B.

TECH 6 WEEKS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING-CUM-PROJECT REPORT

Name of the company Adress 002

: Alfa Industries : 416,phase-2,indl. Area,chandigarh,160

Period of Training From : 15-june-2011 to 30-july-2011

TRAINING MANAGER Signature : ................................. .................................... Name : ................................. : ................................... Designation: ................................. No. : ........................ Department : ................................. ission : .................

SUBMITTED BY Name : . Branch Univ. Roll Date of Subm E-ma

Seal : ................................. il : ...................................

TABLE OF CONTENTS Training Certificate Page no. 1. Ac nowledgement 2. Company Profile 3. Training Report 3.1.1 Product 3.1.2 Various Operations 3.2 Machine Shop 3.2.1 Lathe Machine 3.2.2 Milling Machine 3.2.2 Power Hac Saw 3.2.3 Pedestal Grinding Machine 3.2.4 Centerless Grinding Machine

3.2.5 Cylindercal Grinding Machine 3.2.6 Bench Type Drilling Machine 3.3 Single Point Cutting Tool 3.4.1 Vernier caliper 3.4.2 Vernier Height Gauge 3.4.3 Micrometer 4. List of S etches/Diagrams 4.1 Gear Shifter rod 4.2 Lathe Machine 4.3 Power Hac saw 4.4 Milling machine 4.5 Pedestal grinding machine 4.6 Cylinderical grinding machine 4.7 Cylinderical grinding machine 4.8 Drilling Machine 4.9 Single pt. Cutting Tool 4.10 Vernier caliper 4.11 Vernier height Gauge 4.12 Micrometer 5. Bibliography

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I owe a great than s to a great many people who helped and supported me during the writing of this report. My deepest than s to Training head, Mr. Gurs haran Singh, supervisor Mr. Balbir Singh the guide of the project for guiding a nd correcting various documents of mine with attention and care. He has ta en p ain to go through the project and ma e necessary correction as and when needed. Without him I would never been able to learn the basic things and other importan t components. He was always behind us in the process of learning various machine

s. I am also than ful to the Sri Su hmani Institute of Engineering and Technology f or giving me this opportunity. Finally, yet importantly, I would li e to express my heartfelt than s to my belo ved parents for their blessings, my friends/classmates for their help and wishes for the successful completion of this training.

Neeraj chand 100761196521

2. About the Company

Alfa industry is manufacturing the parts of gear box for swaraj tractor. Vario us parts of gear box assembly li e gear shiftr rod, IG shaft, pins are manufactu red by no. of operations in various machines with accuracy. All the parts are pr ecisely inspected by snap gauges and other special purpose gauges and online del ivery of the parts. Our Mission is to achieve clear identity and leadership globally in Steel produc tion and distribution by integration of complete chain of production starting fr om captive iron ore to end user Steel products. Our revolution in Steel production has helped us to carve a niche unique only to a mar et leader. Every year passes by with new value additions and more accolad es from our customers - Locally and Globally. Our rising chart in respect of all -important parameters of production and finance is a testimony to our claim. In pursuing our mission, we at Alfa Industry. are guided by the following values

Quality - To be the best in quality. We aim and achieve excellence. Technology - State of the art technology and product enrichment by continuous Re search and Development. Customer Friendly - Our products are world class and more and more clients are a ppreciating and using our products. We also underta e customized products with v alues addition and enhancement. Corporate Governance - We comply with all applicable laws and regulations. We be lieve in maintaining clean environment and conservation of natural resources. We contribute towards betterment of our staff and provide them with best of facili ties. Environment Protection and Practice - We are adopting and implementing pollution control measures as a matter of policy. Our Commitments To improve the quality of our products and complete integration of various stage s of production. To be conscious towards quality and pricing of our products. We strive by contin uous research and development to ma e our products world class, having distinct identity and uniqueness. Our customers get best value for their money. To run the company profitably year after year. A wor force motivated, s illed and well loo ed after. A wor place safe, secure and hygienic. To ma e our Environment Clean, Healthy and Hospitable.

3.1.1 MANUFACTURING OF PRODUCT:Gear shifter rod : a gear shifter rod is fitted in gear box to shift the gear a s per requirement of speed. It is made by the mild steel by various (fig.4.1) operation on machines. Various operations are:Cutting of rod Facing Centering plain turning

chamfering drilling milling (gang milling and side milling) eyway cutting grinding (on cylindrical grinder) final grinding (on center less grinding) inspection oiling pac ing delivery

3.1.2 VARIOUS OPERATIONS Cutting of rod Facing Centering plain turning chamfering drilling milling (gang milling and side milling) eyway cutting grinding (on cylindrical grinder) final grinding (on center less grinding) inspection oiling pac ing delivery

