Film and Video Research Techniques

By Richard Davis

Module Title: Film and Video Research Techniques Module Number: 106 AAD Module Lecturer: Claire Lapworth

Film and Video Research Techniques Introduction to genre what is it?

A class or category of artistic endeavor having a particular form, content and technique Dictionary.com (2012)

Genre is a term referring to a categorised film. Films were categorised into genres by the Hollywood film industry to get people into the cinemas by producing films specifically designed to appeal to certain audiences or have mass marked appeal. Film genre provides form and structure for a cultural creation, which can be manufactured and sold to consumers. Genre films can also function to perpetuate explicit ideologies within a culture.
Genre is addressed as a system for organizing production as well as groupings of individual films which have collective and singular significance Nelmes, J (1996)

After analysing a film we can place it into a genre that has common elements, aspects and characteristics of that genre. The list of Genres is big and includes: Action, Adventure, Animation, Biography, Comedy, Crime, Documentary, Drama, Family, Fantasy, Film-Noir, Game-Show, History, Horror, Music, Musical, Mystery, News, Reality-TV, Romance, Sci-Fi, Sport, Talk-Show, Thriller, War and Western.

John Fords The Searchers (1956) and Kubricks 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) Above left we have The Western, we can see with one frame the classic elements of the genre, vast open landscapes, cowboys with their hats, guns and trail horses. Above right we see classic elements of the Sci-Fi genre in the still from 2001: A Space Odyssey, the space suit and the clean lines of a futuristic space station.

People can agree and disagree on exactly how many genres there are as many of the genres overlap, and this is becoming increasingly challenging as times change. Film and its defining genres evolve because they are subject to cultural influences. As the cultural climate develops so do the films and the genres they fit in to. All we have to do is look at the world we live in now compared to the 1920s say. Many films are Categorising into genres as this is an easy way for us to understand what to expect from a given film. Heading to the cinema to see a comedy, we expect to laugh, if we dont we leave unfulfilled and unsatisfied; this is not good for business because ultimately most films exist to make money. This is not often the aim of the director or writer but the aim of the studio and its investors. This Categorising of films into genre is not always adequate as a tool of analysis as so many films span multiple evolving genres. When people chose to watch a film or go to the cinema they will often ask what kind of film do I/we want to see, some people prefer comedy, some love horror, people define films to a genre to help themselves and others manage their expectations.
Crystallization of a negotiated encounter between film-maker and audience, a way of reconciling the stability of an industry with the excitement of an evolving popular art Stam, R (2000)

The Descriptive Approach When we study a film, approaching it as a specific genre, we are not seeing it as a separate entity, but viewing it as part of a larger whole, the attached genre overriding any separate meaning the context may have. In the descriptive approach, a film is included in a category when it possesses the necessary properties or attributes of that genre. The goal of the descriptive approach to genre is to categorize the large number of films into smaller groups. Genre seeks to categorise film, but due to films artistic nature they defy boundaries and categories, most film today are hybrid, belonging to multiple genres. We also find genre defying directors, like Peter Jackson.

Peter Jacksons Bad Taste (1987) and Lord of the Rings (2001) Genre defying director, Peter Jackson went from making films like Bad Taste a comedy horror to Lord of the Rings an epic fantasy.

Many directors hope to produce work in multiple genres but some excel in particular categories. Director Wes Anderson films (Life Aquatic, 2004, Rushmore, 1998, The Royal Tenenbaums, 2001) are almost exclusively comedy dramas; he uses many of the same actors in his films because of their propensity for that particular genre, actor Bill Murry being a great example of an actor being genre specific. When we go to see a film in which Bill Murry stars, we expect to laugh. Genre is subject to repetition and difference because it is constantly fluctuating.
Audiences usually simultaneously want something familiar (the genres repeated formula) and a small degree of novelty (the difference). Both producers and audiences must share the knowledge of the genres characteristics. This shared knowledge, however, is not set in stone. Different people will have divergent understanding of genre. In addition, genres are often combined hyphenates or hybrids Stam, R (2000)

A TV show like Lost Created and directed by J.J Abrams was so successful because it mixed multiple genres throughout, Mystery, adventure, horror, drama, fantasy and elements of Sci-Fi.
Audiences want the familiar. When we find something we like, we want more of the same at the same time that audiences want more of the same want our nighttime soap to stay soapy, out paranormal thrillers to stay paranormal, and our favorite characters to remain forever we also want new twists. Variation. Eventually Ryan and Marissa, on the OC, will run out of things to believably argue about. Eventually Dr. Richard Kimble had to find the one-armed man. And eventually, stranded castaways must get off the island Robert Burke Richardson (2006)

Definition of the social functions of genre When watching a genre film we have set expectations that condition our responses to the narrative. Because we are familiarity with particular genres we are able to foresee and make assumptions about what content will appear. We can see the patterns in specific genre films which can be very satisfying, when we go to see a horror movie, we expect to be frightened and feeling that adrenalin rush, we are satisfied, the elements that make up the horror story being well known to us. The genre film reflects society and its collective experiences of real life. The problem is that even though genre film attempts to hold up a mirror to society, supporting social values and social and cultural questions, genre does not offer any alternative resolutions to any real problems, because its a reflection. These types of films are apt to be assumed and unrealistic and when the film is over we are left to face the reality of real life.

