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Unit 4 Neural Networks

Unit 4 Neural Networks


An artificial neural network is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, to process information. The key element of this paradigm is the novel structure of the information processing system. It is composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing elements (neurons) working in unison to solve specific problems. Artificial neural networks, like people, learn by example. An artificial neural network is configured for a specific application, such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a learning process. Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the synaptic connections that exist between the neurons. This is true of artificial neural networks as well. Artificial intelligence and cognitive modeling try to simulate some properties of neural networks. While similar in their techniques, the former has the aim of solving particular tasks, while the latter aims to build mathematical models of biological neural systems. In the artificial intelligence field, artificial networks have been applied successfully to speech recognition, image analysis and adaptive control in order to construct software agents (in computer and video games) or autonomous robots. Most of the currently employed artificial neural networks for artificial intelligence are based on statistical estimation, optimization and control theory. Neural networks, as used in artificial intelligence, have traditionally been viewed as simplified models of neural processing in the brain, even though the relation between this model and brain biological architecture is debated. Historically, computers evolved from the von Neumann architecture, which is based on sequential processing and execution of explicit instructions. On the other hand, the origins of neural networks are based on efforts to model information processing in biological systems, which may rely largely on parallel processing as well as implicit instructions based on recognition of patterns of sensory input from external sources. In other words, at its very heart a neural network is a complex statistical processor (as opposed to being tasked to sequentially process and execute). The tasks to which artificial neural networks are applied tend to fall within the following broad categories: Function approximation, or regression analysis, including time series prediction and modeling Classification, including pattern and sequence recognition, novelty detection and sequential decision making Data processing, including filtering, clustering, blind signal separation and compression Application areas include system identification and control (vehicle control, process control), game-playing and decision making (backgammon, chess, racing), pattern recognition (radar systems, face identification, object recognition), sequence recognition (gesture, speech, hand-written text recognition), medical diagnosis, financial applications,

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

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data mining (or knowledge discovery in databases, KDD), visualization and e-mail spam filtering. Neural networks, with their remarkable ability to derive meaning from complicated or imprecise data, can be used to extract patterns and detect trends that are too complex to be noticed by either humans or other computer techniques. A trained neural network can be thought of as an expert in the category of information it has been given to analyze. This expert can then be used to provide projections given new situations of interest and answer what if questions other advantages include: Adaptive learning an ability to learn how to do tasks based on the data given for training or initial experience Self-organization an artificial neural network can create its own organization or representation of the information it receives during learning time Real time operation an artificial neural network computations may be carried out in parallel, and special hardware devices are being designed and manufactured which take advantage of this capability Fault tolerance via redundant information coding: partial destruction of a network leads to the corresponding degradation of performance. However, some network capabilities may be retained even with major network damage.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

I.

a) Give synonyms for the following words from the text:


paradigm (l. 1); to be composed of (l. 4); to configure (l.7); adjustment (l. 9); to simulate (l. 11); currently (l. 18); estimation (l. 19); to debate (l. 22); pattern (l. 27); to fall within (l. 30); to analyze (l. 47); redundant (l. 57)

b) What do the following abbreviations stand for?


AI; ANN; KDD; ApAI; GPAI; DARPA

c) Give a short definition for the following syntagms:


blind signal separation (l. 36); data mining (l. 42)

II. Fill in the blanks:


A neural network is a - simulation of living nervous systems; it is able to learn and can develop own world model. conventional computers, it is programmed to answers and, if it is wrong the first time, the time it answers, it will change its , based on experience, until it eventually gets the answer all the time. A set of previously learned characteristics serves as the basis for the of its own characteristics in response to inputs; in other words, the neural network can have . Therefore, it can with situations where the may be ambiguous or incomplete. Neural are being designed to carry tasks typical for the most advanced biological systems. recognition, and recognition are some of the where neural networks will be .. used.

