narrative verb is called fore-
ground material. Foreground events are the most salient or important for the
development of the plot line and very frequently occur in succession (i.e., this
happened, then this happened, etc.).
Discourse material that is presented with other predicates (e.g., null copula
clause, Perfect, Imperfect) is generally background material. Background ma-
terial describes the narrative setting or reports simultaneous events that are
out-of-sequence relative to the narrative plot.
44. The Verbal System A Summary
The Ancient Hebrew verbal system is summarized in the following chart. It
consists of verbs that express real mood (Past Narrative), verbs that express ir-
real mood (Jussive and Imperative), and forms that may express both real and
irreal mood, as indicated by word order (Perfect, Imperfect).
Real
Mood
SUFF

Perfect: perfective (whole view of situation)
PREF
($) ^
Past Narrative (Preterite): past event in narrative (or poetry)
^
Imperfect: imperfective (partial/in-progress view of situation)
Irreal
Mood
SUFF
(/)
Irreal Perfect: contingent modality/command
PREF
^
Irreal Imperfect: command or wish (it is negated with ?)
PREF
^
Jussive: command or wish (any person; it is negated with )

Imperative: command or wish (2nd person only; not negated)
Because the Perfect and Imperfect form the central opposition (perfective : im-
perfective aspect) in the real mood system of Ancient Hebrew, it is best to clas-
sify them as real mood verbs that may nevertheless be used to express irreal
mood as well. This sort of cross-over of forms is found in many other languages
as well.
For example, in English the Past Perfect verb is regularly used to express con-
trary-to-fact modality, as in the statement Had he known, he would have been
there, in which the use of the Past Perfect indicates that he did not know.
GO TO READING #10
45. Numerals
Numerals in Hebrew fall into two categories, just as they do in English: cardin-
als (the basic forms) and ordinals (the forms used to order items, e.g., in a list).
Both cardinals and ordinals have masculine and feminine forms and the car-
dinal numerals also have a non-bound (X ) and bound (X^ ) form.
Ordinals
Feminine Masculine
Cardinals
Masculine Feminine
X^ X X^ X
] 0
^

<

^

0
0
^

<

^

0
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
5
th
6
th
7
th
8
th
9
th
10
th

?
<

L

^
?
<

L

~
?
<

$

c

^
?

]

m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
The following principles describe how the numerals work:
1 is an adjective; it agrees in gender and number with the noun it modifies.
2-10 are nouns that may be in apposition (any order) or with a
noun.
~ ~ ^$ ] ] ^$ ] ~ two men
3-10 (cf. 1 and 2) take the opposite gender form to the noun they modify.
^ three sons and three daughters
(contrast one son and one daughter)
11-19 are constructed of the numerals 1-9 followed by 10 (M ; F K ).
They agree in gender with the noun they modify (like 1 and 2).
Note: there are alternate forms for 11 and 12
~ 11
~ ~ ~ 12
20-90 are the plural forms of 2-9; single integers are conjoined with .
0 20
/ 31
/ < 45
100s are based on 100 (FS ; FS NIS ; P )
^ (DU) 200
? 300, etc.
Certain nouns appear in the singular even with numerically plural modifi-
ers:
] 11 year(s)
11 day(s)
11 man (men)
46. Topic
In 18 when we examined Biblical Hebrew word order, we discussed the fact
that the basic word order in Biblical Hebrew is Subject-Verb. In 41 the nu-
ances of Hebrew word order were expanded by an introduction to Topic and
Focus, with examples of Focus constituents. In this lesson, the notion of Topic
will be considered further.
In 41, Topic was defined as what a clause is about, but this definition is too
narrow, since Topic can applied to three different levels:
1) Syntactic Topic, the constituent that sits in a special Topic position at the
front of a clause;
2) Clause Topic, the constituent in a clause that the rest of the clause is about;
3) Discourse Topic, the constituent in a discourse (which may be as small as a
single clause or as large as a multi-part story) that the rest of the dis-
course is about.
One constituent may function as all three types of Topics in the same text;
however, it is also possible that three different constituents serve as each type
within the same text. Thus, while the term Topic is very useful in understand-
ing how the Hebrew authors were manipulating their language to structure
their texts, we should use the term with care and clarity.
Genesis 1 contains all three types of Topics and will serve as a good example
text.
Genesis 1 and Discourse Topic
Consider first the chapter as a whole (including the first three-and-a-half
verses of chapter 2): the repetition of ? as the subject in almost every
verse (it is missing only in vv. 13, 15, 19, 23, 30) is a strong signal that ? is,
minimally, part of a complex Discourse Topic, which is succintly summarized in
the first verse:
c / ^ ? m K
in the beginning (that) God created the heavens and the earth
(Gen 1:1)
Gen 1:1 includes three constituents, the verb m , the subject ?, and the
object c / ^ (a merism for the world), which the rest of the
creation story is about.
Genesis 1 and Clausal Topic
Genesis 1 appears, by the repetition of words and overall content, to be about
?, who is involved in m -ing the world. And yet, there are numerous
clauses in which one of these constituents does not appear to be the Topic.
? $ /$ /
(and) God said, Let light be. And light existed. (Gen 1:3)
While the first clause in the verse (in gray) exhibits the typical pattern in the
story, [Past Narrative verb + ?], the subsequent two clauses make no men-
tion of God or the verb m . Instead, the subject in each is and the verb is
a form of to be, exist. Thus, the clausal topic is and the verb in each
clause describes something about the Topic -- its coming into existence.
Genesis 1 and Syntactic Topic
The use of the Syntactic Topic position most often lines up with either a Dis-
course or Clausal Topic. However, in rarer cases the Syntactic Topic does not
line up with the other types.
z ? m$ ? m
(and) God created the man in his image; in the image of God he created
him (Gen 1:27)
In Gen 1:27 the prepositional phrase ? is fronted in the special Top-
ic position (before the null subject, verb m , and object phrase ). The Top-
ic-fronting indicates that it is the information in the image of God that the
rest of the clause is really about.
This serves as an interesting counterpart to the first clause in the verse (m$
z ?), which exhibits the pattern [Past Narrative verb +
?] that is so common in Genesis 1 (see above on ? as a Discourse
Topic). Whereas the first half of the verse reinforces the Discourse Topic, the
second half uses the Syntactic Topic position to highlight a Clausal Topic other
than ?.
GO TO READING #11
47. Masoretic Accents
, or accents, were added to the Bible by the Masoretes (ca. 500-1000 C.E.),
a group of scholars responsible for the preservation of the Hebrew Bible as well
as the addition of accents and vowels.
The accents serve to break up the text into sense units so that when the text
is read or chanted, a pause (or breath) is taken in a logical place. Knowing the
accents, therefore, informs the reader both where to place word stress and how
to phrase groups of words.
In addition, accents can also be of consequence for interpretation, as illustrated
by Isaiah 40:3. If the division of the verse by the accents are observed, the pre-
positional phrase is part of the criers statement, but the Septuagint, followed
by the New Testament, treats the prepositional phrase as indicating the loca-
tion of the crier.
? m $ ]/ Xc g K
A voice cries out: In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD, make
straight in the desert a highway for our God. (Isa 40:3, NRSV)
Compare
This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke when he said, The
voice of one crying out in the wilderness: Prepare the way of the Lord,
make his paths straight. (Matt 3:3, NRSV)
There are 27 accents used by twenty-one books of the Hebrew Bible as well as a
variant 21 accents used exclusively in Psalms, Job, and Proverbs. The accents
are categorized as disjunctivethose which make a sense break with what
followsand conjunctivethose that make a sense connection with what
follows. In addition, the disjunctive accents are of different levels depending
on the strength of their disjunction. Level 1 accents make the greatest
disjunction.
Listed below are the accents of the first three disjunctive levels as well as the
two most common conjunctive accents which function as servi (servants),
immediately preceding certain disjunctive accents.
LEVEL ONE
Silluq (always with sof pasuq )
Atnah
LEVEL TWO
Segolta (postpositive)
Zaqef Qatan
Zaqef Gadol (variant of zaqef qatan)
Tifha
LEVEL THREE
Revia
Pashta (postpositive)
Tevir
Note: If two of the same disjunctive accents appear within one clause, most often the
first of the two will mark the more disjunctive sense break.
MAJOR CONJUNCTIVE
Munah (servi for atnah, segolta, zaqef, revia, and pashta)
Merka (servi for silluq, tifha, and tevir)
Verse divisions by the accents can be understood as operating on a continuous
dichotomy: the strongest disjunctive divides the verse in half, the next
strongest divides each half in half again, etc.
In the following verses the strength of each disjunction is represented by
vertical lines between the words: one vertical line (|) represents a level one
disjunction, two vertical lines (||) a level two disjunction, and three vertical
lines (|||) a level three disjunction.
Genesis 1:1-2
1:1 _
1:2
_
48. Complements and Adjuncts
To understand the relationship between a verb and the constituents that
modify it (referred to as a verbs valency), it is helpful to make a distinction
between complements and adjuncts.
Complements are constituents limited (in number) and required by the verb,
both syntactically and semantically: syntactically they are required for
grammaticality; semantically they complete the meaning of the predication.
The underlined elements in the following clauses are complements.

(and) Joseph brought in Jacob, his father (Gen 47:7)

let them live in the land of Goshen (Gen 47:6)

(and) they knew that they were naked (Gen 3:7)
$ / $
He refused to be comforted (Gen 37:35)
Note: Valency is a broader concept than transitivity, though often the two coincide:
the direct object of a transitive verb is always a complement, but a complement may
be something other than a direct object, such as the locative prepositional phrase
with intransitive ] in Gen 47:6 above.
Despite the fact that complements are required, they may not always appear
with a verb for one of several reasons:
The verb may exhibit different senses with different sets of complements,
such as mb in the following examples: with the sense call (Gen 3:9) mb
has one prepositional complement; with the sense of name (Gen 1:5) it
has a prepositional and a accusative complement.
z ? ]/ m $
Yhwh God called to Adam (Gen 3:9)
? m $
God called the light day (Gen 1:5)
The verb may be capable of expressing both a general and more specific
meaning depending on whether it has a complement, as in in the fol-
lowing examples (cf. English He read versus He read a book):
m m^ ]
Then Israel sang this song (Num 21:17)
m$ m
I will sing and I will praise! (Ps 57:8)
The complement may be null, supplied by the context (similar to null sub-
jects; see 18). Compare the following:
< $ . . . ^ m $
Abram heard that his brother had been taken captive . . . and he
pursued (them) as far as Dan. (Gen 14:14)
<$ $
He struck them and pursued them as far as Hobah. (Gen 14:15)
In contrast to complements, adjuncts are limitless and optional: adjuncts may
be added or omitted without affecting the basic grammaticality (syntax) or
sense (semantics) of the clause. They add information that the narrator or au-
thor considers important. The underlined elements in the following clauses are
adjuncts.
^ ] $
(and) they came to him in the second year (Gen 47:18)
_ ^f < ^f g H $
(and) Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh, because the
Egyptians, each one, sold his field (Gen 47:20)
GO TO READING #12
49. Case Relations
Case involves morphology, syntax, and semantics. Traditionally, case is
thought of in terms of morphological inflectional form of nouns, pronouns, and
adjectives (e.g., Latin, German). However, more crucially, cases indicate the
particular syntactic role or relationship between words in an expression. Each
case is typically used to express multiple semantic relationships among the
words they relate in an expression.
Note: Although case is related to the valency distinctions of complement and adjunct
(48), it is more narrowly concerned with transitivity and more intricately related to
traditional inflectional case marking.
Languages show different types and degrees of morphological case marking. In
English, morphological case marking is preserved only in the personal pro-
nouns.
Nominative
Accusative
Genitive
I
me
my
he
him
his
she
her
her
we
us
our
they
them
their
Although Hebrew at one time morvphologically distinguished these three
cases, by the period of Biblical Hebrew cases relations are indicated by other
means, including syntax, morpho-syntax, and lexical.
The Nominative case indicates the subject of a verb: the agent of an active verb
and the patient of a passive one. An agent performs an action or brings about a
change of state. A patient experiences a state or undergoes a change. Nominat-
ive case relations are normally indicated syntactically by its nearness to the
verb (immediately before or after).
$
Joseph came (Gen 47:1)
/ c/ ^ /$
the heavens and the earth and all their host were finished (Gen 2:1)
The Accusative case indicates the direct object of a transitive verb. Often there
is no special marking for this relationship (especially if no confusion between
accusative and nominative is likely). However, frequently Hebrew lexically
indicates the accusative relation by / .
6$ $
(and) Joseph brought in Jacob, his father (Gen 47:7)
Note: But because the direct object of an active (transitive) verb is identical with the
subject of a passive (intransitive) verbboth are patient, sometimes the latter is
marked by / .
m I K ^ ?/
And your name will no longer be called Abram . . . (Gen 17:5)
Some verbs show variation between an unmarked accusative (direct object)
and a prepositionally marked one, as in the following examples.
]/ 4
I will praise Yhwh. (Gen 29:35)
]
Praise (to) Yhwh! (Is 12:4)
Genitive case relations are indicated morphosyntactically (vowel reduction
and word order) by the bound noun/ construction. The semantic
relationship of the X to the cliticized X^ may be that of subject, object,
or possessor of an activity implied by the X^ noun, or else it may adjectivally
modify the X^ noun.
] ? f ~ / < 6$ $
(and) Jacob said to Pharaoh, The days of the years of my sojourn have
been 130 years (Gen 47:9)
f c c ^f c
. . . in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Ramses (=
Ramses land) (Gen 47:11)
Other case relations, corresponding to semantic relationships such as recipi-
ent/indirect object, location, manner, etc. are usually marked lexically by pre-
positions or treated syntactically in a similar manner to accusatives.
Sometimes a verb may exhibit both strategies for marking its complement,
such as with the locative complement of ] in the following.
c ~
Let them live in the land of Goshen (Gen 47:6)
$ X$
Tamar went and lived (in) her fathers house. (Gen 38:11)
50. Lexical Semantics
Semantics is concerned with meaning in language at every level of expression.
Meaning is compositional; that is, the meaning of a text or utterance is com-
posed of its constituent parts. One of the most central constituents are words,
whose meaning is the focus of lexical semantics.
A lexical semantic distinction already introduced is that between grammatical
words and lexical words (7). Grammatical words are more context dependent
for their meaning, whereas lexical words have more context-independent con-
tent. This is why it is easier to define lexical words out of context (e.g., nouns,
verb, adjectives) than grammatical words (e.g., pronouns, prepositions, con-
junctions).
Dictionaries or lexica contain decontextualized senses of words, derived from
multiple instances of their use in expressions. The challenge in learning a new
language is to assign the correct decontextualized sense from the dictionary or
lexicon to each reading or speaking situation. It can be a temptation either to
rely too heavily on the context and so deny that meaning is compositional, or
to apply all the senses into each and every instance and so forget the contribu-
tion of the context. A balanced approach will view the decontextualized dic-
tionary sense(s) as providing guidance for integrating a word into a expressive
context.
As an example, consider the verb mb (Qal). To begin with, we need to
distinguish two homonyms of this verb: mb I call, and mb II meet; the
latter is a by-form of mb. If we examine HALOT, we find a number of senses
listed for mb (Qal) I, including the following:
1) call (to someone)
2) name (someone/something)
3) call, summon, or invite (someone)
4) proclaim or announce (something)
5) call or cry aloud (generally or to a deity)
6) read or recite (aloud)
On the one hand, it is easy enough to see meaning shared among these senses:
mb (Qal) I involves making audible, coherent sounds directed toward
someone or something. In a given expression we will then examine the details
of the context to determine precisely which of these senses is most suitable.
In many cases recognizing valency patterns (i.e., patterns of complements and
adjuncts) and case (i.e., accusative or prepositional objects of the verb) be-
comes crucial for making such judgments. For example, sense (2) and (3) tend
to have two complements (besides the subject): the name given and the person
or thing named; the person summoned and the event or person they are
summoned to (the complements are underlined).
/ mb X/ ? m$
God named the light day and the darkness he named night. (Gen 1:5)
m$ 6$ $
Jacob offered a sacrifice on the mountain and summoned his relatives
(lit., brothers) to eat food (lit., bread). (Gen 31:54)
By contrast, the other senses frequently have just one object: the thing an-
nounced or read or the person (deity) cried out to.
XK ] < $ L < < $
And he rode him in his second chariot and they shouted in front of
him Kneel! (Gen 41:43)
Note: The prepositional phrase ] is an adjunct; it does not complete the sense
of the verb in any way, but modifies it by specifying the location of the proclamation.
~ m$ 0 $
He took the book of the covenant and read (it) in the hearing (lit.,
ears) of the people. (Exod 24:7)
m ? / ]/ m
In my distress I called Yhwh and to my God I cried. (2 Sam 22:7)
In each of these patterns, lexical clues help further distinguish among senses of
the verb: one reads a book (Exod 24:7) but shouts an exclamatory word (Gen
41:43).
Lexical semantics concerned not only with the different senses of a single word
but also sense relations between similar (synonymous) words. Such sense rela-
tions are understood as forming intricate semantic structures in languages.
The more the related senses of similar words can be distinguished, the more
fully the senses of each individual word is understood and vice-versa.
For example, mb (Qal) I, glossed above as involving making audible, coherent
sounds directed toward someone or something, is related to (Qal) and its
by-form (Qal). An examination of the various instances of these verbs
shows both overlap and distinction in their senses. For example, / nev-
er express naming or reading, in contrast to mb. In addition, they usually in-
volve making audiable sounds in a distressing or alarming situation (Exod 2:23
below), while mb only sometimes has a similar sense (e.g., 2 Sam 22:7, above).
$ z m^ ~ /$
(and) the children of Israel groaned from the (forced) labor and they
cried out (in distress). (Exod 2:23)
GO TO READING #13
Appendix A
Phonology
1. From Biblical Hebrew to Masoretic Hebrew
Vowels
Based on comparative evidence from languages related to Hebrew, like
Akkadian and Arabic, grammarians believe that the vowels of ancient Hebrew
changed between the biblical period and the period in which the vowel points
were added in the Masoretic Text. Ancient Hebrew distinguished vowels
primarily based on quality (timbre) and quantity (length; macrons indicate
long), as in the diagram below. (The traditional phonetic trapezoid chart
distinguishes vowels based on the vertical and horizontal position of the
highest point of the tongue in the production of the sound.)
Front
Backness
Central Back
Height
Close
i/ u/
a/
Mid
Open
Reconstructed Ancient Hebrew vowels: 3 phonemes
Scholars reconstruct a vowel inventory for ancient Hebrew that is essentially
identical to that of reconstructed proto-Semitic. One difference between
ancient Hebrew and proto-Semitic is that at some point in the late second
millennium, all Hebrew long a vowels, i.e., //, underwent what is
affectionately called the Canaanite Shift and became //.
In contrast to the ancient Hebrew, the Masoretic system we know from the
Tiberian tradition of Masoretes (which gave us the Leningrad Codex that we use
as the basis for most of our Hebrew Bibles) makes the most sense as a system of
vowel timbre, without any distinction of length, as shown in the following dia-
gram (i as in machine; e as in they; as in bt; a as father; as in bought; o as in
go; u as in rude).
Appendices A2
Front
Backness
Central Back
Height
Close
= i u = /
= e o =
= =
= a
Examples
i as in machine
e as in they
as in bt
a as father
as in bought
o as in go
u as in rude
Mid
Open
Masoretic (Tiberian) Hebrew vowels: 7 phonemes
While some students are taught to pronounce ancient Hebrew with the recon-
structed vowels, most courses use a mixture that derives from the pronunci-
ation of Hebrew in the modern state of Israel. Consider the below chart in
order to appreciate fully the complexities of working with a language that has
a 3,000-year history.
Front
Backness
Central Back
Height
Close
i u
o
a
Mid
Open
Israeli (Ashkenazic) Hebrew vowels: 5 phonemes
2. Vowel Changes from Ancient to Tiberian Hebrew
There is a pattern to the numerous vowel changes that occur when nouns are
made plural, dual, and construct. However, this pattern is obscured by the Mas-
oretic vowel system in the Hebrew Bible. Analyzed from a historical perspect-
ive (i.e., looking at the changes in the language over time), though, the changes
are regular and predictable.
The key to understanding the how the Tiberian Hebrew vowel system relates to
the probable Ancient Hebrew vowel system is to assume that the Tiberian
vowel points preserve for the most part the older system of long and short
Appendices A3
vowels. If this is so, then we can classify the vowels in terms of their historical
status as pure long, short, lengthened short, or reduced short. The following table
presents this classification (note that we simplify the issue of the vowel mark-
ers; not all pure long vowels are marked with a or ).
Pure
Long
Lengthened
Short
Short Reduced Short
a-class a
() or
i-class
e
i