The Rules Genre is based on a formula of repetitive elements, and these elements usually fall into categorical areas which are applied to films. 1. Iconography Visual signs and sounds connected to, and appropriate for the genre. They are symbolic and represent conventional meanings attached to an image or images. Looking at the iconography of a film we look at the way certain images convey layers of meaning in other words there is much more meaning than is at first apparent. 2. Narrative The story lines of genres which are repeated; genre films are often limited with the number of narrative developments. For example most horror films follow similar narratives, a story focusing on creating fear, often connected with folk law tales of the supernatural, or they address more realistic psychological fears. Most horror films have a protagonist being perused of harassed by an antagonist, dead or alive, ultimately leading to a confrontation and the hero overcoming the evil force. Good triumphing over evil.

Evil Dead (1981) directed by Sam Raimi and Alien (1979) directed by Ridley Scott. On the surface they appear to be two very different horror films but in both films a group of people are trapped in a setting, a cabin in the woods/a space station and only the hero survives and defeats the evil beset upon them. In each film the hero must overcome a set of obstacles in order to win the day.

3. Setting Settings can be fluid but they are often repeated, as with the example above, the setting shares similarities, imposing restrictions on the character and his actions. When watching a western we expect to see epic vistas, dust ball towns and gun toting cowboys but as most films are now a hybrid of genres, we get films like Cowboys and Aliens (2011) Directed by Jon Favreau, a western setting for a Sci-Fi movie.

4. Characters Characters are repeated in genera films, there is almost always a hero and a villain, the good character and the bad character are all repeated throughout specific genres along with their sidekicks and heroines.

Star Wars (1977) directed by George Lucas and Disneys Peter Pan (1953). Characters in both films share the same qualities but each film is a different genre, Star Wars a Sci-Fi adventure and Peter Pan is a Fantasy adventure. As we can see above sometimes the actions and characters are virtually identical across genres.

Development of genre Genre is always evolving and developing, this is because we dont live in a static world. Genre is subject to internal and external film elements. Internal elements Genre is subjected to: Hybridity The merging of two or more genres. This does not create a new genre but a hybrid sub genre, for example the B-Movie could be Horror/Sci-Fi. Intertextuality How one text can be influenced by another. A genre film borrowing codes and convention from other genres or media forms. Here we find directors paying homage to other directors - George Lucas was influenced by Akira Kurosawas The Hidden Fortress (1958) when making Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (1977). External elements Genre is subjected to: Cultural and social influences Changes in cultural or social structures, shifting ideologies. For example gender women have become stronger in film as social structures have evolved. Technology As technology improves the aesthetics and style of a genre film can change, for example the use of 3D. Note In the making of early Noir films, there was very little money, so not many light were available, one light being used on set gave Noir one of its signature traits. Film Noir Codes and Conventions Many people have argued as to whether film Noir is a genre or simple a style within film. I personally believe it does contain enough attributes to be identified as its own genre but I can see how some could refer to it as a style within another genre. Film Noir lends its self to film; narratives work perfectly in their structure. Stylistic Traits of Noir: Chiaroscuro lighting stark lighting, the use of dark and light, high contrast. (Chiaroscuro - the treatment of light and dark, controlling light) Here Light has a moralistic view. Skewed framing (Dutch angles). Unbalanced compositions. Voiceovers, narration and flashbacks. Equal emphasis placed on actors and setting. Themes and conventions: Characters A femme fatale who is dangerous and desirable and a detective who lives by his own rules, on the edge of the law. A network of minor ambiguous characters. A non-linear narrative. An emphasis on realistic urban settings. The loss of hope, leading to despair, isolation and paranoia. As we become more urbanized we find some film Noir move into the countryside.