3.2 VARIOUS MACHINES 3.2.1 LATHE MACHINE Lathe machine is one of oldest machine & say the mother of all other developed m achine. Henry Maudsley, and Englishman, is credited with ma ing the first screwcutting engine lathe in about 1797. The lathe is basic machine tool. It is the most adaptable and one of the most wi dely used machine tools. Metal cutting lathes constitute a considerable part of

metal cutting equipment being used in industry. They now, comprise many types wh ich differ in purpose, field of application, processing, capacities, constructio n arrangement, degree of automatically and certain other feature. The main purposes of machine tools of lathe croup are to machine external, inter nal and face surfaces on solids of revolution, and also to cut threads. Lathe em ploy single-point cutting tool of various types for various types of various tur ning operation. PRINCIPLE OF TURNING LATHE: It is a machine tool that removes material to give material or very high production. Principal of Turning:-TO produce a circular section, the wor piece is made to r otate about its own axis by the lathe. The wor piece thus moves against the cut ting edge of turning tool which removes the chips. The operation is nown as tur ning operation. The rotating motion of the wor piece is called cutting or main motion. The turn ing tool is set to the desired depth of cut. This motion is called Adjusting mot ion or Depth Cut Motion. The cutting tool moves forward at a uniform rate causin g a construction removal of chip. This motion is nown as feed motion. TYPES OF LATHE MACHINE These days, lathes of numerous sizes, drives, designs etc. are available in the mar et. Therefore, it is difficult to ma e a suitable classification of lathe. A general classification of most of the lathes used today may be done as follo ws. 1. Speed Lathe: a. Wood wor ing lathe b. Centering lathe c. Polishing lathe d. Spinning lathe 2. Engine lathes or centre Lathes a. Step-cone pulley drive from line shaft b. Step-cone pulley drive from individual motor c. Gear-head drive d. Variable speed drive. 3. Bench lathe. 4. Tool room lathe. 5. Capstan and turret lathes. 6. Special purpose lathes

CENTRE LATHE:The engine or centre lathes a general purpose lathe. Unli e the speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed rod and lead screw. The engine lathe drives its name from the early lathes, which obtained th eir power from engines or motors. MAIN PARTS OF CENTRE LATHE:Bed:-it is the main casting of a centre lathe. It is a horizontal member. Plane d surfaces on top of it, called ways align the headstoc and guide the carriage so that it moves longitudinally parallel to the axis of the machine. The ways may

a. b. c. d. e.

Cran shaft lathe Wheel turning lathe Gap bed lathe Duplicating lathe Multicut lathe

be flat or vee Type in cross-section Headstoc :-It is subassembly that is mounted on the inner ways at the left and o f the bed. On a geared head lathe the headstoc s casting supports shafts and enclo ses a train of gears that rotate the headstoc spindle at rpm which are suited to the operating conditions of the different jobs done on the machine . Levers at the front of the headstoc casting are employed to shift the gears into train s that will give the cutting speed required. Tailstoc :-It is subassembly that is mounted on the inner ways, at right end of the bed, to align it with the headstoc . It is adjustable on the bed, ways longi tudinally so that it may be positioned wherever needed to support wor pieces tha t are held in the centers and to hold twist drill, and other tools that may be u sed to perform operations on jobs that are held with the chuc or on the large f aceplate. Carriage:-It is a subassembly that is mounted on the outer ways of the machine b etween the headstoc and tailstoc . Its function is to hold and move the turning and other lathe tools that are used on the machine. The main parts of the carri age are: 1. A saddle 2.cross-slide 3. Compound rest 3.tool post, and 5. Apron POWER FEED MECHANISM The movement of the tool relative to the wor is nown as feed, feeds of a lathe are of the three types. 1. Longitudinal feed: when the tools moves parallel to the lathe axis and is e ffected by the movement of the carriage. 2. Cross feed: when the tool moves as right angle to the fected by the movement of the carriage.

lathe axis and ef

3. Angular feed: when the tool moves with the help of compound slide which is s wiveled at an angle to the lathe axis. Cross and longitudinal feeds are both hand power operated, but angular feed is h and operated only.

3.2.2 POWER HACKSAW A power hac saw (or electric hac saw) is a type of hac saw that is powered eithe r by its own electric motor or connected to a stationary engine. Most power hac saws are stationary machines but some portable models do exist. Stationary model

s usually have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return stro e and som e have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from overheating.[1] While stationary electric hac saws are reasonably uncommon they are still produc ed but saws powered by a stationary engines have gone out of fashion. The reason for using one is that they provide a cleaner cut than an angle grinder or other types of saw. Large, power hac saws are sometimes used in place of a bandsaw fo r cutting metal stoc to length.

(fig.4.3) POWER HACKSAW

3.2.3 Milling machine A milling machine is a machine tool used to machine solid materials. Milling mac hines are often classed in two basic forms, horizontal and vertical, which refer s to the orientation of the main spindle. Both types range in size from small, b ench-mounted devices to room-sized machines. Unli e a drill press, which holds t he wor piece stationary as the drill moves axially to penetrate the material, mi lling machines also move the wor piece radially against the rotating milling cut ter, which cuts on its sides as well as its tip. Wor piece and cutter movement a re precisely controlled to less than 0.001 in (0.025 mm), usually by means of pr ecision ground slides and leadscrews or analogous technology. Milling machines m ay be manually operated, mechanically automated, or digitally automated via comp uter numerical control (CNC). (fig. 4.4) Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, from simple (e.g., slo t and eyway cutting, planing, drilling) to complex (e.g., contouring, diesin in g). Cutting fluid is often pumped to the cutting site to cool and lubricate the cut and to wash away the resulting swarf. Wor ing Principle: The wor piece is holding on the wor table of the machine. The table movement controls the feed of wor piece against the rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a spindle or arbor and revolves at high speed. Except for r otation the cutter has no other motion. As the wor piece advances, the cutter te eth remove the metal from surface of wor piece and the desired shape is produce d.