or
u-class
o
u
or
Based on this chart, the following principles emerge:
Pure Long vowels are stable and do not change.
horse
( the horses of the king
0 righteous ones
Note: The doubled prevents the vowel under the from reducing (see below).
Short vowels lengthen a) in a stressed syllable; and b) immediately before
a stressed syllable (i.e., lengthened short).
word (both vowels are lengthened short a-class vowels)
Short vowels reduce two syllables or further before the stressed syllable
(i.e., reduced short).
( the word of the king
Note: The short a-class vowel under has become a reduced short; the a-class
vowel under stays short instead of becoming a lengthened short as in the
absolute form, above.
Appendices A4
3. Vowel Letters
Originally the Hebrew language, like other Semitic alphabetic languages (e.g.,
Phoenician, Aramaic), was written with consonants only. Vowels were simply
understood by the literate, such as scribes.
However, even educated scribes must have had a few problems with a wholly
consonantal system, because by the 8th century, texts exhibit the use of three
consonants, , , and to mark certain vowels (historically long or lengthened
vowels) at the ends of words. These vowel markers (their Hebrew name is
9 mothers of reading; the common Latin translation of this is
matres lectionis), were first used in Aramaic by the 10th century B.C.E. before be-
ing adopted later by Hebrew writers.
Over time the ancient Hebrew system of vowel markers was expanded so that
they stood for long/lengthened vowels not just at the end of words (i.e., word-
final vowel markers), but anywhere in the word (i.e., word-medial or word-in-
ternal vowel markers).
In particular and marked vowels that resulted from the contraction of vow-
els with a following consonantal or : aw became (often written as = ),
uw became (often written as @), ay became (often written as B ),
and iy became (often written as @ ). The full system looked like this:
stood for long/lengthened a, e or o vowels at the end of a word,
e.g., , D, G .
stood for long/lengthened or contracted u and o vowels,
e.g., , , = .
stood for long/lengthened or contracted i and e vowels,
e.g., , H .
So, where do the vowel points that you have learned come from? Although
the pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible was preserved for centuries by an oral
reading tradition, around the 6th century C.E. scholars called Masoretes, who
were responsible for preserving the text of the Hebrew Bible, became con-
cerned about the long-term preservation of their reading tradition. They de-
veloped points to represent the Hebrew vowels. It was the responsibility of
Appendices A5
specialists called K LM (pointers) to add these N (points) to the exist-
ing consonantal text.
Since the text of the Hebrew Bible had become sacred, the points were super-
imposed upon the existing text, which itself was a product from many different
hands and stages, dialects, and idiolects of ancient Hebrew. This is why only
some of the vowels in Hebrew use a or with a vowel point. When a vowel
marker ( ,, or ) is present in the text of the Hebrew Bible, the spelling is
called scriptio plene (full writing); when a vowel letter is absent the spelling is
called scriptio defectiva (defective writing). More simply the two modes are
called full and defective spelling.
4. Syllables, Vowels, and Word Stress
A syllable begins with a consonant (C) and ends with either a vowel (CV =
open), or a consonant (CVC = closed).
Note: The vocalic form of the conjunction before certain consonant-vowel
combinations (see A.6 below) is the only exception to consonant-first syllables.
has two syllables: an open (CV)
and
a closed (CVC).
Note: The vowel letters (, , ) and do not close syllables! However, at the
end of a word does close a syllable. The dot, called a mappiq, indicates that the is
a consonant and not a vowel letter.
Open syllables usually have (historically) long/lengthened vowels (as
in ) unless stressed then they may have short vowels (as in ( ).
Note: A syllable is either stressed or unstressed: in most words the last syllable is
stressed. Words that are not stressed on the last syllable in the lessons and
exercises have an accent mark over the stressed syllable, written as .
Closed syllables usually have (historically) short vowels (as ( - in ( )
unless stressedthen they may have long vowels (as - in ).
Note: The vowel sign represents the short u-class S in a closed, unstres -
sed syllable, and elsewhere the lengthened a-class S. E.g., - = [chochma].
Appendices A6
Open syllables that are unstressed may have a reduced (from a historically
short), vocal = vowel (as - in - - 9 ).
5. The Article and the Interrogative
The form of the article is attached to the front of the word it modifies and a
in the first letter of the host word.
Z = Z + the wilderness
However, this basic form may be modified as follows:
#1 before non-guttural consonants: the horse
#2 usually before , , or : \ the head
#3 usually before or : the temple
#4 before , , or (unstressed!): 9 the mountains
#5 before or (stressed!): the mountain
BUT before (stressed!) it is : K the valor
Summary of the article before gutturals:
stressed qamets unstressed qamets

\

9
K

D
Note: There are a few nouns whose first vowel changes when the article is added:
@

@ +
the earth

+
the garden

+
the people
Appendices A7
The basic form of the interrogative may also be modified as follows:
#1 before a guttural or any consonant with = ` vowel: Is he a
father?
#2 before a guttural with S vowel: Are you wise?
6. Attaching the Clitic Prepositions
The vocalization of the conjunction:
N normally
K cN and David
Note: The definite article remains when the conjunction is added.
N and the man
K before N
N + cN cK and Judah
with the corresponding full vowel before a =
e and Edom KM and I
before , , , or simple = (other than N ). This may be mnemonically
referred to as the BuMP-Sheva Rule.
N + K K and a house
N + K K and a face
N + c c and from Judah
N + and great (things)
Note: This is the only case in which a vowel begins a syllable!
Appendices A8
Some special cases:
Quiescent :
GH and God =gM and the Lord
= occasionally before a stressed syllable:
= and emptiness
The principles of vocalization for the clitic prepositions are:
, , before a consonant with a full vowel
( to/for a king
K in/at a house
, , before a consonant with a simple =
9 according to a covenant
BUT before N the vowel becomes
+ cN c to/for Judah
The corresponding full vowel before a compound =
+ like that which
+ to/for Edom
The article vocalization before a noun with the article (i.e., the articles
consonant is replaced by the clitic preposition)
+ ( ( to/for the king
Some special cases:
Quiescent :
G to/for God = g to/for the Lord
, , before a stressed syllable in some words:
in this
Appendices A9
The preposition may also be proclitic. In this case, the vocalization is:
before non-gutturals (the assimilation of into the following consonant
is marked by a )
+ from there
BUT before N the vowel becomes a
+ cN c from Judah
before gutturals (the vowel lengthens because the guttural cannot be
lengthened, i.e., they do not allow )
+ from a man
Appendix B
Nominal Morphology
1a. Noun Inflection (6, 10, 20)
K i 9 )
B B )-
Masculine
K j Z c c )
k Z Z Z )-
Feminine
1b. Adjective Inflection (32)
Plural Singular
)
)-
Masculine
)
)-
Feminine
2. Frequent Irregular Nouns
Singular
Somech

Nismach
Plural
Somech Nismach
father M
,
brother M

sister F

man M
= N
Appendices A11
Singular
Somech

Nismach
Plural
Somech Nismach
woman F
= N
house M K
son M
K H
daughter F

day M
= N
city F
9 B
head M
\ \ l l
3. Personal Pronouns (5, 10)
they / 3MS he 3MS
they / 3FS she 3FS
you 2MS you 2MS
you 2FS you 2FS
we M 1S I K 1S
4. Demonstrative Pronouns (33)
Plural Singular
these this

Masculine

Feminine
Near
those

that

Masculine

Feminine
Far
Appendices A12
5a. Enclitic Pronouns with Singular Nouns (9, 20)
With Feminine With Masculine
his law
her law
your law
your law
my law
their law
their law
your law
your law
our law
l
ol
p`l
(kl
ql
o l
o l
` i
` i
l
his word
her word
your word
your word
my word
their word
their word
your word
your word
our word

l
pr
(B
9
l
l
r
r

3MS
3FS
2MS p
2FS (
1CS
3MP
3FP
2MP
2FP
1CP
5b. Enclitic Pronouns with Plural Nouns (17, 31)
With Feminine With Masculine
his laws
her laws
your laws
your laws
my laws
their laws
their laws
your laws
your laws
our laws
o
s
ps
(
j
k
k
k
k
k
his words
her words
your words
your words
my words
their words
their words
your words
your words
our words
l
@
p@
(K i
i
B
B
B
B
B
3MS
3FS
2MS p
2FS (K
1CS
3MP
3FP
2MP
2FP
1CP
Appendices A13
5c. Enclitic Pronouns with , / , , and the Object
Marker - /
him
her
you
you
me
them
them
you
you
us
o
p`
(o
q
o
`
`
`
o
from him
from her
from you
from you
from me
from them
from them
from you
from you
from us

=
p
(
K

like him
like her
like you
like you
like me
like them
like them
like you
like you
like us

p
(
K

for him
for her
for you
for you
for me
for them
for them
for you
for you
for us

p
(

3MS
3FS
2MS p
2FS (
1CS
3MP /
3FP
2MP
2FP
1CP
Appendix C
Verb Morphology
Strong Verb Quick Reference Chart:
Representative Forms
QAL NIFAL PIEL PUAL HITPAEL HIFIL HOFAL
PERF 3MS
K 0 t u` ( (
IMPF 3MS
K K uN tN u` K ( M ( =
PAST 3MS
M M uNM tNM u` M ( M ( M
IMV MS
u u` (
INF
u t u` ( (
INF ADV

K
u t u` ( (
PTCP MS
K u t u` ( (
guard gather throw
1a. The Strong Verb
PERF 3MS
K 0 t u` ( (
3FS
l l K 0 t u`
2MS
r r K 0 t u`
2FS
r r K 0 t u`
1CS
r r K 0 t u`
3CP
K 0 t u`
2MP
r r K 0 t u`
2FP
r r K 0 t u`
1CP
r r K 0 t u`
Appendices A15
IMPF 3MS
K K uN tN u` K ( M ( =
3FS/2MS
u t u` ( (
2FS
9 9 u t u`
1CS
u t u` ( (
3MP
K K uN tN u` K M =
3FP
=r =r = u = t =u` = =
2MP
u t u`
2FP
=r =r = u = t =u` = =
1CP
K K uN tN u`K ( M ( =
PAST 3MS
M M uNM tNM u` M ( M ( M
JUSS 3MS
K u tN u` K ( M ( =
1CS
l l u t u`
IMV MS
u u` (
FS
9 9 u u`
MP
u u`
FP
=r =r = u = u` =
INF
u t u` ( (
ADV INF
K

u t u` ( (
PTCP MSA
K u t u` ( (
FSA
l l K u t u`
@ @ K u t u`
MPA
9 9 K u t u`
FPA
K u u`
Appendices A16
1b. Recognizing the Derived -67
Note: R indicates a verbal root consonant, and the subscripts
1 2 3
indicate the
position of the consonant within the triconsonantal root.
- /Nifal
Perfect is characterized by a prefix and (j ) under R2.
Imperfect is characterized by a lengthened R
1
(indicated by )
with (a-class S)
Imperative is characterized by a prefix and lengthened R
1

with (a-class S).
The Nifal Imperative generally occurs with the Nifals reflexive sense (as opposed
to its passive sense).
Adverbial Infinitive has two forms: yK and y
Participle is characterized by a K prefix and (a-class S) under R2.
/Piel
Perfect conjugation is characterized by i-class vowel under R
1
and
lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Imperfect conjugation is characterized by under the prefix consonant,
a-class vowel under R
1
, and lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Past Narrative exhibits a peculiarity with the 3MS and 3MP forms: the
falls out of the prefix. This phenomenon is part of a general tendency
of the consonants , , , , , , , , and to drop a when
they have a vocal = .
This phenomenon is often referred to as vilminqs (= + sibilants) or
sqinmlevi (i.e., skin em Levi).
=N zN M YHWH spoke to Moses (Num 1:1)
Appendices A17
Participle is characterized by a inflectional prefix and the vowel
pattern of the masculine singular is the same as that of the Prefix pattern
in the respective K = N .
Piel Imperfect N and Participle
/Pual
Perfect is characterized by a u-class ( or ) vowel under R
1
and a
lengthened R
2
.
Imperfect is characterized by a under the prefix, a u-class ( or )
vowel under R
1
, and lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Imperative and 1
st
Person Jussive do not occur in the Pual.
Infinitive and Adverbial Infinitive each occur only once: (Ps 132:1)
and (Gen 40:15), respectively.
Participle is characterized by prefix, a u-class vowel under R
1