Gender in Film Noir with a viewing of Double Indemnity (1944) The Femme Fatale she is the dominant character in film noir, she manipulates the hero, leads him astray against his better judgment. She is a highly desirable woman, delicately beautiful, perfect platinum hair, immaculately turned out, the envy of every woman and desired by every man. She is also dangerous, manipulative and deceitful; she looks out for only one person, her self. She will use her charms to get what she wants and when the hero steps on the scene, she becomes a shark, she can see his weakness, and he has no chance of escape. The Femme Fatale challenges male dominance and authority, even though the hero is strong and clever, and knowing full well she will be the undoing of him, he cant help him self, its his ultimate flaw. The femme fatale reflected the male concerns and insecurities during and after the Second World War as a womans roles in society was changing which meant fewer jobs for men and womens economic independence. During this time women wanted to see these strong female role models in film but ultimately most femme fatales are destroyed by the male hero, this could be a reflection of the male dominance of the film world at this time.
As overpoweringly desirable, duplicitous and sexually insatiable, the femme fatale has been interpreted as a symptom of male anxieties about women, a creature who threatens to castrate and devour her male victim Spicer, A (2002)

The Anti-hero Usually a detective, he has to overcome his desire for the femme fatale and ultimately destroy her (or break her independent spirit). He lives by his own moral compass and the story is told from his perspective making it a male dominated masculine narrative. This character usually works for the femme fatale but eventually ends up investigation her and her motives for bringing him the case in the first place.

The femme Fatale in Double Indemnity She acts vulnerable and plays the victim. Throughout she is the one who has the big picture, she controls the story. She is quick witted and reels our hero in, using her sexuality to dominate him. We see this clearly when they first meet on the stairs, she is above him, only covered by a towel, very risqu and suggestive for the time.

The Anti-hero narrates the story; here this is done through a clever use of a voice recorder, periodically we cut to the anti-hero and his confession. The dialogue throughout the film is very fast and full of information.

The Anti-hero in Double Indemnity He is a head strong character, very candid, cocky and moral ambiguous. The story is observed from his point of view. Through her actions he is compelled save her, like a knight in shining armor he wants to rescue this damson in distress. All too soon he is conflicted, knows he is being fooled by this woman but cant help himself, he is caught in her web, this happens he moment he meets her on the stairs. Picture right we see the anti-hero protection the femme fatale, a central theme throughout the film.

Left use of chiaroscuro lighting, towards the film climax the lighting effects are more pronounced. The light becomes intensely moralistic. The Light half hides, half revels. Right Lovers embrace, we see her dominance over him in their position.
It's straight down the line, for both of us, remember? Phyllis Dietrichson.

Neo Noir Codes and Conventions The Classic Noir era is usually dated between the early 1940s and late 1950s. Neo Noir simple means New Noir; it acknowledges the time its in. We still find the familiar traits of film Noir, the conflicted anti-hero, the beautiful and deadly femme fatale, the low key lighting, use of light and shadow and the alternative camera angles. What sets Neo Noir apart is simply that it is aware of modern circumstances and present technology. Modern themes of Neo Noir: Technological fears and complications and their social consequences and developments - Identity crisis, the loss of an identity (identity fraud) - Memory loss, internal reality and thoughts. Also in Neo Noir, classic codes and conventions are broken i.e.: the femme fatale survives. Neo Noir does lack definite form and its in such a state of fluctuation that is can be applied to other works of film that have a similar recurring subject, theme or idea. Neo Noir examples: A beautiful shot from Memento (2000). Here we can see the anti-hero, the femme fatale, the stark lighting and the unique composition of the shot. Here a man loses his memory, the plot is very complex, and it plays backwards and contains murder and mystery.

One of my favorite films Lone Star (1996). Here we can see the use of Skewed framing. Half the film is a flash back, and the main character, the antihero, is a small town sheriff attempting to uncover an old mystery.

The Sci-Fi Genre Many genres have an interconnecting complemental nature. Combine this with genres shifting nature it makes any genre hard to define. SF emerged around the 19th century with the machine age; this brought a social fear of science and what scientific developments could achieve. Mary Shellys Frankenstein was one of the first depictions of this fear of the unknown. Right - Frankenstein (1931) directed by James Whale.

The fear was that technology and scientific developments would fall into the wrong hands and enslave humanity. Left Planet of the Apes (1968), a dystopian view of our future society. Here our use of technology in the past has altered out future, enslaving the human race. A fear of what technology and scientific progress will do to humanity and our world.

The 1950s brought about our apocalyptic vision of the future, with the threat of nuclear war; it was easy for us to envision the end of society and even of the world. Space the final frontier In 1957 Sputnik 1 was launched into space, this exploration of space brought new fears about what dangers might be hidden in the universe. Right - The War of the Worlds (1953) directed by Byron Haskin and Independence Day (1996) directed by Roland Emmerich.