III. Translate the following text into Romanian and then match the words in italics with their synonyms:
accomplish, computation, create, distinguish, empower, identification, job, object, quest, refined Artificial Intelligence is a term that in its broadest sense would indicate the ability of an artefact to perform the same kinds of functions that characterize human thought. The possibility of developing such an artefact has intrigued human beings since ancient times. With the growth of modern science, the search for Artificial Intelligence has taken two major directions: psychological and physiological research into the nature of human thought, and the technological development or increasingly sophisticated computing systems. In another sense, the term Artificial Intelligence has been applied to computer systems and programs capable of performing tasks more complex than straightforward programming, although still far from the realm of actual thought. The most important fields of research in this area are information processing, pattern recognition, gameplaying computers, and applied fields such as medical diagnosis. Current research in

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

information processing deals with programs that enable a computer to understand written or spoken information and to produce summaries, answer specific questions, or redistribute information to users interested in specific areas of this information. Essential to such programs is the ability of the system to generate grammatically correct sentences and to establish links between words, ideas and associations with other ideas.

IV. Match the following English adjectives with their Romanian equivalents. Then, insert the adjectives in the right place in the text below:
A. steep B. tedious C. smooth D. reliable E. rugged F. single G. hazardous H. accurate 1. exact 2. accidentat/denivelat 3. riscant 4. unic 5. fiabil 6. plictisitor 7. abrupt 8. neted

Robots are used for a variety of tasks, from factory floors to environments. In factories they replace human beings for repetitive and tasks such as welding and spraying cars. They are more and and dont tire easily; they often consist of a arm with two or three axes of freedom, which is enough for what they are destined to do. Most of the robots in use today are designed to pick up an object and to move it somewhere else; thats why they are called pick-andplace robots. Often mounted on wheels or tracks they can only move on surfaces and cannot cope with big obstacles. However, researchers in robotics have in recent years developed robots which look like insects with a body and legs which give them the ability to climb slopes or walk into areas. It is believed that these insectlike machines will become the robots of the future, instead of the humanoid type often seen in sci-fi movies.

V. Translate the following text into English:


n reelele neuronale informaia nu mai este memorat n zone bine precizate, ca n cazul calculatoarelor standard, ci este memorat difuz n toat reeaua. Memorarea se face stabilind valori corespunztoare ale ponderilor conexiunilor sinaptice dintre neuronii reelei. Un alt element important, care este, probabil, principalul responsabil pentru succesul modelelor conexioniste, este capacitatea reelelor neuronale de a nva din exemple. n mod tradiional, pentru a rezolva o problem, trebuie s elaborm un model (matematic, logic, lingvistic etc.) al acesteia. Apoi, pornind de la acest model, trebuie s indicm o succesiune de operaii reprezentnd algoritmul de rezolvare a problemei. Exist, ns, probleme practice de mare complexitate pentru care stabilirea unui algoritm, fie el i unul aproximativ, este dificil sau chiar imposibil.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

n acest caz, problema nu poate fi abordat folosind un calculator tradiional, indiferent de resursele de memorie i timp de calcul disponibil. Caracteristic reelelor neuronale este faptul c, pornind de la o mulime de exemple, ele sunt capabile s sintetizeze n mod implicit un anumit model al problemei. Se poate spune c o reea neuronal construiete singur algoritmul pentru rezolvarea unei probleme, dac i furnizm o mulime reprezentativ de cazuri particulare (exemple de instruire). Inteligena artificial, ca i in cazul inteligenei biologice, se dobndete printr-un proces continuu i de durat de nvare, de aceea problema nvrii ocup un loc important n cercetarea mainilor auto-instruibile (machine learning). Prin nvarea automat se nelege studiul sistemelor capabile s-i mbunteasc performanele, utiliznd o mulime de date de instruire. Sistemele cu inteligen artificial obinuite au capaciti de nvare foarte reduse sau nu au deloc. n cazul acestor sisteme cunoaterea trebuie sa fie programat n interiorul lor. Dac sistemele conin o eroare, ele nu o vor putea corecta, indiferent de cte ori se execut procedura respectiv. Practic aceste sisteme nu-si pot mbunti performanele prin experien si nici nu pot nva cunotine specifice domeniului, prin experimentare. Aproape toate sistemele cu inteligen artificial sunt sisteme deductive. Aceste sisteme pot trage concluzii din cunoaterea ncorporat sau furnizat, dar ele nu pot s genereze singure noi cunotine. Pe msur ce un sistem cu inteligen artificial are de rezolvat sarcini mai complexe, crete i cunoaterea ce trebuie reprezentat n el (fapte, reguli, teorii). n general un sistem funcioneaz bine, n concordan cu scopul fixat prin cunoaterea furnizat, dar orice micare n afara competenei sale face ca performanele lui s scad rapid. Acest fenomen este numit i fragilitatea cunoaterii. Una din direciile de cercetare n privina mainilor instruibile este modelarea neuronal . Modelarea neuronal dezvolt sisteme instruibile pentru scopuri generale, care pornesc cu o cantitate mic de cunotine iniiale. Astfel de sisteme se numesc reele neuronale sisteme cu auto-organizare sau sisteme conexioniste. Un sistem de acest tip const dintr-o reea de elemente interconectate de tip neuron, care realizeaz anumite funcii logice simple. Un astfel de sistem nva prin modificarea intensitii de conexiune dintre elemente, adic schimbnd ponderile asociate acestor conexiuni. Cunoaterea iniial ce este furnizat sistemului este reprezentat de caracteristicile obiectelor considerate i de o configuraie iniial a reelei.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