( or ), and a lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
< /Hitpael
Perfect is characterized by a ` prefix, an a-class vowel under R
1
, and a
lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Imperfect is characterized by a ` after the prefix, an a-class vowel under
R
1
, and a lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Imperative is characterized by a ` prefix, an a-class vowel under R
1
, and
a lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Infinitive and Adverbial Infinitive are identical in form to the 3ms
Perfect and 2ms Imperative.
Participle is characterized by ` prefix, an a-class vowel under R
1
, and a
lengthened R
2
(indicated by ).
Appendices A18
/Hifil
Perfect conjugation is characterized by a (or with an i-class vowel)
prefix and an i-class theme vowel (i.e., between R
2
and R
3
).
Imperfect conjugation is characterized by an a-class vowel under the
prefix and an i-class theme vowel (i.e., between R
2
and R
3
).
Note: the i-class theme vowel is often spelled defectively (without ).
M they destroyed (2 Sam 11:1)
Past Narrative conjugation shows a slightly altered Prefix pattern. The
theme vowel in the Past Narrative verb form is instead of .
H M Jehu destroyed the Baal (2 Kgs 10:28)
Participle is characterized by a inflectional prefix throughout. Also, the
vowel pattern of the masculine singular is the same as that of the Prefix
pattern in the respective K = N .
Hifil Imperfect 0M and Participle 0
/Hofal
Perfect is characterized by a u-class vowel under the prefix ( or ).
Imperfect is characterized by a u-class vowel under the prefix ( or ).
Imperative and 1
st
Person Jussive do not occur in the Hofal.
Infinitives are rare.
Participle is characterized by a u-class vowel under the prefix ( or )
Appendices A19
2. Enclitic Pronouns with Verbs (40)
FOLLOWING CONSONANT
WITH
ENERGIC NUN
PREFIX VERB SUFFIX VERB FOLLOWING VOWEL
*N
*N
*pN
*K N
*N

p
(
K

p
( / (
K

- / -
-
p-
(-
K -
-
-
-
-
-
3MS
3FS
2MS
2FS
1CS
3MP
3FP
2MP
2FP
1CP
Note: Suffix Pattern (Perfect) verbs have an a-class linking vowel (i.e., the vowel
between the verb form and the suffixed pronoun). Prefix Pattern (Imperfect, Past
Narrative, and Imperative) have an i-class linking vowel.
3. Introduction to Guttural Verbs
Guttural consonants (, , , and ) have four main characteristics.
Characteristic #1: Gutturals (and ) cannot be lengthened (i.e., they
cannot have a ).
Characteristic #2: Gutturals prefer a-class vowels (both before and after).
Characteristic #3: Gutturals , , and at the end of a word may be
preceded by a j (stolen patach) (traditionally furtive patach).
Characteristic #4: Gutturals usually have a = instead of = .
These characteristics result in predictable changes in verbal roots containing a
guttural consonant.
Appendices A20
3a. I-Guttural Verbs
#1 Nifal Imperfect has a (B ) prefix vowel instead of the normal
(@ ) to compensate for the fact that the guttural consonant cannot
be lengthed (i.e., take a ).
H instead of *K (compare to | K )
#2 Qal Imperfect Dynamic verbs have a (j ) prefix vowel instead of
(@ ). Qal Imperfect Stative verbs have a ( ) prefix vowel instead
of (@ ).
M instead of *K (compare y K )
e instead of * K (compare K )
Note: Both dynamic and stative 1CS Qal Imperfect have ( ) as the prefix
vowel: and
I-Guttural Paradigm: stand
QAL (DYNAMIC) QAL (STATIVE) NIFAL PI/PU/HIT HIFIL HOFAL
PERF 3MS
e
3FS
c S ce c c
2MS
Z L Ze Z Z
2FS
Z L Ze R Z Z
1CS
Z L Ze Z Z
3CP
e E
2MP
Z L Ze Z Z
2FP
Z L Ze G Z Z
1CP
Z L Ze Z Z
Appendices A21
IMPF 3MS
M e H U M =
3FS/2MS

2FS
~ 0 ~ L ~ ~
1CS

3MP
M e H A M =
3FP
=Z =L =Z =Z =Z
2MP
R
2FP
=Z =L =Z =Z =Z
1CP
M e H M =
#3 Qal Imperative and Infinitive have (j ) under the first radical.
instead of * (compare y )
Note: A vowel will always be the same class as that of the preceding vowel.
M (Hifil 3MS Perfect and Imperfect)
Note: The vowel may change to a full vowel if the vowel in the following
syllable is reduced to a = .
M (Qal 3MS Imperfect) BUT M (Qal 3MP Imperfect)
I-Guttural: Representative Forms
QAL (DYNAMIC) QAL (STATIVE) NIFAL PI/PU/HIT HIFIL HOFAL
PAST 3MS
M M M R M M
JUSS 3MS
M e H M =
1CS
c S c E c
IMV MS

FS
~ 0 ~ G ~
MP

FP
=Z =L =Z U =Z
Appendices A22
INF

ADV INF

M
L

PTCP MS
e
FS
c S ce A c c
D De D D
MP
~ 0 ~e R ~ ~
FP
e
3b. II-Guttural Verbs
#1 The Piel, Pual, and Hitpael do not have their characteristic lengthening
of R
2
(i.e., no ). The preceding vowel may lengthen.
Before the vowel always lengthens:
(i instead of *( (compare )
Before the vowel usually lengthens:
instead of *
Before , , or the vowel usually does not lengthen:
K instead of *H
#2 Qal Imperfect and Imperative have an a-class theme vowel with both
stative and dynamic roots.
Stative: e (expected)
Dynamic: K instead of *K (compare y K )
#3 R
2
has a instead of a simple = when the verb ends in a vocalic
inflectional suffix in all K = N except for the Hifil.
l instead of *l (compare cL )
Appendices A23
instead of * (compare L )
Note: does not always require a = , as in r
Paradigm: slaughter and ) bless
QAL NIFAL PIEL PUAL HITPAEL HIFIL/HOFAL
PERF 3MS
K (i (i (B`
3FS
K r r `
2MS
K B`
2FS
K i i B` R
1CS
K i `
3CP
K r r ` E
2MP
K i i B`
2FP
K i i B` G
1CP
K `
U
IMPF 3MS
K K (BN (iN (B`K
3FS/2MS
q (B (i (B ` L
2FS
r `
1CS
(B (i (B ` A
3MP
K K N rN `K
3FP
= = = = = ` R
2MP
q r `
2FP
= = = = = `
1CP
K K (BN (iN (B`K
Appendices A24
II-Guttural: Representative Forms
QAL NIFAL PIEL PUAL HITPAEL HIFIL/HOFAL
PAST 3MS
M M (@NM (iNM (B ` M R
JUSS 3MS
K K (BN (iN (B`K
1CS
` E
IMV MS
(B (B`
FS
` G
MP
`
FP
= = =B = ` U
INF
(B (B`
ADV INF
K (B/(\ (B` L
PTCP MS
K (B (l (B`
FS
K l ` A
K `
MP
K l ` R
FP
K l `
3c. III-Guttural Verbs
These verbs may take an a-class theme vowel; if there are not changes, a j
appears before R
3
.
Paradigm: send
PERF
3MS
K
3FS
K
2MS
K
2FS
K
1CS
K
Appendices A25
3CP
K
2MP
K
2FP
K
1CP
K
IMPF
3MS
K K N N K M =
3FS/
2MS

2FS
q
1CS

3MP
K K N N K M =
3FP
= = = = = = =
2MP

2FP
= q = = = = = =
1CP
K K N = K M =
III-Guttural: Representative Forms
PAST
3MS
M M NM NM KM M M
JUSS
3MS
K K N N K M =
1CS

IMV
MS

FS

MP

FP
= = = = =

INF
G
ADV
INF
GK
Appendices A26
PTCP
MS
K
FS
K
K
MP
K
FP
K
4. Introduction to Weak Verbs
The paradigms in lessons of this book use l that have three regular con-
sonants (i.e., no gutturals or glides). These are referred to as strong verbs.
Hebrew, however, contains many more weak verbs than strong. Weak verbs
have one or more weak (e.g., glide) consonants in the @ that may affect
the forms vowel pattern.
Weak verbs fall into one of four main classes (Roman numerals are used to
refer to the position of the weak letter in the @ ):
A @ that begins or end with : I-, III-
A @ that begins with : I-
A @ with or (i.e., glides): I-/, II-/, III- (originally III-/)
A @ with an identical consonant in second and third positions: II-III
This chart lists all the classes of weak verbs:
Class Traditional Name Examples
I- Pe Alef
III- Lamed Alef
I- Pe Nun =
I-/ Pe Vav/Yod i= =
III- Lamed He
II-/ Ayin Vav/Yod
II-III Ayin Ayin
Appendices A27
Weak Verbs Quick Reference Chart: Representative Forms
STRONG I- III- I- I- / III- II- / II-III
PERF 3MS
= = S
IMPF 3MS
K
K M H K = =
PAST 3MS
M
M M M M M SM M
IMV MS

INF

ADV INF

= = G
PTCP MS
S
4a. I- Verbs
The majority of verbs that begin with are classified as I-Guttural verbs and
follow that pattern.
Qal 3MS Imperfect (dynamic) is e
Qal 3MS Imperfect (stative) is e
However, five verbs are classified as I- weak verbs because they have a unique
vocalization in the Qal Imperfect and Past Narrative conjugations. In all the
other conjugations and K = N these roots behave exactly as I-Gutturals.
The five l that are I- can be learned by a traditional mnemonic device:
he said
he was willing
he ate
he baked
he perished
He said:
I am willing
to eat
what I bake
even if I perish!
Appendices A28
In the Qal Imperfect and Past Narrative conjugations the initial in these five
l becomes quiescent; in other words, it loses its consonantal status. The
following changes take place in these verb forms:
An R
2
lacks a u .
(compare K )
The prefix vowel becomes a ().
(compare e )
The theme vowel (the vowel between R
2
and R
3
) becomes (j )
(compare e )
Note: The theme vowel also appears as (B ) in pausal forms, as in , and
as ( ) in the Past Narrative of as M .
Often the R
1
is not written in the 1CS form.
instead of *
Paradigm: say
(also perish be willing, eat, and bake)
IMPF 3MS IMPF 1CS PAST
QAL M
*These five l behave differently only in the u
Imperfect and Past Narrative; they conform to
I-Guttural in other conjugations and K = N .
4b. III- Verbs
A similar phenomenon takes place in III- verbs as in I-: the becomes quies-
cent. When the becomes quiescent it cannot close a syllable.
instead of *
The quiescent cannot be vocalized with a = .
Appendices A29
A letter following the quiescent never has a u .
The vowel preceding the quiescent lengthens.
Here are the other characteristics to note about the III- verbs.
( ) appears before in the 3FP/2FP Imperfect in all K = N .
Qal = Nifal =
Piel = Pual =
Hitpael = `
Hifil = Hofal =
Only Qal Perfect shows a distinction in vowel pattern between dynamic
and stative.
Perfect (dynamic) versus (stative)
Imperfect K (dynamic) like K (stative)
Nifal, Piel, and Hifil Perfect have a (B ) theme vowel instead of a
(j ) before consonantal inflectional suffixes.
Nifal Piel Hifil
2MS oK o o
2FS K
1CS qK q q
2MP sK s s
2FP sK s s
1CP K
Hofal has a (0) instead of ( S) under the prefix.
instead of *
instead of *=
Appendices A30
Paradigm: find
PERF
3MS
K `
3FS
K `
2MS
o oK o o o ` o o
2FS
K `
1CS
q qK q q q ` q q
3CP
K `
2MP
s sK s s s ` s s
2FP
s sK s s s` s s
1CP
K `
IMPF
3MS
K K N N `K M
3FS/
2MS
` `
2FS
q `
1CS
`
3MP
K K N N `K M
3FP/
2FP
= q = = = = q = =
2MP
q q
1CP
K K N N `K M
III-: Representative Forms
PAST 3MS
M M NM NM ` M M M
JUSS 3MS
K K N N `K M
1CS
`
Appendices A31
IMV MS
`
FS
`
MP
`
FP
= = = = ` =
INF
`
ADV INF
K `
PTCP MS
K `
FS
K `
K `
MP
K `
FP
K `
4c. I- Verb
I- weak verbs undergo two changes that make them weak:
#1 When the closes a syllable (i.e., it does not have a vowel and is preceded
by a verbal prefix), it assimilates to the following consonant, lengthening
it (i.e., the following consonant will have a ).
Qal 3MS Imperfect K (instead of *NK )
Nifal 3MS Perfect K (instead of *NK )
Hifil MS Participle (instead of * N )
BUT, does not assimilate to gutturals NK
#2 When the occurs at the beginning of a form and it does not have a
vowel, it may undergo aphaeresis (i.e., the initial drops out). Aphaeresis
only occurs in the Qal Imperative and Infinitive.
Qal 2MS Imperative (instead of *N )
Appendices A32
Qal Infinitive , from *` , (instead of *N )
Note: The in the is a u , because the now stands at the beginning of
the word. The Infinitive forms that undergo aphaeresis also add a to the end of
the form.
BUT, the remains with a few l :
Qal Infinitive/2MS Imperative N
F and G6
The verb u follows the I- pattern:
#1 The assimilates (just like a would) to the .
Qal 3MS Imperfect K
Qal 3FS Imperfect
#2 The undergoes aphaeresis in the imperative and infinitive forms.
Qal 2MS Imperative u
Qal Infinitive u
However, the does not assimilate in the Nifal.
Nifal 3MS Perfect u K
The verb j= is not only a I- verb, it also has a as the final consonant of the
@ . When inflectional endings are added and the final in j= does not have
a full vowel, it assimilates to the following consonant (just like the initial in
the same environment). This does not happen in other l that end in .
Qal 2MS Perfect j = (from *Nj= )
Qal 2FS Perfect j = (from *Nj= )
Qal 1CS Perfect j = (from * Nj= )
Qal Infinitive (with suffixes, - q , from *` N )
Appendices A33
Paradigm: 6 fall, 6 draw near
QAL NIFAL PI/PU/HIT HIFIL HOFAL
PERF 3MS
= = K
3FS
= = K
2MS
= = K
2FS
= = K R
1CS
= = K
3CP
= = K E
2MP
N N K
2FP
N N K G
1CP
= = K
U
IMPF 3MS
K K K M
3FS/2MS
L
2FS
q
1CS
A
3MP
K K K M
3FP
= = q = q R = =
2MP

2FP
= = q = q = =
1CP
K K K M
I-: Representative Forms
QAL NIFAL PI/PU/HIT HIFIL HOFAL
PAST 3MS
M M M R M M
JUSS 3MS
K K K M
1CS
E
Appendices A34
IMV MS
N
FS
K G
MP
K
FP
= N = = U =
INF
N
ADV INF
= = L
PTCP MS
K
FS
K A
K
MP
K R
FP
K
4d. I-/ Verb
I-/ weak verbs undergo two changes:
#1 The or contracts with the preceding vowel.
Qal 3MS Imperfect H (from *NM )
Qal 3MS Imperfect iK (from *iNK )
Hifil 3MS Perfect (from *N )
Hofal 3MS Perfect (from *N )
#2 The or undergoes aphaeresis when it lacks a full vowel at the
beginning of the word (only in Qal Imperative and Infinitive of some
l that are I- ). This is similar to the form of I- weak verbs.
2MS Imperative , instead of *N
Infinitive (from *` ), instead of *N
(Morphologically, the is a feminine endingwith no semantic value
that was added after the underwent aphaeresis.)
Appendices A35
BUT, is an example of a @ that retains the initial in the
Imperative (lN ) and Infinitive (\N ).
There are three different types of I-/ weak verbs:
#1 Original I- verbs these verbs originally began with .
The is replaced with a in Qal, Piel, Pual, and Hitpael.
Qal 3MS Perfect = and Imperfect H
The original appears (as consonant or vowel marker) in Nifal, Hifil, and
Hofal.
Nifal 3MS Perfect and Imperfect K
Hifil 3MS Perfect and Imperfect
Qal Prefix verbs of dynamic I-/ roots have an a-i pattern.
Dynamic (a-i) H from *NM
Qal Prefix verbs of stative I-/ roots have an i-a pattern.
Stative (i-a) iK from *iNK
#2 Original I- verbs these verbs originally began with . The appears in
all forms (as a consonant or a vowel marker).
Qal 3MS Imperfect K and Infinitive N
Hifil 3MS Perfect and 3MS Imperfect H
There are only seven I- type l (all have stative i-a Prefix pattern).
= Q it was dry HI he chose/used the right arm
= Q he was good M = Q he suckled
HI he howled *u= Q he awoke
= Q it was straight, upright
Appendices A36
#3 I-- verbs these roots begin with and undergo changes like I-
weak verbs. The assimilates into the when it closes a syllable (this is
similar to the assimilation of the in I- verbs).
Hifil 3MS Perfect (from *N )
There are only six I-- roots (all with stative i-a in the Prefix pattern).
HIT he stationed himself = Q he poured
HI he set, placed = Q he formed, fashioned
HI he spread, lay = Q it kindled, burned
The Verb (
The verb ( follows the original I- pattern:
Qal 3MS Perfect ( Hifil 3MS Perfect (
Qal 3MS Imperfect (H Hifil 3MS Imperfect (
Qal 3MS Past Narrative ( M
Qal 2MS Imperative (
Qal Infinitive
Paradigm: 6 sit, I6 possess; 6 be good
QAL NIFAL
PI/PU/
HIT HIFIL HOFAL QAL HIFIL
PERF 3MS
= i= =
3FS
= r= =
2MS
= o = =
2FS
= i= R =
1CS
= = =
3CP
= r= E =
2MP
N iN N
2FP
N iN G N
1CP
= = =
Appendices A37
IMPF 3MS
H iK K U K H
3FS/2MS
i
2FS
r q L
1CS
i =
3MP
H rK A K H
3FP
= =i = = = = =
2MP
r R
2FP
= =i = = = = =
1CP
H iK K K H
I-/: Representative Forms
QAL NIFAL PI/PU/HIT HIFIL HOFAL QAL HIFIL
PAST 3MS
M iM M R M M M M
JUSS 3MS
H iK K K H
1CS
r E
IMV MS
B N
FS
r G K
MP
r K
FP
= = = U = =N =
INF
N
ADV INF
= = L =
PTCP MS
B
FS
r A