In 1984 Rick Altman used his semantic approach to analysing genre films. The semantic approach referred to the attributes/elements which make up specific genres, these attributes include: Setting Space, space ships/stations, a dystopian future, on another world or different universe or dimension. Right Alien (1979). Set in space, in the future, and on another world. This film is about mans fear of female biology. In Alien the queen alien gives birth to creature which lay eggs in humans which when ready, burst from the host killing them. Iconography visual - science and technology of the future brought to life, creative costumes, prosthetics, make-up, boundless special effects and the mechanical sounds of the future technology. Left Luke Skywalker with his lightsaber, you dont get much more iconic than this. Even the sound the lightsaber makes is instantly recognizable.

Narrative The narratives often deal with aliens or with life on other worlds, it may make predictions about life in the future. Sometimes narratives comment on important issues in society, often based on scientific principles and technology, involving partially true fiction laws or theories of science. It can be hard for us to understand where and when the events are taking place, weather its set in an alternative universe and does this world have the same physical rules. Narratives can suggest that time is a perpetual loop, allowing time and interdimensional travel. Above - Back to the Future (1985) directed by Robert Zemeckis.

Characters In Sci-Fi we find all manner of characters, human, alien, android and other hybrid life forms. This often mirrors our cultural differences today. Left In Star Wars (1977) directed by George Lucas, we are introduced to a whole host of characters from a galaxy far far away. This approach to analysis does have its limits as it cannot measure how meaning has changed over time. We need to combine the semantic, with a syntactic approach. The syntactic approach looks at how the units of meaning above are organized, usually in thematic patterns. Humanity vs Technology The combination of these two themes in Sci-Fi cinema gives rise to our fears of technology. These fears are constantly evolving, from the debate around cloning leading to communist paranoia as seen in the 1950s film Invasion of the Body Snatchers to scientific progress depicted in The Martix (1999) directed by the Wachowski brothers, which shows the damage we could do with technology if left unchecked. This leads us to ask many questions: what does it mean to be human? What characteristics define us as being human? Are we simply a ghost in a machine? Sci-Fi plays with these questions, offering answers, but often presenting us with new questions. The relationship with technology is not always negative; films can show us what the human race can achieve when embracing technology. Dystopia vs Utopia These two themes reflect each other and they can contain similar ideologies regarding a suspicion or fear of technology. Sci-Fi cinema tends to focus on the destruction of society, worlds where the human race has been imprisoned, enslaved or destroyed with the aid of technology.

What makes science fiction a distinct genre? I will be looking at the characteristics that define the Sci-Fi genre, with a viewing of The Thing (1982) directed by John Carpenter and touching on the questions Sci-Fi films give rise to.

Alienation and Isolation In this setting the characters are cut off from the outside world. They are all alone with no chance of rescue, this is a similar theme we find in many Sci-Fi films, whether the setting is a space station, an alien world or an arctic research station here in The Thing. The use of chiaroscuro lighting Sci-Fi genre films use lighting to great effect, the dark and light tones creating spaces for the unknown to hide, building tension. Everyone has a primal fear of the dark. Chiaroscuro lighting also reflects our often bleak outlook of the future and out encounters with the unknown. A threat to humanity (alien or technology) Here we have both a threat from an alien species and the technology it brings to this planet. A huge spaceship has crashed on earth, what implication would this have if the rest of the world knew we were not alone? We are aware that technology could bring about the down fall of humanity if left in the wrong hands. Fear of the unknown How do we deal with another life form? This makes us reflect on what it means to be human.

Paranoia The crew turn on one another, trapped and isolated their paranoia is intensified. The characters are debased as humans.

The loss of identify as the alien life form mimics and takes over the crew, they are left to ask So, how do we know who's human? If I was an imitation, a perfect imitation, how would you know it was really me? Childs. Iconography The creatures are brought to life with stunning special effects and animatronics, combined with a distinctive haunting sound they build an iconic monster.

Inevitably man prevails. Mans fear or lack understanding of a foreign quantity, be it biological or technological, leads to its destruction. We see mans adaptability and will to survive in the defense of humanity. Its clear Sci-Fi shares many traits with Noir, Chiaroscuro lighting (dark and light), a threat to humanity (alien or technology), a dystopian view of society (fear of our future, the collapse of society), feelings of paranoia, claustrophobia, alienation and isolation, which are all traits found in the film The Thing (1982).

The Horror Genre As we have already seen, many genres are intimately imbricated. In the horror and Sci-Fi genre this is especially noticeable, and it can be particularly difficult to make a distinction between either, for example: 28 Days Later (2002) A classic British Horror/Sci-Fi and The Thing looked at above, both contain elements of each genre.