Robots That Teach Themselves


Robots on production lines must be taught where to move. That is true in spades for robots that move silicon wafers in semiconductor manufacturing. Wafer-handling robots are carefully taught each location from which they retrieve wafers and where to deliver them. The teaching process is not a one-time affair. Robots must be taught after a tool is integrated in the semiconductor manufacturing process, as part of maintenance, and again after many repairs. The process of teaching a robot is time consuming and takes a lot of skill and judgment. And of course the stakes can be large. An incorrectly taught point can later result in a damaged or broken wafer. To calibrate wafer-handoff positions, the technician doing the teaching must be able to direct the appropriate robot motion and determine teach points. This can be tricky. The teacher must manually jog the robot on the proper path to the teach point typically with several hardware or software interlocks defeated. It is a situation ripe for human error and tool-damaging collisions. To determine appropriate teach positions, the teacher must subjectively eyeball the location of the wafer handoff point to within +/- 0.25 mm. This usually takes place in a semiconductor manufacturing clean room, in a bunny suit, in the bowels of the semiconductor tool being calibrated. Small wonder that taught points commonly vary depending on the teachers point of view, idiosyncrasies of the wafer transfer devices, and subtle differences in optimal handoff points for a given tool. All in all, there can be a substantial variation in points programmed from one session to another and even more deviation when someone new handles the teaching. The result: compromised reliability and wafers frequently worth tens of thousands of dollars are placed in jeopardy. It can easily be a 6-hour job to manually teach a robot how to precisely place wafers. It is now possible, though, to let robots calibrate themselves through software. This approach can reduce the teaching process to about 20 minutes and eliminate the need for teaching skills. The key to fast teaching is to have the robot automatically calibrate itself so it knows the geometry of its surroundings precisely. In a semiconductor tool equipped with Berkeley Process Controls Autocalibration technology, a technician presses a single button to execute a preprogrammed calibration route. That routine automatically finds critical wafer-handler physical reference features utilizing various application-specific sensing methods, including touch calibration. The control system thereby learns all of the wafer handoff positions. Theres no judgment or skill involved. Plotting a Course In the touch method of autocalibration technology, the robot is programmed to intentionally drive a part of a robot arm until it gently touches a known feature of the station or cassette. The controller also attempts to quickly determine just when the arm has touched the station. The principle here is that some amount of motor torque is required to move the arm through free space. When the robot arm hits the obstruction, the motor driving the arm slows down. Thus the first indication that the arm has hit something is that the servomotor begins to slow.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