MP
r R
FP
r
Appendices A38
4e. III- Verb
Most III- weak verbs originally ended with (or ). The in the 3MS Perfect
form is only a vowel letter marking the long final vowel. This vowel letter was
added after the final or was lost. The original R
3
or shows up only rarely.
Qal Passive Participle () exhibits the original :
uncovered
Qal 3MS Perfect of some verbs shows the original :
he was at ease
Note: the few l that actually have a as their original R
3
have a in
the , i.e., . This signifies that the is a consonant rather than a vowel letter:
it was high/lofty/tall
All forms without an inflectional suffix end in (except the Infinitive,
which has -):
Perfect 3MS Infinitive
Imperfect 3MS K Adverbial Infinitive G
Imperative 2MS Participle MS ; MS (K FORM
Forms with a vocalic inflectional suffix or a enclitic pronouns with a
linking vowel drop the R
3
:
Qal Perfect 3CP
Qal Perfect 3MS + 1CS suffix K
In all forms with a consonantal suffix, the R
3
contracts:
1) into in the active K = N (Qal, Piel, Hitpael, and Hifil).
Qal Perfect 2MS o
2) into in the passive K = N (Nifal, Pual, and Hofal).
Nifal Perfect 2MS o K
Appendices A39
3) into in Prefix verb 3FP/2FP in all K = N .
Qal Imperfect 3FP/2FP =
In Past and Jussive forms without an inflectional suffix, the R
3
drops.
K let him uncover and M he uncovered
Paradigm: reveal
PERF 3MS
K `
3FS
o oK o o o ` o o
2MS
o o K o o ` o o
2FS
` K `
1CS
q qK q q q ` q q
3CP
K `
2MP
s sK s s s ` s s
2FP
s sK s s s ` s s
1CP
K `
IMPF 3MS
K K N N `K M =
3FS/2MS
`
2FS
`
1CS
`
3MP
K K N N j K M =
3FP
= = = = = ` = =
2MP
`
2FP
= = = = = ` = =
1CP
K K N N `K M =
Appendices A40
III- : Representative Forms
PAST 3MS
M M NM ` M M
JUSS 3MS
K N ` K
1CS
NO DISTINCT 1CS JUSSIVE FORM IDENTICAL WITH 1CS IMPERFECT
IMV MS
`
FS
`
MP
`
FP
= = = = ` =
INF
`
ADV INF
G GK `
PTCP MSA
K `
FSA
K `
MPA
K `
FPA
K `
4f. II-/ Verb
II-/ weak verbs have a or as R
2
. They are classified as weak verbs because
the or undergoes one of two changes:
#1 elides (i.e., drops out)
Qal 3MS Perfect/MS Participle S
#2 contracts with a preceding or following vowelthe or in these forms is
merely a vowel letter, not a remnant of the original or consonant.
Qal 3MS Imperfect = = =
Note: several common l retain their R
2
or as a consonant (and thus the
or does not disappear or contract).
Appendices A41
= he is; = he is alive; = S he waited
L exicon Tip #1: The II-/ weak verbs are listed in your lexicons by their
Infinite form because this form (unlike the 3MS Perfect as in other verbs) better
reflects the three consonants of these weak l .
Lexicon Tip #2: A few l are listed as both II- and II- because they ex-
hibit two infinitive forms: an R
2
and an R
2
.
and
and
Though thesel should be classified as II- forms, some older lexicons list
them as II-.
Some l exhibit a distinction between dynamic and stative patterns
in the Qal.
S (dynamic) versus (stative)
Instead of Piel, Pual, and Hitpael, most l that are II-/ roots have
Polel, Polal, and Hitpolel K = N .
` y but Piel and Pual
Linking vowels often connect the @ to the consonantal inflectional
suffixes: in Nifal and Hifil Perfect, in Qal and Hifil Imperfect.
Nifal 2MS Perfect o N
Hifil 2MS Perfect o0
Qal 3FP/2FP Imperfect =
Hifil 3fp/2fp Imperfect = 0 (sometimes =| )
Appendices A42
Paradigm: arise, die, set
QAL II- QAL STATIVE QAL II- NIFAL POLEL HIFIL HOFAL
PERF 3MS
S = 0 u
3FS
S o = L
2MS
u o N o0
2FS
u N 0
1CS
u qN q0 q
3CP
S = L
2MP
u s N s0 u
2FP
u s N s0 u
1CP
u ` N 0
IMPF 3MS
= = = K N 0= u
3FS/2MS
0 u
2FS
q L
1CS
0 u
3MP
= = = K N 0= u
3FP
= = = = =
=|
= 0
=
2MP
0 u
2FP
= = = = =
=|
= 0
=
1CP
= = = K N 0= u
Appendices A43
II-/: Representative Forms
QAL II- QAL STATIVE QAL II- NIFAL POLEL HIFIL HOFAL
PAST 3MS
SM M M M NM M uM
JUSS 3MS
y= = = K N |=
1CS
o
IMV MS
|
FS
q 0
MP

FP
= = ` = = = =|
INF
0 u
ADV INF
| |
PTCP MS
S = 0 S
FS
S o N 0 S
MP
S q N 0 S
FP
S N 0 S
4g. II-III Verb
II-III weak verbs are roots with identical second (R
2
) and third (R
3
) root letters.
They have the following characteristics:
The identical root letters may assimilate.
Qal 3CP Perfect or
Note: When the lengthened (from assimilation) consonant is at the end of the
word, the drops out.
Qal 3MS Perfect (from * )
Sometimes instead of R
2
assimilating forward into R
3
, it assimilates
back to R
1
.
Qal 3MP Imperfect = but also K
Appendices A44
Instead of Piel, Pual, and Hitpael, most II-III weak verbs have Poel, Poal,
and Hitpoel.
Poel BUT Piel 0
Linking vowels often appear before consonantal inflectional suffixes in
some forms: Qal, Nifal, Hifil, and Hofal Suffix patterns have , and Qal,
Nifal, Hifil, and Hofal Prefix patterns have .
2MS PERF: Q o NI o N HI o
2/3FP IMPF: Q = NI = HI =
FP IMV: Q = NI = HI =
Paradigm: surround, F be slight
QAL DYNAMIC QAL STATIVE NIFAL POEL HIFIL HOFAL
PERF
3MS
/ u =
3FS
/ =
2MS
o o u o N o o
2FS
u N
1CS
q qu qN q q
3CP
/ =
2MP
s s u s N s
2FP
s s u s N s s
1CP
u N
IMPF
3MS
= /K uH K N = /
3FS/2MS
/ u
2FS
/
1CS
/ u
Appendices A45
3MP
= / K H K N =
3FP
= / = = u = = = =
2MP
/
2FP
= / = = u = = = =
1CP
= / K uH K N =
II-III: Representative Forms
QAL DYNAMIC QAL STATIVE NIFAL POEL HIFIL HOFAL
PAST 3MS
M uM M NM M M
JUSS 3MS
= uH K N =
1CS

IMV MS

FS

MP

FP
= = = =
INF
y
ADV INF
S
PTCP MS
u =
FS
u N
MP
u N
FP
u N
4h. Doubly-Weak Verbs
At this point, you have studied all of the major categories of weak l in
Biblical Hebrew. However, many verb l contain more than one weak
consonant. Thus, such l are referred to as doubly-weak. This is the fi-
nal category of weak l that you will study. Below are listed some com-
mon doubly-weak l :
Appendices A46
I-, III-
l= I-/, III-
= I-/, III-
= I-, III-
= I-, III-
II-/, III-
= II-/, III-

Although most of these l are still relatively simple to identify, other
l become more difficult to identify since it is possible that up to two of
their three l consonants may not be apparent, as in the verb ( M .
The key to correctly identifying and parsing these doubly weak verbs is to use a
three step process of elimination.
STEP 1 : Identify what parts of the verb form are inflectional affixes and
what parts are remnants of the @ .
( M : the M and are clearly inflectional affixes for the Past Narrative
conjugation; thus ( is the only remaining consonant from the @ of
this verb.
STEP 2 : Rule out which weak consonants cannot be part of the verbal @ ,
or vice versa, and identify which weak consonants can account for what is
left of the verbal @ in the verb form.
(: Since we have only one consonant of the @ left, the other two
consonants must be ones that disappear in some way.
Of the weak consonants (the gutturals, , , and ), only , , and elide, and
assimilates. Hence, the remaining consonants of this verbs @ cannot be
, , , or .
only assimilates at the beginning of a @ (except in ), so we can rule
out a @ that ends in .
only elides at the end of a @ , so we rule out a @ beginning with .
and often elide in II-/ verbs; however, these weak verbs never have a
final which elides or an initial which assimilates. Thus we can conclude
that this verb is not a II-/.
Appendices A47
For the verb ( M we are left with two logical possibilities after the first two
steps: the @ is either or .
STEP 3 : Use your lexicon to identify which of your logical l actually
exists in the Hebrew Bible. If both exist, then scan through the existing
forms in each @ to aid you in identifying which is your verbs @ .
In the case of ( M the the lexicon should tell you that as a @ does not
exist. Therefore, the @ for this verb is HI smite, strike.
( M : Hifil 3MS Past (from * N M )
Appendix D
Using a Lexicon
At this point in your study of Herew, you should begin to transition from using
our glossary to using a full-scale lexicon (pl. lexica).
Unlike dictionaries, which provide definitions of words and rules of usage, lex-
ica provide glosses from one language to another. In addition, lexica for ancient
languages often provide attested forms of words as well as examples taken
from ancient texts.
In this section, you will first be introduced to the basic steps for using the
dated but affordable and still standard lexicon for Biblical Hebrew, A Hebrew
and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, edited by Brown, Driver, and Briggs
(BDB). Following this discussion are sample pages from this lexicon with side-
bar notes explaining the layout of the entries.
Following the introduction to BDB is a discussion of two newer lexica: The Con-
cise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, edited by Clines (CDCH), and The Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, edited by Koehler, Baumgartner, and
Richardson (HALOT).
Basic Principles for using BDB:
Step 1: Identify the three-letter @ and look it up in the lexicon.
Step 2a: If the word is a verb, identify the =N (see the Parsing Flow Chart in
the Appendix F for help).
Step 2b: If multiple meanings are listed for the =N , determine which
meaning best fits the context for your passage. The lexicon may reference
the verse on which you are working; this is the editors opinion of which
meaning best suits the passage.
Step 3a: If the word is a noun, look for its entry after the entry for the
verbal @ .
Step 3b: Same as Step 2b.
Appendices A49
How to Read a BDB Entry, Part 1: Verbs
1. Running headers provide the first and last words included on each page.
2. Verbs are listed in 3MS Perfect form.
3. The most common meanings are given in bold.
4. In parentheses are attestations and basic meanings of the root in other Semitic languages.
5. Entries are arranged by = N as follows: Qal, Niph., Pi., Pu., Hithp., Hiph., Hoph.
6. A partial listing of conjugated forms is provided for each = N .
7. Multiple meanings are given in outline formI.1.a.with italicized glosses.
Appendices A50
How to Read a BDB Entry, Part 2: Nouns
1. Running headers provide
the first and last words
included on each page.
2. Nouns are listed after the
related verbal root, even
if they do not begin with
the first consonant of the
@ , like . Note
that such nouns are also
conveniently listed
alphabetically with
direction to go to the @
entry for the meaning.
3. Identification as noun
(n.) and gender (m. or f.)
follow the form.
4. Then the most common
meanings are listed in
bold.
5. In parentheses are
attestations and basic
meanings of the root in
other Semitic languages.
6. A partial listing of
declined forms is given.
7. Multiple meanings are
arranged in outline form
2.a.with italicized
glosses.
While BDB remains a standard lexicon, especially for students, because of the
pedagogical value of its root-based layout and extensive citation and transla-
tion of biblical forms and verses, two new lexica are increasingly preferred by
many students and teachers: The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, edited by
Clines (CDCH), and The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, edited by
Koehler, Baumgartner, and Richardson (HALOT). These two lexica not only
Appendices A51
represent the latest scholarship in Hebrew lexicography (dictionary writing),
they have both been is-
sued in reasonably af-
fordable student
editions.
CDCH and HALOT differ
from BDB in important
ways. HALOT and CDCH
include much of the
same information
(glossed meanings, list-
ing of representative in-
flected forms), but both
add information from
non-biblical Hebrew
texts, from early in-
scriptions to the Dead
Sea Scrolls, that the
much older BDB did not
have access to. Interest-
ingly, HALOT includes
reference to the non-
biblical texts only when
the @ is biblicalit
does not list non-biblic-
al words when they do
not also occur in the
Bible. CDCH, in contrast,
adds entries for words
found in non-biblical
texts but not in biblical
texts.
Another difference between the two is that while HALOT follows BDB by includ-
ing attested cognates from other Semitic languages (including Ugaritic, which
had not been discovered when BDB was written) as well as speculations about
many words etymologies, CDCH lacks cognate and etymological information.
Appendices A52
For the student, perhaps the most noticeable difference between BDB, on the
one hand, and HALOT and CDCH, on the other hand, is layout. While BDB lists
all the forms of a word under the @ , as the entries above illustrate, HALOT
and CDCH list words alphabetically. For example, you can see in the CDCH entry
for and below, the noun is listed with other words (instead
of in the entry, as it in BDB).
Basic Principles for using HALOT and CDCH:
Step 1a: If the word is a verb, identify its @ , look it up in the lexicon.
Step 1b: Then identify the =N (see the Parsing Flow Chart in the Appendix F
for help). If multiple meanings are listed for the =N , determine which
Step 2a: If the word is a noun, look for its entry alphabetically.
Step 2b: If multiple meanings are listed for the word, determine which
Appendices A53
How to Read a CDCH Entry, Part 1: Verbs --
1. A single running header
identifies the first word
2. Verbs are listed by
consonants only, no
vowels (in contrast to
BDB, which lists verbs
by the 3ms Perfect
form).
3. Entries are arranged by
= N as follows: Qal,
Ni., Pi., Pu., Hi., Ho.,
Htp.
4. Representative inflected
forms follow each = N
label.
5. Multiple meanings are
given in outline form
1a.with bold glosses.
Appendices A54
How to Read a CDCH Entry, Part 2: Nouns --
1. A single running header
identifies the first word
2. Nouns are listed with
their singular, non-
bound () form
alphabetically (in
contrast to BDB, which
lists all nouns,
regardless of spelling,
with their @ ).
3. Identification as noun
(n.) and gender (m. or
f.) follow the form.
4. A partial listing of
declined forms is given.
5. Meanings are given in
outline form1a. (if
multiple meanings
exist) with bold
glosses for primary
meanings and italicized
contextually nuanced
meanings.
Appendices A55
Appendix E
Terminology
Many reference works on Hebrew (lexica and grammars) employ the tradition-
al Latin-based grammatical terms to describe Hebrew. In order to facilitate us-
ing such resources, the following list provides equivalencies between the
terminology of this grammar and the traditional Latin-based terminology.
Term in this grammar Traditional term
Vowel letter
u

j

(K
(
Infinitive
Adverbial Infinitive
Enclitic pronouns
Proclitic Prepositions
Past Narrative
Irreal Perfect
@
Subject Pronouns
K = N /=N
First-person Jussive
Mater lectionis (mother of reading)
Dagesh lene
Dagesh forte
Furtive patach
Construct relationship
Construct form
Absolute form
Infinitive Construct
Infinitive Absolute
Suffixed pronouns
Inseparable Prepositions
Waw-Consecutive Imperfect
Waw-Consecutive Perfect
(Triconsonantal) root
Independent Pronouns
Stem(s)
Cohortative
Hebrew-English Glossary
Conventions
Verbs are listed alphabetically by the Perfect 3MS forms for each # % & in which they occur.
In addition, a list of all the # % & for each verb appears for the * Perfect 3MS form, or the
unvocalized , if it does not occur in *. The L and R numbers after the gloss refer to the
lesson and reading number, respectively, in which the word appears as a vocabulary item.
Abbreviations
ADJ adjective
ADV adverb
C common (gender)
COLL collective
COMP complementizer
COND conditional
CONJ conjunction
DEM demonstrative pronoun
DET determiner/article
DU dual
ENCL enclitic
EXST existential
F feminine
HI Hifil
HIT Hitpael
HO Hofal
IMPV imperative
INF infinitive
INTJ interjection
INTER interrogative
LOC locative
M masculine
NI Nifal
NIS .# /bound/clitic form
NOUN noun
NUM numeral
PASS passive
PI Piel
P plural
PN proper noun
PREP preposition
PRON independent pronoun
PTCP participle
PU Pual
Q Qal
S singular
VB verb
; P NOUN M father L7, R1

