Literature

Engineering Measurements
Indrawanto Mechanical Engineering Department Faculty of Industrial Engineering ITB

Bentley, J.P. ,Principles of Measurement Systems, Longman Scientific & Technical Jhonson, C.D. ,Process Control Instrumentation Technology, John Wiley & Sons.

Purpose of Measurement

General structure of measurement system

The elements of measurement system can be defined as The purpose of a measurement system is to present an observer with a numerical value corresponding to the variable being measured Sensing element Signal conditioning element Signal processing element Data presentation element

An Example of a Measurement system

Block diagram symbols

Systematic characteristics Static characteristics of measurement system elements

Range Span Ideal straight line Non-linearity Environmental effects Hysteresis Resolution Wear and ageing Error bands

Ideal straight line

O OMAX O OMIN = MIN (I I MIN ) I MAX I MIN

Non-Linearity

OIDEAL = K I + a
K = ideal straight - line slope =

Ideal straight line

OMAX OMIN I MAX I MIN

a = ideal straight - line intercept = OMIN KI MIN

N (I ) = O(I ) (KI + a ) or O(I ) = KI + a + N (I ) N 100% Max NL as procentage of f.s.d = OMAX OMIN O(I ) = a0 + a1 I + a2 I 2 + L + aq I q + L + am I m = aq I q
q =0 q=m

Sensitivity
Rate of change of O with respect to I

Environmental effects

dO dN =K+ dI dI

O = KI + a + N (I ) + K M I M I + K I I I

Hysteresis

Resolution
Resolution is defined as the largest change in I that occurs without any corresponding change in O.

I R 100% I MAX I MIN

Hysteresis H (I ) = O(I )I O(I )I Max hysteresis as proc f .s.d = H 100% OMAX OMIN
Resolution expressed as a percentage of f.s.d.

Wear and Ageing

Measurement elements change slowly but systematically throughout their life.

Error bands
Nonlinearity, hysteresis and resolution effects in many sensors and transducers are small that is difficult and not worthwhile to exactly quantify each individual effect. In these cases the manufacturer defines the performance of the element in terms of error band.

Error bands (con.)

Generalized model of a system element

Generalized model of a system element (strain gauge)

Generalized model of a system element (thermocouple)

Generalized model of a system element (accelerometer)

Statistical characteristics
Statistical variations in the output of a single element with time repeatability
p( x ) = (x ~ )2 1 x exp 2 2 (2 )

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Statistical characteristics (con.)

O = KI + a + N (I ) + K M I M I + K I I I

O O O O = I + I M + I I I I I I M

Mean value of output for a single element

Deviation from the mean value

p(O ) =

2 2 O 2 O 2 O 2 O = I2 + M + I I I I I M I

Standard deviation of output for a single element

(O O )2 exp 2 2 2

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Statistical variations amongst a batch of similar elements tolerance
(R0 R0 )2 exp 2 2 2 R0

Statistical characteristics (con.)

p(R0 ) =

The Gaussian probability density function

Statistical characteristics (con.)

O = K I + a + N (I ) + K M I M I + K I I I
Mean value of output for a batch of elements

The accuracy of measurement systems in the steady state

E = measured value true value = system output system input

O O 2 O = I + I I M
2

2 2 2 2 O O O 2 2 2 I2M + I I I + K I K + a a + L I

Standard deviation of output for a batch of elements

Measurement error of a system of ideal elements

Example

General calculation of system p(E)

General calculation of system p(E)

Example

Model for recorder

Example of calculation

Error band

Dynamic characteristics of measurement systems

Dynamic behavior is described by the heat balance equation: Rate of heat inflow rate of heat outflow = rate of change sensor heat content

W = U A(TF T ) watts d rate of increase of sensor heat content = MC [T T (0 )] dt dT U A(TF T ) = MC dt i.e. MC dT + T = TF UA dt