Horror and Sci-Fis many common attributes include: The Monster Usually from another world or a supernatural plane of existence examples: The Thing (1982) and Apollo 18 (2011)

A technological horror In Event Horizon (1997) the ship its self becomes sentient and terrorizes the crew. Demon Seed (1997) based on the superb book by Dean Koontz is another great example of a fear of technology coming to life. The Fly (1986) here a man has lost control, his own technological creation is turning him into a monster, this makes the audience identify with the character and recognize themselves this is especially predominant now as we are so reliant and addicted to technology. In horror we find an individual who is out of control, debased as a human being.
The films hinge around a number of anxieties, especially depersonalisation and rapid changes in bodily form, both of which express fears about loss of self-control and individuality: themes that are prevalent in both science fiction and horror King, G and Krzywinska, T (2006).

The threat to humanity and the human condition What prevents us from taking another human beings life? Horror can show us the reality of violence and how it affects us and others all over the world. The Strangers (2008) explores this idea of violence and depravity against fellow human kind. In the film Serenity (2005) men at the edge of space go mad, mutilate themselves, and commit horrific acts of violence upon innocent people. This leads on to another attribute

..What does it mean to be human and knowing how to behave in a civilized way. In the war film Casualties of War (1989) we clearly see the horror of war and atrocities committed in the name of freedom and horror films are a way for us to reflect on this, asking us to take responsibility for our actions and preserve our moral values. Rape is depicted in the film Casualties of War because it really occurred; this theme is then seen in other fantasy films like I Spit on Your Grave (1978) as a reflection of real events, showing us the violent The first casualty of war is behavior human kind is capable of. innocence Influenced by German expressionist Cinema Expressionism was a cultural movement, originating in Germany in the early 20thcentury. It spanned art, design and cinema. Expressionist painting tried to express emotional and psychological experience rather than physical reality; it distorted reality for an emotional effect. These were often grim parables; the films visual style emulated the expressionist paintings. Film Noir was also heavily influenced by German expressionist Cinema.
The film used chiaroscuro lighting, a deep contrast between light and dark. It had wildly nonrealistic, geometrically absurd sets, along with designs painted on walls and floors to represent lights, shadows, and objects. The plots of the Expressionist films often dealt with madness..The distorted imagery suggests the psychological derangement of the characters..set design could support a films narrative and participate stylistically in contemporary artistic debates Johnson, M (2010)

Influenced by Surrealist Cinema Surrealist cinema is characterised by juxtaposition, a rejection of reality, and they frequently use shocking imagery. Surrealist films are often dreamlike and deal with abstract concepts. David Lynchs Eraserhead (1977) is a fine example of a fantasy, horror, Sci-Fi surrealist film.

Codes and Conventions in Horror Characters - The monster This is the most important character, even though they might occupy the smallest amount of screen time, they drive the narrative forward and without them there is no horror. This antagonist comes in many different guises from a young child The Omen (1976) directed by Richard Donner, (fun fact: my cousin was going to be called Damien, but after my aunt watched The Omen She changed her mind, thats the power of film!) to a werewolf in An American werewolf in London (1981). Many of the monsters in horror films are variations of the human form, the zombies of Dawn of the Dead (1978), the vampire, a malevolent human spirit or simply the deranged psycho killer, like Michael Myers in Halloween (1978). These characters are often, shunned from society, seek revenge or simply have a hunger for human flesh. The monster could simply be one mysterious person, who only reviles themselves at the end. The monster usually has a trademark characteristic way of killing his victims. The innocents (but not always innocent) These are the hero/heroine characters or they could be a group of characters. They are the monsters victims; their only goal is to survive. Often the films have a female victim, in many horror films a female will die in the opening scene, the female representing innocence and vulnerability. There is often a sub Here's Johnny plot of a male/female relationship or tension between a group of friends or family. The apparent hero can also become the monster through the storys events; see The Shining (1980). Narrative The narratives deal with a disruption of normality. A narrative centered round the victims fight for survival, they may have unwittingly unleashed some evil force, something in their past has come back to haunt them or a monster had simply appeared to wreak havoc on the world (or usually a small town). The story normally ends with the defeat of the monster; good triumphs over evil. Setting Often we find the characters in an isolated location, and its night time! The setting changes to put the characters in an uncomfortable place, for instance, their home, once the place they feel the safest, is now turned in to an unfamiliar house of horror when a evil spirit has possessed their child, see picture Right Insidious (2010). When the locations are familiar to us, it adds to the horror, the park we walk through every day becomes the scene for a brutal killing and at the other end, a totally alien setting, a space station, comes with its own new terrors.

Iconography Dark/shadowy lighting hides unknown entities. Special effects, blood, gore, screams, death rattles and unnatural shrieks expose us to extraordinary sights and sounds. As I have mentioned before the monster usually has a trademark characteristic way of killing his victims, this is combined with the exaggerated weaponry he/she/it may use to kill with - A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), Freddy Kruegers finger knives are very iconic.