But at the first decline in velocity, the controller cannot tell whether the deceleration is a result of touching something or is a normal variation in the friction of bearings, belts and so on. (Any system will experience variations in motor torque from non - uniform friction in bearings, belts, screws and so forth). So the controllers closedloop software will respond by slightly increasing the motor current and, thus, motor torque. Upon subsequent calculations of the servo velocity loop, the controller will have additional information about whether the robot arm has touched an obstruction. If the motor velocity again begins to increase, then the controller can deduce that it was friction and not an obstruction that caused the need for more motor torque. If, however, the servomotor continues to slow even with additional applied torque, then the controller deduces that the robot arm has found an obstruction. The controller notes the motor position while simultaneously reducing servomotor torque to ensure that contact with the tool is gentle. Its possible to reduce the force generated during the intentional collision of the robot wand and the station by factoring in the background torque of the arm. Specifically, one measures the background torque for each robot axis to be touch-calibrated. The method is to first move the robot to a safe area where it can make short movements without touching anything. Then one-by-one, each motor is told to make a constant velocity move (usually the same velocity used in the calibration step). When the axis has reached the constant velocity (that is, it has finished accelerating), the machine controller samples the average motor torque. This average is made up of numerous instantaneous motor torques, each such torque being the output of the closed-loop control. Once the sampling process is complete, the background torque value is determined by taking the simple average of these samples. The sampling frequency and the number of samples taken depend on the specific design of the machine. But a common sample size might be 100 measurements. The average background torque would therefore be about 0.01 of the total value. The system stores the background torques it has calculated for each of the axes to be used during touch calibration. Then, as the arm moves toward the feature to be touched, the controller calculates a moving average of the torques it sees for each axis, and compares them to the stored background torques. The system can thus decide that it has touched something when this moving average exceeds some torque limit. The torque limit equals the dynamic background torque plus a threshold limit. The threshold limit is a value chosen to be larger than the torque variations seen while moving at the touch-sensing velocity. During the routine to quantify the dynamic background torque, the controller gauges the statistical variation of the torque samples and sets the threshold value at some multiple of the background torque. Once the system senses the contact, it captures the current axis position and then moves away from the touch point. During a typical calibration procedure, the robot has a rough idea of where features are located even before it touches them. Thats because tool developers prime the controller with the positions of these items from CAD drawings or manual measurements. Designers chose the features to be touched such that the motion to locate each one is isolated to one robot axis. This ensures en unlinked, independent coordinate.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

To accurately find a feature with touch calibration, it is important to note that most machines have semi rigid drive trains. The result is a certain amount of flexibility in each axis that calibration procedures must take into account. The way to cancel out this flexibility is by touching a feature from two opposite directions. In other words, make a positive velocity or directional move to determine a feature position, then a negative velocity or directional move to determine the same feature. In cases where its not possible to touch a feature from both directions, it may be possible to touch a secondary feature with a known spatial relationship to the first. To understand why the above two-direction technique cancels out flexibility, it is helpful to remember that the torque limit used for touch sensing is the summation of the background torque and a threshold limit. The summation of these two torques represents a constant applied tension. With regard to a semi rigid drive train, this reflects an equal tension on arm components when sensing in the positive and negative directions. It is this equal tension which makes it possible to cancel the effects of drive flexibility. Finally, several types of robots are amenable to the autocalibration technique. Some robots are designed with one motor per axis. Others are designed with one motor per link so that two or more motors must move in unison to move a single axis. Depending on the design of the robot, it is important to characterize the axis torques of all motors. With just one motor per axis the technique simplifies into the monitoring of a single motor. In the case of multiple motors handling axis control, a good technique is to monitor the summation of the absolute values of the motor torque required to move the axis. In cases where one motor puts out much more torque than the others involved in handling a single axis, it may be acceptable to monitor only the most powerful one. The determination of the preferable technique depends on the exact design of the machine. Autocalibration technology has been implemented with a wide variety of robot designs. It has proven efficient with both legacy belt-drive designs and state-of-the-art direct-drive robots. Laboratory test data shows repeatability of better than o.4 mm. in locating a wafer-transfer station using a modern direct-drive robot.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

GRAMMAR SPOTLIGHT The Adjective

Adjectives fall into two categories: Descriptive those which express an inherent quality (important, clever, interesting) or a physical state such as age, colour, size (young, red, small) Limiting those which place restriction on the nouns they modify expressing distance, quantity, possession etc. (this, much, my) The order of adjectives When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, their order should be as follows: a) Adjectives describing a thing number; attributive; age; size; shape; colour; origin; material; -ing + noun e.g.: two beautiful old square brown French wooden tables b) adjectives describing a person number; attributive; size; age; origin + noun e.g.: five pretty tall young Romanian girls The comparison of adjectives According to the way in which adjectives form the Comparative and the Superlative, they are divided into regular and irregular. Within the regular adjectives there are two subclasses of adjectives which will form the comparative and the superlative as follows: Monosyllabic adjectives (except: right, wrong, real) Positive Comparative Superlative -er the -est long longer the longest Plurisyllabic adjectives Positive Comparative Superlative more + adjective the most + adjective beautiful more beautiful the most beautiful difficult more difficult the most difficult Some adjectives are irregular. Such adjectives are the following: Positive Comparative Superlative good better the best bad worse the worst ill worse the worst much more the most many more the most