VB Q perish; PI, HI destroy
VB PI destroy
VB Q be willing, consent
. PN Abimelech
PN Abel
CONJ but
VB Q, HIT mourn
NOUN M mourning R13
ADJ M mourning R10
; # P , > P NIS NOUN F stone
Hebrew-English Glossary G2
? PN Abraham
? PN Abram
PN Absalom
PN Edom
A NOUN M man, humankind; PN Adam R1, 8
,A B NIS ; A P NOUN F ground, land L7, R8
, NIS #C ; P ; > C P NIS NOUN M master, lord L4
% C PN (EPITHET) the Lord L4
# C PN Adonijah
, VB Q love R4
; P , P NIS NOUN M tent L20
PN Aaron
CONJ or
CONJ but
; NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M treasure, store; treasury, storehouse
; I P NOUN M light L24
VB Q be(come) light; H give light, shine, make shine
; P NOUN M/F sign R11
[] VB NI consent, agree
; #L DU > , NIS NOUN F ear L10
VB Q gird, equip
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M brother L10, R4
, F NUM one, each one R5
, NIS NOUN F landed property R12
VB Q seize, grasp, hold on to
, NIS ; P [ ] NOUN F sister L10
P , PREP, ADV, CONJ behind, after L30, 32
, , F ADJ another
; INTE where?; from where? L14
> NOUN M (= Q PTCP) enemy
NOUN F enmity, personal hostility
? INTER where
. ADV how; INTJ How? L14
# , NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M ram R1
# , EXST ADV there is/are not L12
# INTER where? L14
INTER where? L14
%; P , & P NIS NOUN M man L6, R1
. ADV only, surely
VB Q eat L18, R5
NOUN F food, eating R11
PREP to, towards
ADV not (with commands) R6
NOUN M god, God, mighty one
CP DEM these
T NOUN M God; gods L4
. PN Elimelech
VB PI bind (a sheaf) R10
, NIS ; P NIS NOUN F sheaf
; P , P NIS NOUN M (only P) thousand, clan; cattle
COND if; also marks alternative condition, i.e., or
; P NOUN F mother L7, R1
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F maid, handmaid
, NIS ; P NIS NOUN F cubit
VB Q support; HI believe
VB Q be strong, bold; PI strengthen (something); HIT make oneself bold, obstinate
) VB PI strengthen (something
VB Q say
I ; P P , P NIS NOUN M speech, word
NOUN F truth, faithfulness
% INTER where?, to where?
, INTJ ah!, now!
, PRON 1CP we
, # PRON 1CS I
PN Asa
VB Q gather, remove
ADV also, even, moreover
# ; P , P NIS NOUN M nose, face, anger
CONJ furthermore; how much more!
VB Q bake
VB Q be at an end, be no more
# [ PN Ephraim
NOUN M proximity; PREP beside
] ;] F ] ; P NUM four; P forty
# ] ADJ/SUBST four-fold
NOUN M chest, ark
Q PASS PTC cursed R8
[ ? ; P ] , P NIS NOUN M way, path
., NOUN M length
.P VB Q be long; HI prolong, lengthen
? PN Aram
, ? ; P ] , P NIS NOUN F earth, land L9, R6
[ VB Q, PI curse
[ VB PI curse
[? PN Ararat
NOUN M, F fire R3
, NIS ; % P & , P NIS NOUN F woman, wife L6, R1
PN Assyria
NOUN M guilt (offering)
CONJ that, which, who; COMP that L30, R3
a ;, W. ENCL PRON direct object marker L15
;, W. ENCL PRON PREP with
PRON 2MS you L5
PRON 2FS you L5
PRON 2MP you L11
% , PRON 2FP you L11
PREP in, at, with, by L13

NOUN M well, cistern, pit
PN Beersheba
PN Babylon
, d P , e P NIS NOUN M garment L35, R10
) see , NOUN M solitude (with
[] VB HI divide, separate
NOUN M emptiness R11
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F cattle R1
VB Q come, enter; HI bring, make enter L26, R6
; P NOUN M well, cistern, pit r1
VB Q be ashamed
VB Q choose
VB Q trust
, ) (, + PREP not yet, before
PREP (only NIS) between L26
VB Q perceive, observe, have insight; HI understand, give understanding, teach
% L , NIS ; P NOUN F understanding
# , NIS ; P , g P NIS NOUN M house L8, R1
PN Bethel
PN Bethlehem
VB Q weep, bewail; PI lament R10
VB PI lament
NOUN M first-born
NOUN F formal weeping R13
PN Bilhah
, ) ( + NOUN M secrecy
PN Balak
, ADV not, except
; P NOUN F high-place
, INTER how? L14
, NIS ; # P , > P NIS NOUN M son L7, R1
% IDIOM. X years old
% VB Q build R3
% & PN Benjamin
R8 ( + ) PREP, CONJ for the sake of, on account of, in order that
; NIS PREP behind, on behalf of, away from
PN Boaz
; P , P NIS NOUN M owner, lord, husband; Baal R7
NOUN M (unlawful) profit, gain R10
NOUN M dough
* VB Q split, cleave
VB PI split, cleave
j j , NIS k ; P NOUN F valley, plain
k * , NIS ; Ik P NOUN M cattle, herd, ox R12
l Ik , P NOUN M morning R6
VB PI seek R10
NOUN M corn
? VB Q create L24
[ VB Q flee L39
I NOUN F covenant L7
.P VB PI bless; PU, NI be blessed L29, R9
#] ;., DU ; ] DU NIS NOUN M knee R13
] ,? NIS ? ; P ] , P NIS NOUN F blessing R13
, NIS I ; P NOUN M flesh R10
VB PI boil
, P NOUN F daughter L7, R1
PN Bathsheba
. ) (.n + PREP M (only NIS) in the middle of
VB Q redeem, act as a kinsman

NOUN M (= Q PTCP) kinsman-redeemer, close relative
VB Q be high, lofty, tall; HI make high
NOUN M border, territory
, F ; MP , FP C ; MP NIS ADJ great L32
q, e VB Q be great; PI make great, grow
r NOUN M greatness, magnificence
B PN Gideon
; # P > , P NIS NOUN M nation, people L32
# ,# NIS # ; P NOUN F body, corpse R12
L VB Q pass away, perish R13
VB Q to sojourn, abide R12
NOUN M belly (of reptiles)
VB Q uncover, reveal
PN Gilead
ADV also, even L28
VB Q to wean; to do or show R13
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M camel R1
, P NOUN M garden R2
L VB Q steal; NI be stolen; PI steal away; PU be stolen away; HIT go by stealth
> NOUN F stolen item
VB Q rebuke, speak insultingly to someone R7
NOUN M resident alien, stranger
] NOUN FP neck
, NOUN M threshing floor R13
? PN Gerar
[ VB Q cast out, thrust out; PI drive out, away
PN Goshen
VB Q be anxious, worry
NOUN F report, rumor
VB Q cling, cleave, keep close
, NIS I ; P P , P NIS NOUN M word, thing L5, R4
VB PI speak L15, R7
NOUN M pestilence, plague
NOUN M honey
, F NOUN M fish R11
# PN David
NOUN M generation
) VB Q draw (water
; P , P NIS NOUN F door R1
q , NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M blood, P bloodguilt L23, R10
VB Q be like, resemble
NOUN F likeness R11
PN Dan
NOUN F/M knowledge R8
] NOUN M thistles
., r ? ; P ] , P NIS NOUN M/F way, road L16, R5
.[ VB Q tread, march, walk
[ VB Q seek L23
VB Q be green; H cause to sprout
NOUN M grass R11
t PN Dothan
DET the L8
INTER marker for yes and no question L8
ADV to, toward (attached to nouns) R7
INTJ behold, see! R12
() VB HI destroy
PN Atad
R11 ) ( VB HI give light, shine, make shine
) ( VB HI believe
.I ) .P ( VB HI prolong, lengthen
L36, R7 ) ( VB HI bring, make enter
R11 () VB HI divide, separate
( ) VB HI understand, give understanding, teach
VB HI look, gaze
PN Abel
R5 () VB HI declare
PN Hagar
B R11 ( ) VB H cause to sprout
MS PRON he; DEM that L5
R7 (%) HI multiply, do again, continue
R11 (%) VB H bring forth
I R7 ([% ) VB H bring down, cause to descend
R12 (%) VB H settle, set, cause to sit, inhabit
I R11 ([) VB HI produce seed
% R12 (%) H keep alive, let live, revive
() ) VB HI turn, incline (something
FS PRON she; DEM that L5
% VB Q become, be L6
R10 () VB HI smite, strike
R10 ) ( VB HI recognize, regard
, NIS , P , P NIS NOUN M palace, temple
L35, R10 () VB HI clothe
. VB Q walk, go L16, R3
VB PI praise
, MP PRON they; DEM those L11
NOUN M multitude, crowd
R7 ) ( VB H kill
INTJ behold, see! R8
, FP PRON they; DEM those L11
ADV here
INTJ behold, see! L22, R3
/# VB HI cause to rest, make quiet; set down; let remain, leave
VB HI cause to depart, remove
() VB HI conceal
VB H allow to pass over R12
R6 ) ( VB HI cause to rise up, lead up
R12 () VB H set up, cause to stand
. VB Q overturn, destroy
NOUN F overthrow, destruction
() VB HI do an extraordinary thing
I ) ([) VB HI divide, separate (something
() VB HI break, frustrate
R4 ( ) VB HI strip off, remove
R12 () VB HI set, place, establish
(C/e) VB HI justify
R7 ) ( VB HI snatch away, deliver
L29 (/) VB HI make successful, show experience
( ) VB HI cause to sprout, grow
j ) ( VB HI congregate
j () VB HI make sacrifices smoke
w () VB HI raise, erect
(*% ) VB HO be avenged
j (k/ k) VB HI shorten
*x ( k) VB HIT conspire
I ; P ; , I W. DET NOUN M mountain, hill country R3
] ( ?) VB HI show, exhibit
] R9 ( ?) VB HI make much/many, make multiply
[ VB Q kill, slay L27, R7
] (q?) VB HI chase
? VB Q conceive, become pregnant
] ( ?) VB HI cause to be distant, far away; remove
,? NOUN M conception, pregnancy
w] (*?) VB HI cause to skip
] ( ?) VB HI condemn
() VB HI utterly mock
R8 () VB HI deceive
R12 () VB HI collect, reach
R5 ( ) VB HI look at, ponder; give insight, teach
() VB HI leave over, behind
L29, R10 () ) VB HI cause to swear (an oath
R12 () VB HI sell grain
() VB HI put an end to, destroy
L29 () VB HI spoil, destroy
R7 () VB HI return (something)g
R6 () VB HI wake early
R5 () VB HI settle (someone), cause to dwell
. L15, R7 () VB HI throw
() VB HI annihilate
() VB HI make fat
() VB HI blind
k () VB HI water, give drink
w (*) VB HI show/cause quietness
n R6 ) ( VB HISHTAFEL bow down, prostrate oneself
x R10 ) ( VB HIT mourn
x ) ( VB HIT make oneself bold, obstinate
x R5 ) ( ) VB HIT hide (oneself
Lx VB HIT prophesy
Lx VB HIT be grieved, allow oneself to be comforted R10
L x VB HIT behave cunningly R10
x () VB HIT be difficult, extraordinary
x () VB HIT pray
*x () VB HIT gather (intransitive)
& CONJ and

L ) ( VB Q 3MS PAST he said
FS DEM this
VB Q, PI slaughter, sacrifice
MS DEM this
, NIS NOUN M gold
VB Q remember
; I P NOUN M male R11
PN Zilpah
NOUN M appointed time, time
, NIS NOUN F sweat R8
#{ NOUN MP old age R7
,| %| FS ; ,* MS NIS ; #| MP , | FP ; >j MP NIS ADJ old R13
| VB Q be old
[ VB Q rise, come forth, appear
[ VB Q sow seed; HI produce seed R11
;[ ? P ] , P NIS NOUN M seed L34
[] ) VB NI, HIT hide (oneself); HI hide (something

VB Q bind, pledge; NI be pledged; PI writhe, twist
NOUN M (= Q PTCP) mariner, sailor
VB Q, PI embrace
PN Hebron
VB Q bind, bind on, bind up; PI bind, restrain; PU be bound up R3
VB PI bind, restrain
VB PU be bound up
PN Haggit
NOUN M belt, girdle R5
q VB Q cease, come to an end
A , A F A ; MP A , FP ADJ new
A ;r P B , P NIS NOUN M new moon, month
[] VB HISHTAFEL bow down, prostrate oneself
PN Eve
NOUN M mud, sand R9
, NIS , P NOUN F wall
VB Q be strong; HI strengthen, seize R12
VB Q sin
, P , P NIS NOUN M sin
NOUN F sin
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F sin, sin-offering
M , NIS , MP ; F , FP ADJ alive, living
% VB Q live, be alive; H keep alive, let live, revive
, NIS ; P NOUN F animal R1, 11
,# NIS % ; P NOUN M strength, wealth, valor; army R12
NOUN MP life R5
NOUN M bosom, lap
M , NIS ; F , P , FP NIS ADJ wise
VB Q be wise
; P NOUN M dream R4
VB Q dream R4
[] VB NI be defiled; PI he polluted, defiled; HI begin
VB Q, PI divide, distribute; NI divide oneself
ADJ smooth, slippery
NOUN M portion, share, territory
k NOUN F portion
VB Q desire, take pleasure in
; P I NOUN M donkey R1
NOUN F mother-in-law
NOUN M violence
NOUN M cement, mortar, clay
, F ; P NUM five; P fifty R12
NOUN M fifth part R12
, F NUM fifth R11, 12
NOUN M favor, grace R12
% VB Q incline, bend down, camp
PN Hannah
. PN Enoch
L VB Q embalm R13
} NOUN M (always PL) embalming R13
L VB Q show favor, be gracious
> VB Q be polluted, profane; HI pollute, make profane
NOUN M kindness, goodness R12
. VB Q keep back, withhold
VB Q seek refuge
NOUN M delight, pleasure
~j, ; , W. ENCL PRON NOUN M statute R12
, ; ? P , ] NIS NOUN F sword R5
P PN Horeb
? VB Q burn, be kindled L36
. VB Q keep back, withhold R9
VB Q think, devise; NI be reckoned R113
VB Q be silent; HI exhibit silence, make still/quiet
. NOUN M darkness R11
Hittite ; PN Heth; Hittites
VB Q be shattered, dismayed
NOUN M bodyguard R10

VB Q dip something (into) R10
, P , MP NIS , F , NIS , FP ADJ good, pleasant R5
ADJ clean, pure
[] HI cast, hurl, throw; HO be hurled, cast, throw
ADJ unclean
NOUN M children R12
, ) ADV not yet, before (with
[ VB Q tear, rend, pluck R10
& I & ; P P & , NIS NOUN M stream; PN Nile