1. Base: It gives support and rigidity to the machine and also acts as a reservo ir for the cutting fluids. 2. Column: The column is the main supporting frame mounted vertically on the bas e. The column is box shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving me chanisms for the spindle and table feed. 3. Knee: The nee is a rigid casting mounted on the front face of the column. Th e nee moves vertically along the guide ways and this movement enables to adjust the distance between the cutter and the job mounted on the table. The adjustmen t is obtained manually or automatically by operating the elevating screw provide d below the nee. 4. Saddle: The saddle rests on the nee and constitutes the intermediate part be tween the nee and the table. The saddle moves transversely, i.e., crosswise (in or out) on guide ways provided on the nee. 5. Table: The table rests on guide ways in the saddle and provides support to th e wor . The table is made of cast iron, its top surface is accurately machined a

nd carriers T-slots which accommodate the clamping bolt for fixing the wor . The wor table and hence the job fitted on it is given motions in three directions: a). Vertical (up and down) movement provided by raising or lowering the nee. b). Cross (in or out) or transverse motion provided by moving the saddle in rela tion to nee. c). Longitudinal (bac and forth) motion provided by hand wheel fitted on the si de of feed screw. In addition to the above motions, the table of a universal milling machine can b e swiveled 45 to either side of the centre line and thus fed at an angle to the s pindle. 6. Overarm: The Overarm is mounted at the top of the column and is guided in per fect alignment by the machined surfaces. The Overarm is the support for the arbo r. 7. Arbor support: The arbor support is fitted to the Overarm and can be clamped at any location on the Overarm. Its function is to align and support various arb ors. The arbor is a machined shaft that holds and drives the cutters. 8. Elevating screw: The upward and downward movement to the nee and the table i s given by the elevating screw that is operated by hand or an automatic feed.

Mill orientation [edit] Vertical mill Vertical milling machine. 1: milling cutter 2: spindle 3: top slide or overarm 4 : column 5: table 6: Y-axis slide 7: nee 8: base In the vertical mill the spindle axis is vertically oriented. Milling cutters ar e held in the spindle and rotate on its axis. The spindle can generally be exten ded (or the table can be raised/lowered, giving the same effect), allowing plung e cuts and drilling. There are two subcategories of vertical mills: the bed mill and the turret mill. A turret mill has a stationary spindle and the table is moved both perpendicular and parallel to the spindle axis to accomplish cutting. The most common example of this type is the Bridgeport, described below. Turret mills often have a quil l which allows the milling cutter to be raised and lowered in a manner similar t o a drill press. This type of machine provides two methods of cutting in the ver tical (Z) direction: by raising or lowering the quill, and by moving the nee. In the bed mill, however, the table moves only perpendicular to the spindle s ax is, while the spindle itself moves parallel to its own axis. Turret mills are generally considered by some to be more versatile of the two de signs. However, turret mills are only practical as long as the machine remains r elatively small. As machine size increases, moving the nee up and down requires considerable effort and it also becomes difficult to reach the quill feed handl e (if equipped). Therefore, larger milling machines are usually of the bed type. Also of note is a lighter machine, called a mill-drill. It is quite popular with hobbyists, due to its small size and lower price. A mill-drill is similar to a small drill press but equipped with an X-Y table. These are frequently of lower quality than other types of machines. [edit] Horizontal mill Horizontal milling machine. 1: base 2: column 3: nee 4 & 5: table (x-axis slide is integral) 6: overarm 7: arbor (attached to spindle) A horizontal mill has the same sort of xy table, but the cutters are mounted on a horizontal arbor (see Arbor milling) across the table. Many horizontal mills al so feature a built-in rotary table that allows milling at various angles; this f eature is called a universal table. While endmills and the other types of tools

available to a vertical mill may be used in a horizontal mill, their real advant age lies in arbor-mounted cutters, called side and face mills, which have a cros s section rather li e a circular saw, but are generally wider and smaller in dia meter. Because the cutters have good support from the arbor and have a larger cr oss-sectional area than an end mill, quite heavy cuts can be ta en enabling rapi d material removal rates. These are used to mill grooves and slots. Plain mills are used to shape flat surfaces. Several cutters may be ganged together on the a rbor to mill a complex shape of slots and planes. Special cutters can also cut g rooves, bevels, radii, or indeed any section desired. These specialty cutters te nd to be expensive. Simplex mills have one spindle, and duplex mills have two. I t is also easier to cut gears on a horizontal mill. Some horizontal milling mach ines are equipped with a power-ta e-off provision on the table. This allows the table feed to be synchronized to a rotary fixture, enabling the milling of spira l features such as hypoid gears. Milling Cutter Nomenclature