Psychoanalysis At a higher level of the horror genre study there is an idea that we as humans repress true emotions and feelings and simply act in accordance with social rules and conventions. The horror film, for some, being a release of repressed thoughts, the genre can be controversial because of its content as some people believe is glorifies violence and sometimes promotes it. Horror films are borne out of our real world fears, we see things happen around us that disturb and horrify us; War, famine, disease, genocide, murder, theft, rape, greed, with all this around us, its not hard to see where the inspiration comes from. The horror genre seeks to exploit these negative events; we are excited by fear, its out bodys natural defense to produce adrenaline when we are scared, the fight or flight reflex, so when we go to see a horror film we expect to get this feeling and the rush of adrenaline. The fact that the subject matter is often vulgar, sadistic, and unnatural, does not mean we are depraved in any way, its just a forbidden fruit, we see thing we are never likely to (or wish to) experience and they can highlight atrocities carried out in mankinds name. The horror genre makes us look at what we are capable of doing as human beings and where our limits are; is it just the social structure of our society that keeps us in check? Would you kill or be killed? When watching horror we find ourselves asking what would I do in that situation? the answer is almost always exactly the opposite of what the characters in the film do. I think there is a primal curiosity In all of us, we seek out new experiences, even if its as morbid as seeing a character stabbed to death by a maniac, we know its not real, we understand this is fantasy, but we are still curious as to what the experience might be like.

The Cognitive approach We look at genre as a tool which allows us to derive meaning from a film by organizing them into smaller groups that possess necessary attributes of that genre. Unlike the descriptive approach, in the cognitive approach, the focus is on cognitive processes, process guided by experience or experiment based on human actions and perceptions when presented with certain textual conventions. As a spectator we have many shared preconceptions of different genres, this preexisting knowledge allows us to attribute meaning to specific segments of a films narrative as they unfold on screen. Jonathan Culler argues that:
"the function of genre conventions is essentially to establish a contract between writer and reader so as to make certain relevant expectations operative and thus permit both compliance and deviation from accepted modes of intelligibility Culler (1975)

Many films have intertextuality and hybridity Lost Highway (1997) makes us draw from our own experience and knowledge of many different genres to interact with the films narrative, iconography, setting and characters.
"I don't like pictures that are one genre only. So this [Lost Highway] is like a combination of things. It has a kind of a horror film, it has a kind of a thriller, it has a kind of a... Basically it's a mystery, that's what it is, a mystery." "See, I love 47 different genres in one film. I hate one-thing films. And I love B movies. But why not have three or four Bs running together? Like a little hive!" David Lynch (1997)

The descriptive and cognitive approaches do however suggest that this way of looking at genre is limiting - It can stop the thought process of the viewer by encouraging us concentrate on individual aspect of a films many parts and affect the production of genre film. Its clear there has been a deviation in the application and production of genre cinema and this could be attributed to many reasons the decrease of cultural and national boundaries as the world become more open the number of entertainment option and the way we interacts with technology the internet and the way in which we watch films allows niche markets to thrive with access to particular hybrid films being so easy. Film makers and audiences have a high level of media literacy a Knowingness so contemporary cinema is produced and consumed with this knowledge.

Commodifying Hollywood Today Hollywood makes a product out of a film through: Seriality sequels, prequels, serials, follow-up and franchises.

Alien (1979) has had 3 sequels and now in 2012 the prequel Prometheus is being released. Modes (modes of film making and movie viewing) the blockbuster, the summer movie, the Christmas movie, the special effects movie, the 3D move etc.

Home Alone (1990) a classic Christmas moves specifically released in December and blockbuster, special effects movie Transformers (2007). Intermedia Merchandising, product tie-ins, product placement, branding, TV spin-offs and computer games etc. The Jame Bond franchise also belongs in the Seriality category but it has always contained lots of product placement. In the first bond films car manufactures were unwilling to give the production studios any cars to use as they were afraid it might hurt their car companys reputation, but nowadays car manufactures have to pay big money to get their latest sports car model into the film. Almost everything in a bond film is for sale. Right Bond (played by Daniel Craig) a fictional character advertising watches.