& ;& NIS NOUN F sister-in-law
% VB Q be(come) dry; HI cause to be dry
L NOUN F dry land R11
#% ;% DU e& , NIS % ; P , & NIS NOUN F hand L10, R2
[] VB HI give thanks, praise, confess
q% VB Q know L19, R4
% VB Q give; (always IMPV; frequently functions as INTJ come!) R12
> PN Jehu
A& PN Judah
t% & PN Jonathan
& PN Joshua
% & PN YHWH (personal name of Hebrew God) L2
PN Joab
PN Joash
% ; P & , P NIS L21, R5 daily ; NOUN M day; W. ART today
% NOUN F dove
% PN Jonah
PN Joseph
L ADV together, altogether L36, R6
% ADJ, SUBST only, only one, solitary R6
% VB Q be good, pleasing; HI do (something) well, deal well with
# NOUN M wine
% VB Q be able, have power R7
# ( % ) Q PASS PTC born
% VB Q beget, bear (children) R8
} VB PU be born R13
n ; L F NOUN M boy ;F girl R1
[] VB HI howl
L ;% P NOUN M sea L13, R9
L PN Sea of Reeds (Red Sea)
[] VB HI go right, choose the right, use the right hand
% NOUN F right side, right hand
L% VB Q suck; HI suckle, nurse
% VB Q add; HI multiply, do again, continue
L CONJ because R9
L PN Jacob
% VB Q be fair, beautiful; PI beautify
n PN Japhet
% VB Q go forth; HI bring forth L22
[] VB HIT station oneself, take one's stand
[] VB HI set, place, establish; HO be stayed, stopped, detained
# PN Isaac
VB HI lay, spread; HO be laid, spread
% VB Q pour, pour out; HI pour (oil); HO be poured, cast, molten, firmly established
% VB Q form, fashion, shape
VB Q kindle, burn; NI be kindled; HI kindle, set on fire
*% VB Q awake
P% VB Q fear
P% ADJ afraid L30, R5
]# , ]# NIS NOUN F fear, terror, reverence
[% VB Q go down, descend
[] VB HI bring down, cause to descend
]L PN Jordan (River)
?% ) VB Q, HI throw, cast, shoot (arrows
P% NOUN M moon R7
& PN Jerusalem
I& PN Jericho
.,n ,.P% NIS NOUN M upper thigh, side R12
%]# , % ]# PN Jeremiah
[& ,,n NIS NOUN M green (thing), greenness R11
[% VB Q take possession, inherit
# ; # P PN Ishmaelite
?# PN Israel
> EXST there is L12
% VB Q sit, dwell (Q PTCP inhabitant, dweller); HI set, cause to sit, inhabit, settle L16, R6
# PN Jesse
# PN Ishmael
VB NI be saved; HI save, deliver
NOUN M deliverance, rescue, salvation
% VB Q be smooth, right; PI make even, smooth
[] VB NI be left over, remain over; HI leave over, leave a remnant
PREP like, as L13

CONJ as, just as, when L30
, M NIS d ; MP e , MP NIS ADJ heavy R12
, VB Q be heavy; PI, HI make heavy, honor L29
NOUN M glory, honor, wealth
; P NOUN M lamb
VB Q subdue, dominate
ADV thus, so L27, R13
# ; P > , P NIS NOUN M priest R12
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M star R7
[] VB PILPAL contain, sustain, keep
[] VB NI be set up, established, fixed; HI establish, set up, make firm
NOUN M strength, power L31
[] V PI hide, conceal
R12 () V PI hide, conceal
CONJ because, when, if, though, but; COMP that L30, R4
CONJ but
, NIS I ; P P , P NIS NOUN F round district, loaf, weight
. , , W. ENCL PRON ADJ all, every; NOUN M everything L11, R4
VB Q be complete, PI complete, finish, PU be completed, finished
VB PI complete, finish L29
VB PU be completed, finished R11
NOUN F daughter-in-law, bride
R12 () VB PILPAL contain, sustain, keep
, P NOUN M vessel, utensil
PN Kilyon
ADV so, thus, yes
L VB Q gather, collect; PI gather together; HIT gather oneself together
#L , L PN Canaan, Canaanite
L ,% NIS ; % DU & , DU NIS NOUN F wing, extremity R11
NOUN M seat, throne R1
VB PI cover, conceal R10
; P , P NIS NOUN M silver, money R10, 12
, P NOUN M vexation, anger
VB PI appease, atone
NOUN M saddlebag
? VB Q hollow out, dig
; P NOUN M cherub type of subordinate divine being R5
? ;, P ] , P NIS NOUN M/F vineyard
[ VB Q bend ones knee, bow down, kneel
[ VB Q cut, cut off, cut down L31, R13
VB Q write
n , n NIS x ; P NIS NOUN F tunic R4
PREP to, for L13

T ADV no, not L5
PN Leah
COMP used to introduce direct speech ); not translated (= Q INF
~ ,~ ;, W. ENCL PRON NOUN M heart, mind R13
R12 (+) ADV alone, only
(+) ADV not, except
PN Laban
% L , NIS #; PL NOUN F sun-baked brick
PN Lebanon
, VB Q wear; HI clothe
VB Q languish R12
NOUN M flame R8
COND would that, if (irreal) L30
COND if not (irreal, negative) L30
; P NOUN M tablet, board, plank, plate
PN Lot
# PN Levi
NOUN M bread, food L17, R7
, ) NOUN M secrecy (always with
T NOUN M gum R10
& NOUN M night L24
VB Q capture
CONJ therefore L30
VB Q learn; PI teach
, INTER why? L14
. PN Lamech
PREP for the sake of; CONJ in order that (purpose), so that (result) L30, R7x
) NOUN M W. PREP forever, long (see
R12 ) ( + PREP according to
> PREP, CONJ before R13
# ADV formerly, previously
* VB Q take, receive L16, R3
* VB Q glean, pick up, gather
R12 (* ) VB PI gather, collect
; P NOUN M tongue, language
NOUN M strength; ADV exceedingly

, NIS NOUN F hundred R12
PRON anything L30, R6
; P NOUN M luminary, light, lamp R11
NOUN M food R2
; P NOUN F knife R3
VB PI refuse R10
I ; P NOUN M temporary abode, place of sojourning R10, 12
B NOUN M wilderness R7
# ,#A ,#% B ; P NOUN M strife, contention
INTER why? L14
% B PN Midian
INTER what? how? L8
, NIS NOUN F tumult, confusion
, ; F PN Moab; Moabite
e ; P NIS NOUN M meeting, appointed time R11
a ; P NOUN M wonder, sign, portent
VB Q die; HI kill L30, R5
n NOUN M death
; P NOUN M altar R3
VB Q blot out, wipe away
PN Machlon
;n /# P NOUN M encampment, camp R13
; P NOUN M staff, rod, branch, tribe
, NIS ; P NOUN F bed, couch R12
INTER who? L6
, NIS NOUN M best, best part R12
;rL L P ) NOUN F midwife (= PI PTC
/ ;# NIS NOUN M water L13, R4
NOUN M kind, species R11
; P NOUN F blow, wound
PN Machir
PN Machpelah
VB Q sell R10
, FS ; MS NIS ; MP , FP ADJ full R7
VB Q be full, fill; PI fill R11
() VB PI fill
,. P , P NIS NOUN M messenger, angel L40, R6
, NIS ; P NIS NOUN F work R11
NOUN M salt
; P , P NIS NOUN F war, battle
;. P , P NIS ; W. ENCL PRON NOUN M king L9
. VB Q reign, be(come) king L23, R10
PN Milcah
NOUN F royalty, royal power, reign, kingdom
, NIS ; P NOUN F kingdom, rule
P PN Mamre
, NIS NOUN F rule, dominion R11
and PREP from; more than L13
% VB Q count, number, assign; PI appoint, ordain
VB PI appoint, ordain
& ,& NIS NOUN F gift, grain offering L36
L PN Manasseh
; P NOUN M forced labor, conscription
, NIS NOUN M funeral ceremony, mourning rites R13
, P ADV little, few R12
/ , W. LOC NOUN M higher part, above; W. LOC upward
, P ; P NIS NOUN M deed, practice
,? [ NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F cave R13
(> + ) > PREP, CONJ from before R8
; P , P NIS NOUN M deed, work L22
VB Q find L22, R4
;% P NOUN F commandment
# PN Egypt
r R8 rl) NOUN M W. PREP (from the) east (see
> j ,n j NIS NOUN M collection, collected mass R11
, NIS ; P NOUN M place L12, R3
,n j > j NIS >j ; P NIS NOUN M property (land or livestock) R12
? PN Mara (bitterness)
] ,] NIS NOUN M appearance, vision
] NOUN FP place of feet; ADV at [his] feet
? R3 ) ? NOUN M at a distance (see
I PN Moriah
] NOUN F chariot
[ VB Q be bitter; PI HI make bitter
, ] ] NIS ] ; P NIS NOUN M pasture R12
, NOUN F wages
PN Moses
. VB Q pull, drag, carry off R10
; P NIS NOUN M couch, place of lying
NOUN M dwelling, tabernacle
VB Q rule R4, 8
, NOUN F guard, watch; charge, function
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F family, clan R1
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M judgment, justice; custom L26
) ADJ M dead (= Q PTC
INTER when? L14
,#Lx >x NIS NOUN DU hips, loins R10
% Illocutionary signal equivalent to I tell you, or a marker of politeness please R6

% ) ( VB NI consent, agree
n R6 () VB NI grasped, held fast
& NOUN M utterance (always NIS) R9
n ) ( VB NI be gathered, assembled
[] VB Q, PI commit adultery
# VB PI commit adultery
,k & * L NIS NOUN F groan, groaning
[] VB NI, HIT prophesy
# VB NI prophesy
[] VB PI, HI look, gaze
# VB PI look, gaze
,% & NIS ; & P & , NOUN M prophet
.?# ) ( VB NI be blessed, bless oneself
,n n W. LOC NOUN M south
n PN Negeb
[] VB HI declare
n ADV, PREP in front of, in sight of, opposite to R12
% VB Q touch, reach, strike R8
% VB Q draw near, approach
[] ) ( VB PI escort, transport, supply
# ) ( VB PI escort, transport, supply
PN Nod
VB Q rest; HI cause to rest, make quiet; set down; let remain, leave
PN Noah
n R8 ) ( VB NI hide (oneself)x
% PN Nahor
NOUN M torrent (valley)/run-off ravine, wadi
,L L NIS NOUN F possession, property, inheritance
[] VB NI be sorry/regret, comforted; PI comfort, console
# VB NI be sorry/regret, comforted
# VB PI comfort, console R10
n R8 ) ADJ desirable (= NI PTC
% PN Nahash
,% & P NOUN M serpent R1
n ( ) VB NI be reckoned
% ) VB Q stretch out, extend; HI turn (something
% VB Q plant
[] VB HI smite, strike
& NOUN F resin R10
[] VB NI be recognized; HI recognize, regard
# ) ( % VB NI be recognized
> NOUN M foreign thing
I % ,I% F I% ; MP I% , FP ADJ foreign, alien
# R12 ) ( VB NI be found, be discovered, be caught
[] VB PI test
# L30, R6 () VB PI test
% VB Q pull up (tent pegs), set out, journey R10
# ( ) VB NI be bewailed
# ) ( VB NI hide (oneself)X
#L , DU NOUN F sandal, shoe
% PN Naomi (my pleasantness)
I& ;L P P L , P NIS NOUN M lad, young boy L6, R3
& ;?L P L , P NIS NOUN F maiden, young girl L6
% VB Q fall R13
# () VB NI be difficult, extraordinary
& NOUN MP giants, fallen ones
*# R5 (*) VB NI be opened
?# ([ ) VB NI spread
& ;n P L , P NIS NOUN F life, self L34, R10
[] VB NI take ones stand, station oneself; be stationed, appointed R10
# () VB NI take ones stand, station oneself; be stationed, appointed
[] VB NI be delivered, deliver oneself; HI snatch away, deliver
# () VB NI be delivered, deliver oneself
% VB Q watch, guard, keep
|& NOUN F female R11
% j# R11 ) ( VB NI be collected
w& ,w% MS NIS w& ; MP ADJ clean, innocent, exempt
*% VB Q avenge, take vengeance; NI avenge oneself; HO be avenged
# (*% ) VB NI avenge oneself
[j# ([k) VB NI be rent, split asunder
j# ( k) VB NI was bound, joined together
]# ( ?) VB NI show oneself, appear
q]# (q?) VB NI are pursued
% VB Q lift up, carry; NI be deceived; HI deceive L32, R6
[] VB HI collect, reach
% VB NI be deceived; HI deceive
# ( %) VB NI be deceived
# R12 () VB NI be left over/behind, remain over, behind
# R9 () ) VB NI swear (an oath
% NOUN FP women; see
# () VB NI lean, support oneself
% VB Q, PI kiss R13
# VB Q kiss
I& ; n P P # , P NIS NOUN M vulture, eagle
% VB Q give, place, set L17, R5
t% PN Nathan
VB Q turn about, go around, surround R10

ADV/PREP around, about
;. P NIS NOUN M thicket R9
C PN Sodom
; P , P NIS NOUN M horse, stallion R1
NOUN F mare R1
L NOUN M reeds, rushes; see
VB Q turn aside, depart; HI cause to depart, remove
L PN Sinai
Q PTCP trader R10
VB Q forgive
I& PN Sennacherib
[] VB Q storm
VB Q wail, lament; NI be bewailed R13
VB Q count, number; PI recount, declare
R7 ( ) VB PI recount, declare
I ; P I ; W. ENCL PRON NOUN M scroll, document, book
I NOUN M high official R10
] [ VB NI hide (oneself); HI conceal
NOUN M hiding-place, secrecy
d ; P e , P NIS NOUN M servant L11

VB Q serve, work R8
, only as PREP, CONJ for the sake of, on account of, in order that R8
VB Q pass over; H allow to pass over R10
NOUN M side, edge R13
I ;I P PN Hebrew
PREP unto, as far as; CONJ while, until L30
d ; P e , P NIS NOUN M witness
q ,A NIS NOUN F congregation
A PN Adah
NOUN F testimony
r PN Eden
PN Obed
ADV still, yet, again R7
; P , P NIS NOUN M forever, long duration, antiquity R8
, P NOUN M transgression, iniquity
VB Q fly; POLEL fly about
NOUN M flying creatures, fowl, insects R11
VB POLEL fly about R11
NOUN M skin, (animal) hide R8
; P NOUN F goat R1
VB Q abandon, forsake R13
;# # L DU > , DU NIS NOUN F eye, spring L10, 40, R2
I ; P P , P NIS NOUN F city L11
ADJ naked
PREP upon, over L13
VB Q go up R3
, NIS ; P NOUN F burnt offering L14, R3
, NIS NOUN M leaf, leafage R2
d / ; W. ENCL PRON PREP with; with me, at my side L13, R8
; P , P NIS ; W. ENCL PRON NOUN M people L15
VB Q stand; HI set up, cause to stand L19
NOUN M valley, plain R10
? PN Gomorrah
% VB Q answer, respond
w% ,% P PN Anak, Anakite
, NIS NOUN M dust, dirt, dry earth R8
PN Ephron
; P , P NIS NOUN M tree; P wood R1
, P ) NOUN M idol (always P
, P NOUN M pain, hurt, toil R8
NOUN M pain, toil
/ ; P NOUN F bone R13
| ,| NIS NOUN M heel, footprint, hinderpart R8
* VB Q bind together (legs of an animal for sacrifice) R3x
* VB Q pluck, root up
PN Er
# ] ;, DU NOUN M evening, sunset R11
NOUN M swarm (of flies), mixture
? NOUN F desert-plain, steppe; Jordan valley
ADJ naked
ADJ crafty, shrewd, sensible R5
.[ VB Q set out, lay in rows R6
P ,P NIS P ; P NOUN F heap
] PN Orpah
, P NOUN M herb, herbage R11
VB Q do, make, act L15, R4
PN Esau
? , FS I ; P NUM S ten; P twenty R4, 10
I NUM M tenth
/ ; P NOUN F time
ADV now L30, R6
, NIS ) see , NOUN M mouth (with

DEM here R6
PN Potiphar
[] VB NI, HIT be difficult, extraordinary; HI do an extraordinary thing
, P , P NIS NOUN F concubine
[] VB HIT pray
, P PN Philistine; Philistines
CONJ lest, so that not (negative purpose) L30, R5
# ;n P NOUN M (always P) face R11
NOUN M palm (of hand) (PL meaning uncertain in reference to Josephs tunic)
NOUN M idol, image
NOUN M doing, deed, work
; P , P NIS NOUN M step, time
k VB Q attend to, visit, appoint L25
* VB Q open eyes, ears; NI be opened L30
w NOUN M commissioner, deputy, overseer
NOUN M young bull, steer R1
[ ) VB Q separate; HI divide, separate (something
? NOUN F heifer, cow R1
? VB Q bear fruit, be fruitful
I NOUN M fruit R2
] PN Pharaoh
[ VB Q break through/open/out; NI spread; PU broken down
[ VB PU broken down
[] VB HI break, frustrate
? ;? P NOUN M horseman R13
VB Q spread out, take off clothes; HI strip off, remove
; P , P NIS NOUN M offense, crime, wrongdoing R13
t ; P x , P NIS NOUN M opening
VB Q open
VB Q interpret
NOUN M/F sheep, flock R4

, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M host, army; hard service R11
; # P NOUN M gazelle
C/e VB Q be righteous; HI justify
wB ;r W. ENCL PRON NOUN M righteousness
*B ,kA NIS A ; P B , P NIS NOUN F righteousness L26
w ; MP ADJ righteous L32
L35, R8 () VB PI command
VB Q laugh; PI jest
() VB PI jest
NOUN M laughter, laughing-stock
PN Zion
PN Silah
/ VB Q prosper, be successful; HI make successful, show experience
; W. ENCL PRON NOUN M image, likeness R11
VB Q be thirsty
VB Q sprout, spring up; HI cause to sprout, grow
I ; MP ADJ small, young
* ,k NIS NOUN F cry, outcry
I ,I NOUN M fragrant resin
[ VB Q show hostility
,?j [ j NIS j ; P NOUN F burial, grave

k VB Q gather (intransitive) L27
w VB PI gather (transitive) L15
k VB Q, PI bury
w R12 ( k) VB PI bury
I j ;l P P w , P NIS NOUN M grave, sepulchre R13
j ,k NIS j ; P ADJ sacred, holy
rl NOUN M front, east, aforetime; ADV anciently R8
qk/ek VB Q be holy; PI consecrate
w R11 (qk/ek) VB PI consecrate
A ;r P Bk , P NIS NOUN M holiness, apartness, sacredness
] [ VB HI congregate
j , k NIS NOUN M assembly, congregation
] [ VB NI be collected
; P NOUN M voice, sound L15, R5
VB Q rise, stand up; PI confirm, establish; HI raise, erect R6
w () VB PI confirm, establish
NOUN M thorns, thorn-bush
k k ADJ MS small; F, P supplied by
j ,k F j ; MP j , FP j ; MP NIS ADJ small
k VB Q be small, insignificant L32
[] VB PI, HI make sacrifices smoke
w () VB PI make sacrifices smoke
# PN Cain
k VB Q be slight, trifling; be quick
* ,| NIS w ; P w ; W. ENCL PRON NOUN M nest
w VB PI envy R7
* ADJ jealous
%k VB Q buy, acquire R12
j ,k NIS NOUN M end, extremity R12
k/k VB Q be short, impatient; PI HI shorten
w (k/ k) VB PI shorten
k VB Q reap, harvest
?k VB Q call, proclaim, read aloud L16, R6
j ,k F j ; MP j , FP ADJ near
[k/Pk VB Q draw near, approach R7
# ?j ,,l DU NOUN M inward part, midst, DU entrails
Ij NOUN F proclamation
,,l #L]* DU ?j , P ]* , P NIS NOUN F horn R6
[k VB Q tear, rend; NI be rent, split asunder R10
k VB Q bind, conspire together; NI was bound, joined together; PI bind on; HIT conspire
w ( k) VB PI bind on
j ; l P * ; W. ENCL PRON NOUN F bow
? VB Q see, look; NI show oneself, appear; HI show, exhibit R3

] PN Reuben
? ; P ? , P NIS NOUN M head L10, R2
% I ,I F # I ; MP I , FP ADJ first
P NOUN F beginning or chief (part) R11
[ ,[ F [ , F NIS [ ; MP [ , FP ADJ many, much L32
NOUN M multitude, greatness, abundance
? VB Q be(come) many, much
? VB Q be(come) many, multiply; HI make much/ many, make multiply R11
I ; ] R11 ) ] NUM fourth (those belonging to) the fourth generation (cf.
I, I MP ADJ/SUBST M (those belonging to) the fourth generation
k I PN Rebekah
# [ ;, DU [ , DU NIS NOUN F foot L10, R2
A? VB Q have dominion, rule R11
q? VB Q pursue, chase, persecute; NI are pursued; PI pursue ardently; PU be chased away; HI chase
I (q?) VB PI pursue ardently
(q?) VB PU be chased away
] ; P NOUN M water-trough
; P NOUN F spirit, wind R5
VB Q run L36
PN Ruth
] , ? MS NIS ] ; FS [ , FS NIS ADJ wide, broad
] PN Rehoboam
w] ;? MP (?) ADJ far, distant; NOUN M distance, at a distance
? PN Rachel
I VB PI have compassion on
I VB PI hover R11
? VB Q be far, distant; PI send far away, distance; HI cause to be distant, far away; remove
I ( ?) VB PI send far away, distance
kP ADV emptily, vainly
, NOUN M (COLL) chariot, war chariot(s) R13
? VB Q creep (on the ground), move lightly R11
, NOUN M creeping things, moving things R11
L? VB Q, PI give a ringing cry
I (L ?) VB PI give a ringing cry
,[ ? F ? ; MP ? , MP NIS ? ; FP ADJ bad, evil R5
P NOUN M friend
? NOUN M famine, hunger L28, R12
? VB Q shepherd, tend, pasture R4
NOUN M shepherd (= Q PTCP) R4
[ PN Rameses
? VB Q heal R13
[ ADV only, still, but, however, nevertheless R12
,P kP F wP ; MP P , FP ADJ empty R7
*? VB Q skip about; PI dance, leap; HI cause to skip
I (*?) VB PI dance, leap
w? NOUN M extended surface, expanse, firmament R11
] , ? F ] ; MP I , MP NIS ADJ wicked
? VB Q be wicked; HI condemn
;r P e , P NIS NOUN M field R8

, NIS NOUN M sheep or goat R1
VB Q put, place, set R6
VB Q laugh, play; PI make sport, jest; HI utterly mock
() VB PI make sport, jest
VB Q be at enmity with, be hostile towards R13
VB Q be prudent; HI look at, ponder; give insight, teach
, W. ENCL PRON NOUN M prudence, insight
NOUN M left side, left hand
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F outer garment, cloak, mantle R10
/ VB Q rejoice, be glad; PI make rejoice, glad
(/) VB PI make rejoice, glad
> VB Q hate R4
ADJ hairy, goat R10
, NIS # ; DU g , DU NIS NOUN F lip, shore R9
; P , P NIS NOUN M sack(cloth) R10
; I P P , P NIS NOUN M official, captain, prince R10
? PN Sarah
? PN Sarai
dI ;I P eI , P NIS NOUN M survivor
- CONJ that, which, who

PN Saul
NOUN F underworld, Sheol R10
VB Q inquire, ask R10
[] VB NI be left over/behind, remain; HI leave over, behind
; P , P NIS NOUN M rod; tribe R13
; P , P NIS NOUN F ear of grain
[] VB NI swear (an oath); HI cause to swear (an oath)
, NIS , F , F NIS ; P NUM seven; P seventy R4, 13
, F NUM seventh L21
# NOUN DU seven-fold
PN Sheba
VB Q break; PI shatter, break
() VB PI shatter, break
VB Q buy grain; HI sell grain R12
; W. ENCL PRON NOUN M grain R12
VB Q cease, desist, rest; HI put an end to, destroy L21
, NIS ; P NOUN F sabbath, rest
PN Shaddai, Almighty
VB Q turn back, return; HI return (something) R6
; NOUN M fox R1
VB Q bruise R8
VB Q slaughter R3
[] VB PI, HI spoil, destroy
() VB PI spoil, destroy
[ ,? NIS ; P NOUN F song
VB Q put, set
VB Q lie (down) R12
VB Q forget L21
VB Q be bereaved, childless; PI make childless
() VB PI make childless
[] VB HI wake early
PN Shechem
VB Q settle, dwell
, NIS NOUN M inhabitant, neighbor
T PN Shiloh
VB Q be at ease, prosper
, NIS ; P NOUN M peace, well-being L5, R4
VB Q send L15, R4
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN M table R1
] [ VB HI throw, cast L15
VB Q be whole; PI reward, pay back
( ) VB PI reward, pay back
PN Solomon
VB Q draw out, off
T ,T F ; T P NUM three; P thirty R12
, F ; P NUM a third, third; P thirtieth R6
ADJ/SUBST (those belonging to) the third generation R13
ADV there L12, R6
; P NOUN M name L6, R8
PN Shem
[] VB HI annihilate
PN Samuel
,# NIS NOUN M heavens L13, R6
VB Q be uninhabited, be deserted; be appalled R12
VB Q grow fat; HI make fat
% ,n F # ; P NUM eight; P eight
# NUM eighth
L16, R3 . VB Q hear, listen; obey W
NOUN M report, news, hearsay
VB Q keep, guard L15, R5
NOUN M/F sun R7
L ,% NIS # ; P > , P NIS NOUN F year L28, R4
# L M , # F # ; NUM two; second L31, R6, 8, 11, 12
& ) PN Shinar (Babylonia
[] VB NI lean, support oneself
VB Q be blinded; HI blind
I ; P P , P NIS NOUN M gate
, NIS ; P NOUN F maidservant
VB Q judge, govern L26
. VB Q pour out, shed (blood) L39, R10
[] VB HI water, give drink
* VB Q be quiet, undisturbed, inactive; HI show/cause quietness
[ VB Q swarm, teem R11
, NOUN M swarmers, swarming things R11
, F ; P NUM six, sixty
NUM sixth R11
t VB Q drink
,# NIS NUM F two
VB Q be quiet
L ,% NIS NOUN F desire R8