3.2.4 Pedestal Grinder Grinding is the process of removing material by the cutting action of the countless hard and sharp abrasive particles of a revolving grinding wheel as the y come in contact with the surface to be ground. Grinding machines are made in a variety of types and sizes, depending upon the class of wor for which they are to be used. Pedestal grinders are used to sharpen high-speed steel cutting tools used on the lathes and milling machines, debur, or used to remove surface imperfections and to wor extremely hard materials. (fig. 4.5) Pedestal Grinder The grinding wheels are held between two flanged dis s. A roughing or coarse-gra ined wheel is usually mounted on one end of the spindle and a fine wheel on the other. There can also be a wire wheel mounted on one side for special applications. A tool rest is provided for each wheel so that tools may be held or steadied while being ground (Figure 1). The operator is protected against flying abrasive particles and ground material by the wheel guards, which are an integral part of a machine. Safety glass shields are also provided for additional protection. These grinders are used for all inds of general off-hand grinding and for the sharpening of drills, chisels, tool bits, and other small tools. Procedure for Grinding Note: Grinders should be lubricated according to the manufacturer s instructions . 1. Examine the grinder to see that the tool rest is set at the required height, is within 1/8 if an inch to the face of the wheel, and is securely fastened in this position (Figure 2). Tongue guard is to be set at from the wheel (figure 1). 2. Adjust safety glass shields on the grinder to permit clear vision of the

part to be ground and still protect the operator from flying particles. Fig. 2 P osition of the tool rest CAUTION: Always wear safety glasses and/or face shield when using a grinder. 3. Start the grinder. CAUTION: Stand to one side of the wheel when operating the grinder. 4. Hold the wor in one hand, and steady it with the other. Place the wor on th e tool rest; then guide it against the face of the revolving wheel and apply enough pressure to grind, depending upon the hardness of the material and the wheel itself. Note: Support the wor on the tool rest to steady it when grinding, except in the case of the small tool bits which can be guided better by supporting them with the fingers or with a hand resting on the tool rest. 5. Cool wor in a water pot as it becomes heated from grinding, especially the small hardened tools that would lose their temper if overheated. Twist drills should not be cooled by dipping in water, as it may cause crac ing. Grind the job to the required shape or size by moving the wor bac and forth across the face of the wheel. This will prevent wearing a groove into the wheel and will result in a flatter surface on the wor . Pedestal Grinder Study Guide P.2 Advanced Photon Source JG 2005 CAUTION: Keep fingers away from the revolving wheel, especially when grinding small pieces. Also ma e sure that the tool rest is close enough to the wheel to prevent the wor from slipping into the space between the two. Procedure for Grinding (cont.) Note: Remove as much metal by rough grinding as is possible; then use the finer wheel for finishing. Do not grind on the side of the wheel except when absolutely necessary, and then with only light pressure. 6. Chec wor with a gage or other measuring tool. 7. Stop grinder.

3.2.5 Centerless Grinding Machines Centreless grinding is a method of material removal through grinding, similar to Centred grinding except for the absence of the spindle. It has high throughput, i.e. a large number of parts can be manufactured in a short time. (fig4.6) This page describes the technology of centreless (centerless) grinding as well a s centreless (centerless) grinding machines. With centreless (centerless) grinde rs, a wor piece is supported by a wor rest blade and set between a rubber regul ating wheel that rotates the wor piece and a rotating grinding wheel. Koyo remai ns the world leader in centreless (centerless) grinding technology with products such as our 15-axis CNC control system. Centreless (Centerless) Grinding Principle centreless (centerless) grinding is an OD (outer diameter) grinding process. In difference from other cylindrical processes, where the wor piece is held in the grinding machine, while grinding between centers, the wor piece is not mechanic