Intertext - Moulin Rouge (2001) directed by Baz Luhrmann When we ask what genre a film belongs to, often we have to accept that it could belong in numerous categories. We can identify genre hybridity and intertextuality in many films, for example Black Swan (2010) where a play becomes the story and the story reflects the play, and multiple genres are involved - drama, thriller, mystery and horror. Moulin Rouge (2001) is one such film packed with genre intertextuality. Its host of genres are not simply thrown together, but elements of each genre are remixed to create new meaning.
For Moulin Rouges giddy assemblage of cinematic references, historical intertexts and cultural allusions simultaneously defies singular generic categorization yet implies a high degree of prior orientation with precisely those generic formations in order to comprehend their disorientation and rearticulation. Nelmes, J (1996)

Moulin Rouge seeks to give us a new experience of common elements, for example, the music - we know most of the songs and half the words to the songs because they are contemporary - a lot of us will have seen the same shots or Mise en scne before in other films or music videos. This very eclectic mix of components feels familiar to us, yet fresh as new and old elements are combined, different genres and there codes and convention are mixed together giving us a sophisticated palimpsestic image that is pulchritudinous, densely layered and full of meaning.
Individual generic features are not the property of specific genres but rather mediated artifacts which circulate through popular culture, retaining traces of their past articulation but which are reinscribed in the present moment Nelmes, J (1996)

When it comes to genre development in contemporary cinema Moulin Rouge wrenches its self free of many of the genre conventions and looks else were (contemporary culture, modernist culture) for its inspiration, and these generic traces can be resurfaced, remixed and replayed.
They are entirely appropriate to a culture in which past and future co-exist in/with the present and in which an increasing amount of popular entertainment is predicated on profound intertextuality and the reactivation of past generic artefacts Nelmes, J (1996)

The film Moulin Rouge is solely concerned with this juxtaposition of multiple genre elements, this is amplified intertextuality!

Film Genre Transformation Genre hybridity allows us to look at the changing faces of cinema in our contemporary society; we can identify films that clearly combine many different codes and conventions from distinct genres. Robert Rodriguezs From Dusk Till Dawn (1996) is one such film, its starts out as a crime thriller but halfway through switches to a horror film, the genre change is clear and obvious; nevertheless the hybrid nature of some films can still be hard to define as they are defying categorization. Kill Bill (2003) is an eclectic mix of genres, styles and contemporary influences, its film referring to film, and a mutation of lots of film genres. Film used to be a window on the world, often a hyper version of it, but in Kill Bill the film plainly reflects other films, and this makes it hard to identify the original pure genres within because the film references are from mutated genres. We can see how genre has transformed within the contemporary climate through the mutation, evolution and inbreeding of genres. Genre mutation the deviation from a pure genre film.
What audiences today desire more than ever before is more of the same, and studios, scared to death by rising production and distribution costs, are equally loathe to strike out in new generic directions. Keep audiences satisfied, strive to maintain narrative closure at all costs, and keep within the bounds of heterotopic romance, no matter what genre one is ostensibly working in. Yet, at the same time, the studios must present these old fables in seductive new clothing, with high budgets, major stars, lavish sets, and (if the genre demands it) unremitting action to disguise the secondhand nature of the contemporary genre film Wheeler Dixon (2000)

Genre evolution Genres change and develop due to changes in the culture or historical period in which the genre film is being produced, its a response to cultural, social or technological changes. For example the Road movie and the Sci-fi film have evolved from the Western, and its elements: Cars replace horses in the Road movie and Sci-Fi films explore space - the final frontier!

This evolution can be seen here with Seven Samurai (1954) an Action movie, which was adapted into The Magnificent Seven (1960) a Western and both films have elements used in Star Wars (1977) a Sci-Fi movie (also has seven main characters!).

Genre inbreeding the considerable cross-pollination that occurs across genres, the combining of their shared characteristics that come from the same film cultures. Genre inbreeding best describes Quentin Tarantinos Kill Bill, which is packed with deliberate references to other film genres. The Western setting and the story of a lone gun (wo)man seeking revenge.

The Kung-Fu film, with its training montages, wizened characters and their spiritual advice. Animation - Japanese style animation is used to tell parts of the story in flash back and is very in keeping with the overall tone of the film.

Action movie Fight scenes reference film such as Seven Samurai (1954) and The Game of Death (1978).
..they appear to be a mise-en-abyme (story within a story) of filmic quotes, the orchestration of the quotes is so brilliantly achieved that what appears pastiche is in fact parody. He selects the quotes and then brutally overturns them. Hayward, S (2000)

Iconic Hybridisation - film knowingly incorporating elements of other genres, juxtaposing the elements and imagery of other texts. This comparison and contrast can also be seen in Kill Bill Uma Thurmans character wears the same outfit as Bruce Lee in The Game of Death; this is a conscious decision by director Tarantino, a homage to the films he loved growing up.
'a new genre is always the transformation of one or several old genres' Tzvetan Todorov (1990)