# ;% P > , P NIS NOUN F fig-tree; fig R5
NOUN F ark
, NIS ; P NOUN F produce, yield R12
NOUN M emptiness, formlessness R11
; P NOUN M/F deep, sea, abyss
.n ) in the midst of . NOUN M midst (often in compound PREP
NOUN F descendants
, NIS ; P , P NIS NOUN F abomination
[ ,? NIS ; P NOUN F direction, instruction, law
, W. ENCL PRON PREP under, beneath R6
VB Q hang
L ,% NIS NOUN F likeness, form
, F ; MP , FP ADJ complete, sound
VB Q be complete, finished R12
# # , P NOUN M serpent, dragon, sea-monster R11
VB Q wander about R10
VB Q sew together R5
VB Q lay hold of, wield
L j ,% j NIS NOUN F hope
? NOUN M P teraphim (a kind of idol, a means of divination)x
] PN Tarshish
k NOUN F longing R8
, F ; P NUM nine; P ninety
NUM ninth
ENGLISHHEBREW GLOSSARY
[direct object marker (mostly for definite nouns)] , , with suffix & , etc.
[illocutionary signal equivalent to I tell you] (
[marker of politeness, such as please] (
[question marker for yes & no questions]
A
Aaron
abandon Q
Abel
abide Q
Abimelech 7
abomination
about
above only
Abraham ?
Abram ?
Absalom
abundance B
abyss
according to (+ )
acquire Q
act Q
act as a kinsman Q
Adah F
Adam F
add Q
Adonijah J K
aforetime L
after M ,
again
agree NI
ah!, now! ,
alien Q( F Q(
alive
all , (with suffix, 7 , etc.)
allow to pass over (HI )
Almighty
alone (+ )
also ;
altar P
Anak (
Anakites Z(
anciently L
and [
angel 7
anger ;
animal
English-Hebrew Glossary G47
annihilate HI
another
answer Q
antiquity
apartness L
appear Q ; NI
appearance \
appease PI
appoint Q ; PI
appointed time ;
approach Q , ; Q
Aram ?
Ararat ^?
ark ;
army J ;
around
as ;
as far as
Asa
ask Q
assembly `
assign Q
Assyria
at
at ones feet \
at a distance ?
at my side b
Atad
atone PI
attend to Q
avenge Q
avenge oneself NI
awake Q
away from CST
B
Baal
Babylon
bad ^ F ?
bake Q
Balak
Bathsheba
battle
be Q
be able Q
be alive Q
be appointed N
be ashamed Q
be at an end Q
be at ease Q
be at enmity with, be hostile towards Q
be avenged HO
be beautiful Q
be bereaved Q
be bewailed NI
be bitter Q
be blinded Q
be born PU
be bound NI
be bound up PU
be cast HO
be chased away PU
be childless Q
be collected NI
be comforted NI
be complete Q ; Q ; PU
be deceived NI
be defiled NI
be delivered NI
be detained HO
be difficult NI hit
be dismayed Q
be distant Q
be dry, become dry Q
be established NI
be fair Q
be far Q
be finished Q
be fixed NI
be found J (NI )
be fruitful Q
be full Q
be gathered, be assembled f (NI )
be glad Q ,
be good Q
be gracious Q
be great Q
be green Q
be grieved HIT
be heavy Q
be high Q
be holy Q
be hurled HO
be impatient Q
be inactive Q
be insignificant Q
be joined together NI
be kindled Q ; NI
be king Q
be laid HO
be left behind NI
be left over NI ; NI
be light, become light Q
be like Q
be lofty Q
be long Q
be many Q ; Q
be much Q
be old Q
be opened NI
be pleasing Q
be pledged NI
be polluted Q
be poured HO
be profane Q
be prudent Q
be pursued NI
be quick
be quiet Q ; Q
be reckoned NI
be recognized NI
be rent NI
be right Q
be righteous Q
be saved NI
be set up NI
be shattered Q
be short Q
be silent Q
be slight Q
be small Q
be smooth Q
be sorry NI
be split asunder NI
be spread HO
be stationed
be stayed HO
be stolen NI
be stolen away PU
be stopped HO
be strong Q ; Q
be successful Q
be tall Q
be thirsty Q
be thrown HO
be trifling Q
be undisturbed Q
be whole Q
be wicked Q
be willing Q
be wise Q
bear (children) Q
bear fruit Q
beautify PI
because ,h
become Q
become king Q
become many Q ; Q
become much Q
become pregnant Q
Beer-Sheva
before i ; j
beget Q
begin HI
beginning (part) M
behave cunningly HIT
behind CST ; M ,
behold! ; ;
behold, see ; ;
believe HI
belly (of reptiles)
belt
bend down Q
beneath
Benjamin ( [
beside
best, best part
Bethel
Bethlehem
between J only in CST
bewail Q
Bilhah
bind Q ; Q ; PI
bind on PI
bind, bind on, bind up Q
bind (sheaves) PI
bless PI
blessing ?
blind HI
blood
bloodguilt
blot out Q
blow
board P
Boaz
body, corpse J
body guard
boil PI
bold Q
bone
book
border
bosom
bow
bow down HISHTAFEL
branch P
bread
break Q ; PI ; HI
break through/open/out Q
bride
bring HI
bring down HI
bring forth HI
broad ?
broken down PU
brother P
bruise Q
build Q
burial, grave ?l
burn Q ; Q
burnt offering
bury Q, PI
but ; ; ;
buy Q
buy grain Q
by
C
Cain J
call Q
camel
camp NOUN f P , J
camp VB Q
Canaan, Canaanite h , Jh
captain P Q
capture Q
cast Q, HI ; HO PTCP ; HI ; HI
cast out Q
cattle ` ; ;
cause quietness HI
cause to be distant HI
cause to be dry HI
cause to be far away HI
cause to depart HI
cause to dwell HI
cause to grow HI
cause to rest HI
cause to skip HI
cause to sprout HI ; HI
cause to swear (an oath) HI
cave ?
cease Q ; Q
cement
charge j
chariot \
chariot, war chariot (COLL) j
chase HI
chase Q
cherub
chest
chief (part) M
children
choose Q
choose the right HI
cistern ;
city P Q
clan ;
clay
clean Z( ;
cleave Q
cling Q
close relative Q
clothe HI
collect Q
collect, reach (HI )
collected mass f l
collection f l
come Q
come forth Q
come to an end Q
comfort PI
command PI
commandment ( P
commissioner Z
commit adultery Q, PI
complete ; PI
conceal HI
conceive Q
conception ? (also )
concubine
condemn HI
confess HI
confirm PI
confusion
congregate HI
congregation ` ; F
consecrate PI
consent Q ; NI
console PI
conspire HIT
conspire together Q
contain, sustain, keep (PILPEL )
contention ; P J/JF , J ( o
continue HI
corn
couch
count Q ; Q
covenant Q
cover, conceal PI
cow ?
crafty
create Q
creep (on the ground) Q
creeping things
crowd
cry `
cubit
curse Q, PI
custom
cut, cut off, cut down Q
D
daily
Dan
dance PI
darkness 7
daughter P
daughter-in-law
David J
day P (
deal well with HI
death f
deceive HI
declare PI ; HI
deed ; ;
deep
defile PI
delight
deliver HI ; HI
deliver oneself NI
deliverance
depart Q
deputy Z
descend Q
desert-plain ?
desire NOUN (
desire VB Q
desist Q
destroy Q ; PI, HI ; PI, HI ; HI
destruction
devise Q
die Q
direction ?
dirt
distance ?
distant ?
distribute Q, PI
divide Q, PI ; HI
divide (something) HI
divide oneself NI
do Q
do again HI
do an extraordinary thing HI
do (something) well HI
do, show Q
document
doing
dominate Q
dominion
donkey
Dothan p
dough
dove (
dragon
draw (water) Q
draw near Q , ; Q
draw out/off Q
drink Q
drive away PI
drive out PI
dry earth
dry land h
dust
dwell Q ; Q
dweller Q PTCP
dwelling
each (one)
E
eagle
ear DU Jh
ear of grain P
earth j
east L
eat Q
eating
Eden L
Edom
Egypt J
eight f F (
eighth J
eighty J
Elimelech 7
embalm Q h
embalming (always P) s
embrace Q, PI
emptily `M
emptiness ;
encampment f P , J
end `
enemy (Q PTCP) i
enmity
Enoch 7
enraged NI
enter Q
envy PI
Ephraim J ^
Ephron
equip Q
Er
erect HI
Esau
escort, transport, supply J (PI )
establish PI ; HI ; HI
Eve
even ;
evening j
every , (with suffix, 7 , etc.)
everything , (with suffix, 7 , etc.)
evil ^ F ?
exceedingly
except
exempt Z(
exhibit HI
exhibit silence HI
expanse Z?
extend Q
extended surface Z?
extraordinary NI hit
extremity ` ; ( J( (
eye Jh J
F
face ; f
faithfulness
fall Q
fallen ones [ (literal meaning)
family
famine ?
far ?
fashion Q
father P
favor
fear NOUN \J
fear VB Q
female t[
few
field L P
fifth
fifth part
fifty
fig (
fig-tree (
fill Q ; PI
find Q
finish PI
firmament Z?
firmly established HO
first Q
first-born
fish F
five F
flame
flee Q
flesh
flock
fly Q
fly about POLEL
flying creatures
food ; ;
foot
footprint t
for
for the sake of (only as ; )
foreign Q( F Q(
foreign thing i
forever
forget Q
forgive Q
form NOUN (
form VB Q
formal weeping
formerly J
formlessness
forsake Q
forty \
four \ F \
four-fold J \
fourth \ (those belonging to) the fourth
generation Q ; \
fourth generation (those belonging to)
Q , Q
fowl
fragrant resin Q ,Q
friend M
from and
from before i
from where?
front L
fruit Q
frustrate HI
full
function j
funerary ceremony, mourning rites
furthermore
G
garden
garment
gate
gather Q ; Q ; Q/PI ; Q/PI
gather oneself together HIT
gather together PI
gaze PI, HI
generation
Gerar ?
giants [
Gideon
gift [
Gilead
gird Q
girdle
give Q ,(
give a ringing cry Q, PI
give drink HI
give insight
give light HI
give thanks HI
give understanding HI
glean Q
glory
go, walk Q
go around Q
go by stealth HIT
go down Q
go forth Q
go right HI
go up Q
God v ;
gods v
gold
Gomorrah ?
good
goodness
Goshen
govern Q
grace
grain offering [
grasped, held fast NI
grass
grave
great
greatness B ; L
green (thing), greenness jf
groan ` [
groaning ` [
ground F
grow PI
grow fat Q
guard NOUN j
guard VB Q ; Q
guilt (offering)
gum v
H
Hagar
Haggit
hairy
hand ( DU J ( P (
handmaid
hang Q
Hannah
hard service
harvest Q
hate Q
have compassion on PI
have dominion Q
have insight Q
have power Q
he
head B P ?
heal Q
heap M
hear, listen Q
heart ,
heavens J
heavy
Hebrew Q P Q
Hebron
heel t
heifer ?
herb, herbage
herd `
here
Heth
hide (of an animal)
hide (oneself) NI, HIT ; NI
hide (something) HI ; PI
hiding-place w
high official Q
high-place
higher part (only above and
upwards)
hill country , P Q w/art Q ,
hinderpart t
Hittite
Hittites
holiness L
hollow out, dig Q ?
holy `
honey
honor NOUN
honor VB PI, HI
hope ( l
Horeb M
horse
horseman ?
host
hostility (personal)
house J , P
hover PI
how 7
how much more!
How! 7
how?
howl HI
humankind F
hundred
hunger ?
hurl HI
hurt
I
I J ,
idol ;
if ;
if (irreal)
if not (irreal, negative)
image ;
in
in front of
in order that (only as )
in order that (purpose)
in sight of
in the middle of 7 (only in CST) see 7fp
incline Q
incline (something) HI
inhabitant ; Q PTCP
inherit Q
inheritance h
iniquity
innocent Z(
inquire Q
insects
insight
instruction ?
interpret Q
inward part j
Isaac J
Ishmael J
Israel ?J
J
Jacob xh
Japhet f
jealous y
Jehu i
Jeremiah ( \J , ( \J
Jericho Q[
Jerusalem [
Jesse J
jest PI
jest PI
Joab
Joash
Jonah (
Jonathan p( [
Jordan (River) \h
Jordan valley ?
Joseph
Joshua [
journey Q
Judah F[
judge Q
judgment
just as
justice
justify HI
K
keep Q ; Q
keep alive ( (HI ( )
keep back, withhold Q
keep close Q
kill Q ; HI
Kilyon
kind
kindle Q ; HI
kindness
king 7
kingdom ;
kinsman-redeemer Q
kiss Q, PI
knee 7j
know Q
knowledge
L
Laban
lad h
lamb
Lamech 7
lament Q ; PI
lamp P
land j ; F
landed property
language P
lap
laugh Q ; Q
laughing-stock
laughter
law ?
lay HI
lay hold of Q
leaf
leafage
Leah
lean NI
leap PI
learn Q
leave
leave a remnant HI
leave behind HI
leave over HI ; HI
Lebanon
left hand
left side
length 7j
lengthen HI
lest
let remain
Levi J
lie (down) Q
life f ;
lift up Q
light P ;
like
likeness ( ; ;
lip
little
live Q
living
loaf
long duration
longing `
look Q ; PI, HI
look at HI
lord ;
Lord, the (epithet) ( K
Lot
love Q
luminary P
M
Machir
Machlon
Machpelah
magnificence L
maid
maiden ?h
maidservant
make Q
make bitter PI, HI
make childless PI
make enter HI
make even PI
make fat HI
make firm HI
make glad PI ,
make great PI
make heavy PI, HI
make high HI
make many HI
make much HI
make multiply HI
make oneself bold HIT
make oneself obstinate HIT
make profane HI
make quiet HI ; HI
make rejoice PI ,
make a sacrifice smoke PI, HI
make shine HI
make smooth PI
make sport PI
make still HI
make successful HI
male
Mamre M
man P ( ; F
Manasseh h
many ^ P ^
Mara (bitterness) ?
march Q
mare
mariner Q PTCP
master
meeting
messenger 7
Midian ( o
midst among 7f (in compound 7 in
the midst of); j
midwife Fh
mighty one
Milcah
mind ,
mixture B
Moab
Moabite P
molten HO
money
month L
more than and
moreover
Moriah Q
morning z
mortar
Moses
mother P
mother-in-law
mountain P Q W. DET Q ,
mourning NOUN
mourning ADJ
mouth CST
move lightly Q
moving things
much ^ P ^
multiply Q ; HI
multitude B ;
N
Nahash (
Nahor (
naked ; B
name P
Naomi (pleasant one) (
Nathan p(
nation
near `
neck \
Negeb f
neighbor
nest t
new moon L
night [
nine F
ninety
ninth
no v
Noah
Nod
nose
not v ; ,
not (with commands)
not yet j
now
number Q ; Q
nurse HI
O
Obed
obey x
observe Q
offense, crime, wrongdoing
official P Q
old t
on account of (only as )
on behalf of CST
one F
only ; ^ ( ; 7
only one (
open Q
open ears Q
open eyes Q
opening {
opposite to
or
ordain PI
Orpah \
outcry `
over
overseer Z
overthrow
overturn Q
owner
ox `
P
pain ;
palace
pass away, perish h ,
pass over Q
pasture Q
pasture \
path ^
pay back PI
peace (greeting)
people ;
perceive Q
perish Q ,h
persecute Q
pestilence
Pharaoh \
Philistine
Philistines
pick up Q
pit ;
place NOUN P x
place VB Q ; Q , ; HI
place of feet \
place of lying (down)
plague
plain l
plank P
plant Q
plate P
play Q
pleasant
pleasure
pledge Q
pluck Q ; Q
pollute PI ; HI
ponder HI
portent
portion ` ;
possession h
Potiphar
pour (oil) HI
pour out (blood) Q
pour, pour out Q
power
practice
praise PI ; HI
pray HIT
pregnancy ? (also )
previously J
priest
prince P Q
proclaim Q
proclamation Ql
produce, yield
produce seed HI
(unlawful) profit, gain
prolong HI
property ,f l h
prophesy NI, HIT
prophet (
prosper Q ; Q
prostrate oneself HISHTAFEL
proximity
prudence
pull, drag, carry off Q 7
pull up (tent pegs) Q
pure
pursue Q
pursue ardently PI
put Q ; Q ,
put an end to HI
R
Rachel ?
raise HI
Ramses ^
reach Q
read aloud Q
reap Q
Rebekah ` Q
rebuke, insult Q
receive Q
recognize HI
redeem Q
reeds
refuse PI
regard HI
regret NI
Rehoboam \
reign NOUN
reign VB Q
rejoice Q ,
remain NI
remain over NI
remember Q
remove
remove Q ; HI
rend Q ; Q
report, rumor
rescue
resemble Q
resident alien
resin [
respond Q
rest NOUN
rest VB Q ; Q
restrain PI
return Q
return (something) HI
Reuben \
reverence \J
reward PI
right hand (
right side (
righteous
righteousness `F ; L
rise Q ; Q
road 7j L
rod ;
root up Q
round district
royal power
royalty
rule NOUN ;
rule VB Q ; Q
run Q
run-off ravine
rushes
Ruth
S
sabbath
sacred `
sacredness L
sacrifice Q, PI
saddlebag
sailor Q ptcp
salt
salvation
Samuel
sand
sandal , DU Jh
Sarah ?
Sarai ?
Saul
save HI
say Q
scroll
sea ; (
Sea of Reeds (Red Sea) h
sea-monster
second J
secrecy w ; ,
see Q
see! ;
seed ^
seek Q ; PI
seek refuge Q
seize HI
self f
sell Q
sell grain HI
send Q
send far away PI
Sennacherib Q[
sensible
separate Q ; HI
separate (something) HI
sepulchre
serpent ; (
servant
serve Q
set Q ; Q ; Q , ; HI
set down
set on fire HI
set out Q
set up HI
set up, cause to stand (HI )
set, place, establish (HI )
settle Q
settle (tr.), set, cause to kesit (HI ( )
seven F
seven-fold J
seventh
seventy
sew together Q
Shaddai
shape Q
share
shatter PI
she
sheaf
Sheba
Shechem
shed (blood) Q
sheep
Shem
Sheol
shepherd NOUN Q PTCP B
shepherd VB Q
Shiloh v
Shinar (Babylonia) [
shine HI
shoe J h
shoot (arrows) Q, HI
shore
shorten PI, HI
show HI
show experience HI
show favor Q
show hostility Q
show oneself NI
show quietness HI
shrewd
side, edge
sign ;
Silah
silver
sin NOUN ; ;
sin VB Q
Sinai h
sin-offering
sister P
sister-in-law [ , NIS [
sit Q
six F
sixth
sixty
skin
skip about Q
slaughter Q, PI ; Q
slay Q
slippery
small ; , ` l ;`
smite HI
smooth
snake (
snatch away HI
so ;
so that (result)
so that not (negative purpose)
Sodom K
sojourn Q
solitary (
solitude (see )
Solomon
son P J
song ?
sound ;
south f
sow seed Q
speak PI
species
speech
spirit, wind
spoil PI, HI
spread NI ; HI
spring up Q
sprout Q
staff P
stallion
stand Q
stand up Q
star
station oneself NI ; HIT (
statute , (with suffix, , }l )
steal Q
steal away PI
steer
step
steppe ?
still
stolen item i
stone P J
store
storehouse
storm Q ; PI
stranger
strength ; ; J
strengthen HI
strengthen (something) PI
stretch out Q
strife P JF , J , and J ( o
strike Q ; HI
subdue Q
suck Q
suckle HI
sun
sunset j
supplied by `
support Q
support oneself NI
surely 7
surround Q
survivor Q
swarm Q
swarm (of flies) B
swarmers j
swarming things j
swear (an oath) NI
sweat
sword ? ,j
T
tabernacle
tablet P
take Q
take one's stand HIT (
take one's stand NI
take pleasure in Q
take possession Q
take vengeance Q
Tarshish \
teach ; PI ; HI
tear Q ; Q
teem Q
tell PI
temple
temporary abode, place of sojourning
ten F ?
tend Q
tent
tenth Q
teraphim (a kind of idol, a means of
divination) P ?
territory ;
terror \J
testimony
that ; ; ;
the
there
there are not , J
there is i
there is not , J
therefore
these
they / ; /
thing
think Q
third generation, the (those belonging to)

thirty, thirtieth v
this
this
thistles \
thorn-bush
thorns
those / ; /
though
thousand
three v F v
threshing floor j
throne
throw Q, HI ; HI ; HI
thrust out Q
thus ;
time ; ;
to ; ; (suffixed on nouns)
to where? (
today
towards (suffixed on nouns)
toil ;
tongue P
torrent (valley)
touch Q
towards
trader Q PTCP
transgression
tread Q
treasure
treasury
tree
tribe ;
trust Q
truth
tumult
tunic f , f
turn HI
turn about Q
turn aside Q
turn back Q
twenty Q
twist PI
two J cst ; J
U
unclean
uncover, reveal Q
under
understand HI
understanding (
underworld
until
unto
upon
upper thigh, side 7M(
upwards (only )
use the right hand HI
used to introduce direct speech
utensil P
utterance (always CST) [
utterly mock HI
V
vainly `M
valley , l
valor J
vessel P
vexation
vineyard j
violence
vision \
visit Q
voice
vulture
W X Y Z
wadi
wages j
wail Q
wake early HI
walk Q ; Q
wall
wander Q
war
watch NOUN j
watch VB Q
water NOUN J
water VB HI
water-trough ^
way 7j L ; ^
we h , h
wealth ; J
wean Q
wear Q
weep Q
weight
well ;
well-being
what?
when ;
when? {
where? ( ; ;
which ;
while
who ;
who?
why? ; ,
wicked ?
wide ?
wield Q
wife P (
wilderness o
wine J
wing ( J( (
wipe away Q
wise F
with (W. ENCL. PRN. , etc.); ;
with me b
witness
woman , P (
women ( ; see
wonder
wood
word ;
work NOUN ; ;
work VB Q
would that
wound
write Q
writhe PI
year h P J
years old (idiom. for X years old) (
yes
yet
Yhwh (personal name of God of Israel)
you MS ; MP ; FS ; FP ( ,
young
young boy h
young bull
young girl ?h
Zilpah
Zion

.Ar - Biblical Hebrew A Student Grammar (Lessons) - John A. Cook, Robert D. Holmstedt

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.Ar - Biblical Hebrew A Student Grammar (Lessons) - John A. Cook, Robert D. Holmstedt

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Biblical Hebrew

Biblical Hebrew: An Illustrated Introduction (2011 draft) 10

Biblical Hebrew: An Illustrated Introduction (2011 draft) 60

LM7 . ) (Find and translate

gift, grain offering F

stressed qamets unstressed qamets

; P NOUN M father L7, R1

PREP in, at, with, by L13

VB Q redeem, act as a kinsman

& CONJ and

[] ) VB NI, HIT hide (oneself); HI hide (something

NOUN M bodyguard R10

& I & ; P P & , NIS NOUN M stream; PN Nile

PREP like, as L13

PREP to, for L13

NOUN M strength; ADV exceedingly

% Illocutionary signal equivalent to I tell you, or a marker of politeness please R6

VB Q turn about, go around, surround R10

d ; P e , P NIS NOUN M servant L11

, NIS ) see , NOUN M mouth (with

NOUN M/F sheep, flock R4

,?j [ j NIS j ; P NOUN F burial, grave

? VB Q see, look; NI show oneself, appear; HI show, exhibit R3

;r P e , P NIS NOUN M field R8

- CONJ that, which, who

L ,% NIS NOUN F desire R8

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