ally constrained during centreless (centerless) grinding. Therefore the parts to be ground on a centreless (centerless) grinder do not need center holes, driver s or wor head fixtures at the ends. Instead, the wor piece is supported in the g rinding machine on its own outer diameter by a wor blade and by the regulating w heel. The wor piece is rotating between a high speed grinding wheel and a slowe r speed regulating wheel with a smaller diameter. G: Grinding Wheel - R: Regulating Wheel - B: Blade - W: Wor piece The blade of the grinding machine is usually positioned in a way that the center of the wor piece is higher than the virtual line between the centers of the re gulating wheel and the grinding wheel. Also the blade is designed with an angle in order to ensure that the wor piece is fixed between the blade and the regula ting wheel. The regulating wheel consists of soft material li e rubber and can c ontain some hard grain material to achieve good traction between wor piece and regulating wheel. Roundness Centreless (centerless) grinding can perform excellent roundness of the wor pie ce. However, caused by the simultaneous suspending and machining of the wor pie ce surface it is possible that process typical roundness errors are generated. P roper adjustment of the grinding machine and the grinding slot geometry is essen tial. When a high spot comes in contact with the regulating wheel, then on the o ther side of the wor piece a low point will be ground. However this low point m ust not be exactly in the opposite side of the wor piece. The grinding machine has to be set up in a way that a polygon form is ground with so many corners tha t it is almost round finally. g: grinding wheel - r: regulating wheel - w: wor piece - dg: diameter grinding wheel - dr: diameter regulating wheel - p: penetration depth - n: polygon order Grinding Wheels and Dressing Koyo is using on a large percentage of its grinding machines grinding wheels of cubic boron nitride cBN or diamond wheels. For the series 30 and 45 grinding mac hines a special dressing and truing system is available as an option: electrical discharge truing Automation There are mainly two different types of centreless (centerless) grinding: In-feed grinding The wor piece can have different outer diameters over the length and either onl y part of the wor piece is ground or the total wor piece is ground using an ad apted grinding wheel. Thru-feed grinding Cylindrical wor pieces can be ground using this method. The wor piece can be l onger than the grinding wheel and will still be ground over the full length. It is also possible to grind small wor pieces with this method. In this case, seve ral wor pieces are ground same time in the machine and high throughput can be a chieved. Advantages of centreless (centerless) Grinding Machines By line wise support of the wor piece it is possible to grind soft or brittle w or pieces (low tension) It is not necessary to prepare the wor piece for fixing in the grinding machine (faults cause by fixing are eliminated) Loading/Unloading of the wor piece is simple and easy to automate. When using continues through feed grinding there is no time loss for changing th e wor piece. Long wor pieces can be handled with rather small machines. Very high grinding wheel rotation speed can be achieved. Main Applications for centreless (centerless) Grinding Machines Mass Production

e.g. bolts, shafts, bearings, hubs, valves, needles, axles, pivots Special Applications z.B. bars, tubes, cylinders, rotors, isolators, balls Centerless grinding Centerless cylindrical grinder A schematic of the centerless grinding process. Centerless grinding is a form of grinding where there is no collet or pair of ce nters holding the object in place. Instead, there is a regulating wheel position ed on the opposite side of the object to the grinding wheel. A wor rest eeps t he object at the appropriate height but has no bearing on its rotary speed. The wor blade is angled slightly towards the regulating wheel, with the wor piece ce nterline above the centerlines of the regulating and grinding wheel; this means that high spots do not tend to generate corresponding opposite low spots, and he nce the roundness of parts can be improved. Centerless grinding is much easier t o combine with automatic loading procedures than centered grinding; throughfeed grinding, where the regulating wheel is held at a slight angle to the part so th at there is a force feeding the part through the grinder, is particularly effici ent.[8] Control methods There are three basics ways in which an operator can interact with a cylindrical grinder. Either manual manipulation of the machine, Numerical Control with a pu nched card system or using Computer Numerical Control using a pre existing inter face designed for that machine or by using a PC as an interface to communicate w ith the grinder. The first two options are rarely if ever used today. CNC operat ed cylindrical grinders are the most technologically advanced, efficient, reliab le systems in the manufacturing industry.[7] Applications The cylindrical grinder is responsible for a plethora of innovations and inventi ons in the progression of science and technology. Any situation in which extreme ly precise metalwor ing is required, the cylindrical grinder is able to provide a level of precision unli e any other machine tool. From the automotive industry to military applications, the benefits the cylindrical grinder have given us ar e immeasurable.[1]

3.2.6 Cylindrical grinding Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used in the removing the cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of the wor piece. The wor piece is mounte d and rotated by a wor piece holder, also nown as a grinding dog or center driv er. Both the tool and the wor piece are rotated by separate motors and at differ ent speeds. The axes of rotation tool can be adjusted to produce a variety of sh apes. (fig. 4.7) The five types of cylindrical grinding are: outside diameter (OD) grinding, insi de diameter (ID) grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding, and centerless grinding.[1] A cylindrical grinder has a grinding (abrasive) wheel, two centers that hold the wor piece, and a chuc , grinding dog, or other mechanism to drive the machine. Most cylindrical grinding machines include a swivel to allow for the forming of tapered pieces. The wheel and wor piece move parallel to one another in both the radial and longitudinal directions. The abrasive wheel can have many shapes. St

andard dis shaped wheels can be used to create a tapered or straight wor piece geometry while formed wheels are used to create a shaped wor piece. The process using a formed wheel creates less vibration than using a regular dis shaped whe el. Tolerances for cylindrical grinding are held within five ten-thousandths of an i nch (+/- 0.0005) (metric: +/- 13 um) for diameter and one ten-thousandth of an i nch(+/- 0.0001) (metric: 2.5 um) for roundness. Precision wor can reach toleran ces as high as fifty millionths of an inch (+/- 0.00005) (metric: 1.3 um) for di ameter and ten millionths (+/- 0.00001) (metric: 0.25 um) for roundness. Surface finishes can range from 2 to 125 microinches (metric: 50 nm to 3 um), with typi cal finishes ranging from 8-32 microinches. (metric: 0.2 um to 0.8 um)

3.2.7

DRILLING Drilling is a cutting operation and produces round holes in metallic and non-metallic materials. The holes are cut out of the material with a cutting too l. PRINCIPLE OF DRILLING During operation the drill, rotat ing about its axis, is fed in a straight line towards the fixed wor -piece. A tw ist drill is usually provided with two cutting edges at its bottom. The simultan eous rotation and feed motion of the drill helps its cutting-edges to cut off ch ips from the wor -piece. TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE 1. Portable drilling machine 2. Sensible drilling machine 3. Upright drilling machine 4. Radial drilling machine 5. Gang type drilling machine 6. Multi-spindle drilling machine 7. Automatic-production drilling machine

8.