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

little less (lesser) the least Within the irregular adjectives there are some that have double forms of comparison: OLD - older the oldest (for people and things) - elder (used only attributively) the eldest (for the members of the same family) e.g.: Our house is older than theirs. My elder brother is a singer. LATE - later the latest (the most recent) - latter (the second of two opposite of former) the last (the final)

e.g.: Have you read the latest edition of the last play by Shakespeare? FAR - farther the farthest (usually for space) - further the furthest (for space and time)

e.g.: Leeds is ten miles farther / further.

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

EXERCISES I. Put the adjective in brackets in the correct position: 1. a little town (old, lovely) 2. a new sweater (green, nice) 3. an old mansion (beautiful) 4. a plastic bag (black, small) 5. an American film (old) 6. a metal box (black, small) 7. an old painting (interesting, French) 8. a red car (old, little) 9. a beautiful table (wooden, round) 10. a cotton shirt (white, old) 11. a brown coat (long, leather) 12. a chocolate bar (big, new) 13. an English castle (small, old) 14. a summer dress (cotton, short, white and blue) 15. a small cottage (stone-built, old) II. Put the adjectives in brackets in the correct form: 1. Bucharest is (far) from Madrid than Paris is. 2. She was very kind and gave me some (far) information about that man. 3. Lucy and Peter are in their room: the (fore) is reading, the (late) is watching T.V. 4. My (old) sister works in one of the (old) schools in our town. 5. These books are not (expensive) as the other ones. 6. Your homework is (bad) than hers. 7. His car is (good) than mine. 8. I am sure that you will finally find a (good) solution. 9. This hotel manager was the (polite) we had ever met. 10. Yesterdays weather was (bad) than todays. 11. The inn is the (old) building in the village. 12. Sir Winston Churchill was the (famous) Englishman in World War II. 13. The more, the (merry), says an English proverb. 14. She is one of the (intelligent) girls I have ever met. 15. There were two roads leading to the monastery, the narrower road being the (short) one. III. Continue sentences 1-10 by using a comparative so that they make sense: 1. The sooner 2. The warmer the weather 3. The bigger the children 4. The harder our work is 5. The richer he was 6. The more she has 7. The shorter the nights 8. The earlier you leave 9. The more

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Unit 4 Neural Networks

10. The higher the prices IV. Fill in with the correct adjectives. There are six pairs of adjectives that you must guess so that you fill in the blanks correctly: 1. He works very hard as a computer programmer. Its not that hes always tired. 2. Ive got nothing to do. Im . 3. The room hadnt been cleaned for ages. It was really . 4. I seldom visit art galleries. Im not particularly in art. 5. The lecture was . I fell asleep. 6. The teachers explanation was . Most of the students didnt understand it. 7. Ive been working very hard all day and now Im . 8. I was very to find out that Joan had passed the exam because she had hardly studied anything. 9. She is a very difficult person to follow because she talks a lot. She is a very person. 10. I was totally when I heard the truth about Michael. 11. Julia is a very person. She knows a lot, she has traveled a lot and she has done a lot of different things. 12. I didnt understand anything out of the lecture on XML. I am really about this topic. V. Choose the correct form of the adjectives: Historic Historical a. At the meeting of our local society there will be a talk on France in the 19th century. b. Today we have gained our independence and our liberty. It is a day for our country. c. She likes novels, especially romances set in the 16th and 17th centuries. d. In 1945 there was a meeting of world leaders which changed the course of world events. Exhausting Exhaustive a. tests were carried out to discover the cause of the plane engine failure. b. The older members of the group found the long journey quite . c. He never stops talking. Hes an person to be with. d. The police carried out an investigation, but the missing woman was never found. Economic Economical a. The .. picture looks pretty depressing for the next few quarters. b. Its to use solar energy. Lyric Lyrical a. poetry reading can help you find the music of everyday language. b. His approach to scientific writing helped to popularize the subject. 12

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