Invasion of the body snatchers (1956) and It Came from Outer Space (1953) were horror films that reflected fears at the time they were make, like the Cold War and invasion by a foreign enemy, today films like 28 Day Later (2002) and 28 Weeks Later (2007) share many similarities with these old horror movies but our current climate transforms the genre to reflect our modern fears, here its of an incurable virus, the fear of unmonitored genetic experiments and technology. So films can be in the same genre category but the current climate can transform them into new genres: 28 Day Later can be classed as a Zombie movie, the Zombie movie being a hybridization of other genres, just as It Came from Outer Space can be classed as a Monster movie. In an interview with James Cameron talking about his 1986 film Aliens, he said the whole Vietnam experience was almost science fictional, in the sense that it was the first real Hi-Tec war, that was waged against an extremely Low-Tec enemy, and lostit showed how technology didnt work. This is the theme of his movie Aliens, real world events depicted in a science fiction setting. Postmodernism and Globalisation Examining social elements that have effected genre development. Postmodernism
An 'eclectic mixing of aesthetic codes' Seidman (1994)

Postmodernism in film explains through its conveyed imagery and sound the represented social experiences in a time period of globalised capitalism and technological advancement and development. This describes the era since the 1960s, an epoch of rapid changes in technology, globalisation and accelerated capitalism. We break this down into the characteristics of postmodernism: Spectacle and Superficiality The image of an event is given more power than the real event itself;
Direct experience are replaced with represented experiences Elsaesser & Buckland (2002).

Things of importance in society tend to be those that are captured in succinct images or sound-bytes, and this can lead to images and representations having far more gravitas than they need or deserve. When we apply this to modern cinema we can see that the spectacle of the superficial image rules the Hollywood genre film. Postmodernist cinema supports this by drawing attention to this consumer capitalist superficially.

Blurring Boundaries The agitation of narrative structures and conventions from different forms of media.
The contamination of genres Simerka & Weimer (2005).

In horror film Rec (2007), the narrative frequently makes references to video games, with its POV (point of view) camera work. Today we also find many films spawn numerous sequels, so they have a televisual narrative structure, which is maintained by cliffhangers and open ended stories. Intertextual, Pastiche, Parody and Irony This is a postmodern text self consciously referencing and stealing aspects from pop-culture. Intertextual references are found in many films, Shawn of the Dead (2004) is full of references like "We're coming to get you Barbara!" a quote from Night of the Living Dead (1968) and most modern horror films reference films like A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984). David Lynch, my favorite artist/director, is the greatest master of metastasizing references to create deeper meaning. Lynches Mulholland Drive (2001) opening dance sequence recalls Hitchcock's opening for Shadow of a Doubt (1943). Celebration of Artificiality Films which make no reference to reality, just the films own representation of reality, its own simulacrum. Fragmentation postmodern texts featuring disjointed narrative structures, this disintegration of the narrative creates non-liner plot lines and open endings which refuse closure. Evil Dead 2 (1987) the story has no final act resolution; it simply transports the character to another time and place to set up the next film. Here the hero Ash wakes in medieval Europe to continue his battle with the deadites.

Globalisation We can clearly see the symptoms of globalisation in the Kill Bill films; here we find numerous cultural references. In the story we find a western woman who uses Asian martial arts, a Yakuza boss leader being of Asian/American lineage, and a spaghetti western score in an Asian setting.
The inbreading and cross-referencing of different martial arts films also contributes to the complex discourse of globalisation that pervades Kill Bill Stadler & McWilliam (2009)

Normally globalisation refers to economic and political motivations but in contemporary society we identify globalisation on a cultural level, which is perpetuated through media technologies. This media globalisation is broadly distinguished by the following characteristics: Instantaneity communication and transport technologies collapse time and space. Interactivity digital technology decreasing the distinction between media producers and consumers. Interconnectedness and interdependence the technology means a person or communitys location is no longer a factor, different regions of the globe can be interrelated and interdependent. Convergence and conglomeration Media industries are characterised by mergers. The convergence of technologies. Asymmetric flow of media products The US is the main exporter of media products, which leads to fears of cultural imperialism. Inequalities of access the digital divide, poorer countries not having access to the same technologies creating a bigger gap between the wealthy and impoverished. Conclusion In summery we see that genre functions to classify works according to their common attributes and structures. Without this structure the bewildering number of literary texts would be hard to comprehend. By reading these narratives in a genre form we can garner some greater understanding of the subject and acquire a better idea of its intended overall structure and purpose. This also allows us to compare it to other texts to attain meaning and context. Genre study is essentially the study of conventions, this is critical in enriching our acknowledgments and responses to particular texts. We will always have a set of expectations connected to a type of genre, but through the many aspects of genre study detailed above, we will always be able to discover something unique about each piece of work studied.

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