Deep-hole drilling machine

SENSITIVE BENCH DRILLING MACHINE This is a light, simple machine for light wor . It is used in tool room s or shops where the wor is exp ected to be small in size. Such a machine can be operated of speeds up to 5000 r .p.m. PRINCIPAL PARTS:1. BASE: It is the supporting member of the structure. It is a heavy castin g with holes for mounting the machine to the bench. 2. COLUMN: It is round vertical member which rises from the base. It suppor ts the power and the table of the drilling machine. 3. TABLE: It is used for supporting the wor -piece and wor -piece holding d evice .It is supported by the column, on which it can be adjusted for height The table can be moved horizontally in either direction to a desired for height. 4. POWER HEAD: It is mounted on the column above the table. Its design vari es with the model of the machine .A common type power head has an electric motor bolted to it. A V-type step pulley on the motor drives a V-belt. The V-belt dri ves the spindle in the front part of the head. The spindle in turn revolves the drill chuc along with the drill. The spindle can be made to revolve at differen t speeds by changing the belt from one step of the pulleys to another step. 5. SPINDLE AND SPINDLE SLEEVE ASSEMBLY: Spindle is the rotating part which holds the drill. It rotates and moves up or down in a sleeve which slides on bea rings. 6. DRILL CHUCK: It is generally provided with this type of machine. It is m ounted in the lower end of the spindle.

(fig. 4.8) OPERTION PERFORMED ON A DRILLING MACHINE 1. Drilling 2. Core Drilling 3. Step Drilling 4. Boring 5. Counter boring 6. Spot-facing 7. Countersin ing 8. Reaming 9. Tapping 10. Surface Grinding 11. Hole Milling 12. Buffing DRILLS A cutting tool, mostly fluted, used to originate or enlarge a hol e in a solid material, is nown as a drill. TYPES OF DRILLS 1. Flat or Spade drill 2. Straight Fluted drill 3. Twist drills (a) Standard Twist drill (b) Core drill

(c) (d)

3.3 VARIOUS TYPES OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS The tools which are used for the purpose of cutting the metals in the desired shape and size and called cutting tools. Tools For Lathe Machine. On a lathe machines different operations can be perform ed. For different operation, different tool is required. 1. Turning Tool. These tools are used for turning. They may be of two types : (a) Left hand turning tool (b) Right hand turning tool. Turning is done to reduce diameter and improve surf ace finish. 2. Facing. These tools are used for facing operation. They also may be of two ty pes (a) Left hand facing tool (b) Right hand facing tool. Facing is done to reduce length and improve the surface of side ends. 3. Chamfering Tool. These are also of two types (a) Left hand chamfering tool (b) Right hand chamfering tool. They are used for beveling the corners o f the wor piece for small lengths. 4. External Threading Tool. It is a form tool and used to cut threads of a parti cular shape and size. The shape of the tool is determined by the inclined angle at the nose of the tool which should correspond to the angle of the thread. It m ay be 60 for metric threads or 55 for B.S.W. threads. The external thread cuttin g tool is usually straight in length. IMPORTANT TERMS 1. Shan . It forms the main body of a tool and it is that part of the tool which is that part of the tool which is gripped in the tool holder. 2. Flan . The surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called flan of the tool. 3. Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge i ntersect. (fig. 4.9) 4. Minor cutting edge. It is the cutting edge subsequent feed side of the t ool. 5. Major cutting edge. It is the cutting edge on the feed side of the tool. 6. Tool Point. It is that portion of the tool which is ground to form cuttin g edge. 7. Base. It actually the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in tool holder or clamped directly in a tool post. 8. Heel. It is the curved portion at the bottom of the tool where the base and flan of the tool meet. HEAT PRODUCED DURING CUTING AND ITS EFFECT During a machining process, Considerable heat is generated at the cutting edge o f the tool due to friction between tool and wor , and the plastic shearing of me tal in the form of chips. The heat is evolved at three points A, B and C as show n in fig. 1. In point A (shear zone), maximum heat is generated because of the plastic de formation of metal, and practically all of this heat is carried away by the chip

Multiple Diameter drill Oil Hole Drill 4. Special Drill (a) Gun Drill (b) Square Drill (c) Combined Drill and Countersin

as machining is rapid and continuous. A very minor portion of this heat (5-10%) is conducted to wor piece. 2. In point B (friction zone), the heat is generated mainly due to friction between chip and tool face and partly due to secondary deformation of the built up edge. 3. In point C (wor - tool contact zone), the heat is generated due to bur nishing friction and the heat in this zone goes on increasing with time as the w ear land on the tool develops and goes on deceasing. EFFECTS 1. It reduces the tool life. 2. The chip material welds to the tool face due to great friction between t he chip and tool. 3. It reduces the surface finishing. 4. Replacement of tools increases the costs. PROPERTIES OF THE CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL To be effective, the material from which a cutting tool is made must pass certai n properties, the most important of which are as follows: 1. It must be harder than the material of wor piece. 2. It should have ability to retain its hardness its high cutting temperatu res, nown as red hardness. 3. It should be tough means; it should have the ability to resist shoc . 4. It should be able to be fabricated and shaped easily. 5. It should be high resistance to wear, to ensure longer tool life. 6. It must be capable of withstanding the sudden cooling effect of the cutt ing fluid/coolant during cutting process. 7. It should have low coefficient of friction, at the chip-tool interface, so that the surface finish is good &wear is minimum. 8. It should be cheap. 3.4.1 VERNIER CALIPER The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure intern al and external distances extremely accurately. A vernier scale is an additional scale which allows a distance or angle measurement to be read more precisely th an directly reading a uniformly-divided straight or circular measurement scale. It is a sliding secondary scale that is used to indicate where the measurement l ies when it is in between two of the mar s on the main scale. Verniers are common on sextants used in navigation, scientific instruments used to conduct experiments, machinists measuring tools (all sorts, but especially c alipers and micrometers) used to wor materials to fine tolerances and on theodo lites used in surveying. When a measurement is ta en by mechanical means using one of the above mentioned instruments, the measure is read off a finely mar ed data scale (the "fixed" sc ale, in the diagram). The measure ta en will usually be between two of the small est graduations on this scale. The indicating scale ("vernier" in the diagram) i s used to provide an even finer additional level of precision without resorting to estimation. It is used in many fields such as metalwor ing, mechanical engineering, gunsmith ing, handloading, woodwor ing, woodturning and in medicine. Use

Vernier scale use 0.02 scale measurement is 19.44 mm When a length is measured the zero point on the indicating scale is the actual p oint of measurement, however this is li ely to be between two data scale points. The indicator scale measurement which corresponds to the best-aligned pair of i ndicator and data graduations yields the value of the finer additional precision digit. Zero error The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formu

la actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error) . Zero error may arise due to noc s that cause the calibration at the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other. when the jaws are closed and if the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is referre d to as +0.10mm.The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error) thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.54 - (0.10) = 19.44 mm Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10mm. when the jaws are closed and if the reading is -0.08mm, the zero error is referr ed to as -0.08mm..The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error i s to use the formula actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error) thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.36 - (-0.08) = 19.44 mm Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is -0.08mm, the zero error is referred to as -0.08mm. (fig3 4.10) Parts of a vernier caliper: 1. Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object 2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object 3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole 4. Main scale: scale mar ed every mm 5. Main scale: scale mar ed in inches and fractions 6. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better 7. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch 8. Retainer: used to bloc movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement How to use and read a vernier caliper An ordinary vernier caliper has jaws you can place around an object, and on the other side jaws made to fit inside an object. These secondary jaws are for measu ring the inside diameter of an object. Also, a stiff bar extends from the calipe r as you open it that can be used to measure depth. The basic steps are as follows: 1. Preparation to ta e the measurement, loosen the loc ing screw and move the sl ider to chec if the vernier scale wor s properly. Before measuring, do ma e sur e the caliper reads 0 when fully closed. If the reading is not 0, adjust the cal ipers jaws until you get a 0 reading. If you cant adjust the caliper, you will hav e to remember to add to subtract the correct offset from your final reading. Cle an the measuring surfaces of both vernier caliper and the object, then you can t a e the measurement. 2. Close the jaws lightly on the item which you want to measure. If you are meas uring something round, be sure the axis of the part is perpendicular to the cali per. Namely, ma e sure you are measuring the full diameter. An ordinary caliper has jaws you can place around an object, and on the other side jaws made to fit inside an object. These secondary jaws are for measuring the inside diameter of an object. Also, a stiff bar extends from the caliper as you open it that can be used to measure depth. 3. How to read the measured value:

1), Read the centimeter mar

on the fixed scale to the left of the 0-mar on the

vernier scale. (10mm on the fixed caliper) 2). Find the millimeter mar on the fixed scale that is just to the left of the 0-mar on the vernier scale. (6mm on the fixed caliper) 3). Loo along the ten mar s on the vernier scale and the millimeter mar s on th e adjacent fixed scale, until you find the two that most nearly line up. (0.25mm on the vernier scale) 4). To get the correct reading, simply add this found digit to your previous rea ding. (10mm + 6mm + 0.25mm= 16.25 mm) 4.Maintenance Clean the surface of the vernier caliper with dry and clean cloth (or soa ed wit h cleaning oil) and stoc in a dry environment if it stands idle for a long time . Buy Quality Vernier Calipers at Tresnainstrument.com Now!

3.4.2 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE A height gauge is a measuring device used either for determining the height of s omething, or for repetitious mar ing of items to be wor ed on. The former type o f height gauge is often used in doctor s surgeries to find the height of people. (fig. 4.11) These measuring tools are used in metalwor ing or metrology to either set or mea sure vertical distances; the pointer is sharpened to allow it to act as a scribe r and assist in mar ing out wor pieces. They may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the underside of the scriber as the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed or the height ga uge may have provision to adjust the scale, this is done by sliding the scale ve rtically along the body of the height gauge by turning a fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the same level as the base, the s cale can be matched to it. This adjustment allows different scribers or probes t o be used, as well as adjusting for any errors in a damaged or resharpened probe 3.4.3 Micrometer A micrometer sometimes nown as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporat ing a calibrated screw used widely for precise measurement of small distances i n mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades, along with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers are often, but not always, in the form of calipers. (fig4.12) Basic types The topmost image shows the three most common types of micrometer; the names are based on their application: Outside micrometer (a a micrometer caliper), typically used to measure wires, sp heres, shafts and bloc s. Inside micrometer, used to measure the diameter of holes. Depth micrometer, measures depths of slots and steps. Operating principles animation of a micrometer used to measure an object(blac ) of length = 4.14 mm Micrometers use the principle of a screw to amplify small distances that are too

small to measure directly into large rotations of the screw that are big enough to read from a scale. The accuracy of a micrometer derives from the accuracy of the thread-form that is at its heart. The basic operating principles of a micro meter are as follows: 1. The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and p recisely correlated to a certain amount of axial movement (and vice versa), thro ugh the constant nown as the screw s lead (/lid/). A screw s lead is the distance it moves forward axially with one complete turn (360). (In most threads [that is , in all single-start threads], lead and pitch refer to essentially the same con cept.) 2. With an appropriate lead and major diameter of the screw, a given amount of axial movement will be amplified in the resulting circumferential movement. For example, if the lead of a screw is 1 mm, but the major diameter (here, outer diameter) is 10 mm, then the circumference of the screw is 10, or about 31.4 mm. Therefore, an axial movement of 1 mm is amplified (magnified) to a circumferent ial movement of 31.4 mm. This amplification allows a small difference in the siz es of two similar measured objects to correlate to a larger difference in the po sition of a micrometer s thimble. In older micrometers the position of the thimble is read directly from scale mar ings on the thimble and shaft. A vernier scale is usually included, which allow s the position to be read to a fraction of the smallest scale mar . In newer dig ital micrometers, an electronic readout displays the length digitally on an LCD display on the instrument. There also exist mechanical-digit versions, li e the style of car odometers where the numbers "roll over". Parts

The parts of a micrometer caliper, labeled. (Notice also that there is a handy d ecimal-fraction equivalents chart printed right on the frame of this inch-readin g micrometer.) A micrometer is composed of: Frame The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each o ther. It is thic because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and contracti on, which would distort the measurement. The frame is heavy and consequently has a high thermal mass, to prevent substant ial heating up by the holding hand/fingers. It is often covered by insulating pl astic plates which further reduce heat transference. Explanation: if you hold the frame long enough so that it heats up by 10C, then t he increase in length of any 10 cm linear piece of steel is of magnitude 1/100 m m. For micrometers this is their typical accuracy range. Micrometers typically have a specified temperature at which the measurement is c orrect (often 20C [68F], which is generally considered "room temperature" in a roo m with HVAC). Toolrooms are generally ept at 20C [68F]. Anvil The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests against. Sleeve / barrel / stoc The stationary round part with the linear scale on it. Sometimes vernier mar ing s. Loc nut / loc -ring / thimble loc The nurled part (or lever) that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when momentarily holding a measurement. Screw (not seen) The heart of the micrometer, as explained under "Operating principles ". It is inside the barrel. (No wonder that the usual name for the device in Ger man is Messschraube, literally "measuring screw".) Spindle The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to move toward the anvil. Thimble

The part that one s thumb turns. Graduated mar ings. Ratchet stop (not shown in illustration) Device on end of handle that limits applied pressure by slipping at a calibrated torque. Zero error the answer is =main scale + dial scale - (zero error) =4.00 + 0.29 - ( 0.15) = 4 .14 mm the answer is =main scale + dial scale - (zero error) =4.00 + 0.05 - ( -0.09) = 4.14 mm Zero error is the reading when the jaws are closed. It is the calibration error of the device - often caused by noc s or overstrains. The way to use a micrometer with zero error is to use the formula actual readin g = main scale + micro scale - (zero error) . Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the micrometer are just closed, the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0 .00mm. If the reading is 0.15mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.15mm. Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the micrometer are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0 .00mm. If the reading is -0.09mm, the zero error is referred to as -0.09mm.

4 BIBLIOGRAPHY www.wi ipedia.com www.howstuffwor s.com www.technologystudent.com www.indiamart.com/bassigrp-of-industries www.scribd.com