First order linear differential equation

The quantity MC/UA has the dimensions of time and is refered to as the time constant t

kg J kg -10 C -1 J = = secs - 2 0 -1 2 W W m C m

10

d T + T = TF Linear first order diff. eq. dt

Laplace transform
Function
1st Derivative Symbol
d f (t ) dt
d2 f (t ) dt 2
(t )

f (s ) = e st f (t ) dt
0

Definition of Laplace transform

Graph

Transform
sf (0) f (0 )
s 2 f (s ) sf (0 ) f& (0)

Using Laplace table

[sT (s ) T (0 )]+ T (s ) = TF (s )
At initial conditions equal zero

2nd Derivative Unit impulse Exponential decay

(t )
exp(- )

1 s 1 s +

sT (s ) + T (s ) = T (s ) = TF (s )
i.e.

( s + 1)T (s ) = TF (s )

Transfer function

11

Analogous First Order Elements

Analogous First Order Elements

Vin V = iR Charge q = CV , current i = RC i.e. dV + V = VIN dt d q Cd V = dt dt

dV + V = VIN , E = RC dt

Analogous First Order Elements

FIN F = dx dt

Analogous First Order Elements

Thermal Th = 1 MC , CTh = MC = RTh CTh ; RTh = UA UA A R A Fluidic F = F F = RF C F ; RF = RF , C F = F g g Electrical g = RC = Rg C g , C g = C Mechanical M =

Nsm 1 = damping constant

F , k Nm 1 = spring stiffness k

displacement x =

+ F = FIN k dt dF M + F = FIN , M = dt k

dF

= RM CM ; RM = , C M =

1 k

12

Mass-spring-damper model for elastic sensor

F = F F (0 ), x = x x(0 ) & & x = x, x = && x

m d 2 x dx 1 + + x = F k dt 2 k dt k
Undamped natural frequency

n =

k rad / sec m

Damping ratio

2 km

resultant force = mass acceleration & F kx x = m&& x & m&& + x + kx = F x

1 d 2 x 2 dx 1 + + x = F 2 2 n dt n dt k

Linear second order differential equation

n2

2 & [s x (s ) sx(0 ) x(0 )]+ [sx (s ) x(0 )] + x (s ) = 1 F (s ) k

2 n

Series R-L-C circuit

1 2 2 1 s + 1 x (s ) = F (s ) 2s + n n k
x (s ) 1 = G (s ) F (s ) k
G (s ) = 1
2 n

1 2 s + s +1
2

Transfer function for a second-order element

13

Dynamic errors in measurement systems

I (s ) = I1 (s )

O1 (s ) = I 2 (s )

O2 (s )

I i (s )

Oi (s )

I n (s )

O (s )

Transfer function for complete measurement system

K1G1(s) Input i.e. true signal 1

K2G2(s) 2

KiGi(s) 3

KnGn(s) 4 Output i.e. measured signal

Complete measurement system with dynamics

Simple measurement system with dynamics

14

Periodic Signals
f (t ) = a0 + an cos n1t + bn sin n1t
n =1 n =1 n = n =

Fourier series for periodic signal

2 +T / 2 f (t ) cos n1t dt T T / 2 2 +T / 2 bn = f (t )sin n1t dt T T / 2 1 +T / 2 a0 = f (t ) dt = average value of f (t ) over T T T / 2 an =

I (t ) = I n sin n1t
n =1

n =

TT (t ) =

80 1 1 1 sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t + sin 7t + L 3 5 7

O(t ) = I n G ( jn1 ) sin (n1t + n )

n =1

n =

G ( j ) 0.100,

G (3 j ) 0.033,

G (5 j ) 0.020,

G (7 j ) 0.014

E (t ) = I n {G ( jn1 ) sin (n1t + n ) sin n1t}

n =1

n =

arg G ( j ) 850 , arg G (3 j ) 90 0 arg G (5 j ) 920 , arg G (7 j ) 930

TM (t ) =

80

+ 0.004 sin 5t 92 0 + 0.002 sin 7t 930

[0.100 sin (t 85 ) + 0.011sin(3t 90 ) ( ) ( )]

0 0

15

Solution of differential equation using Laplace Transform

Partial-fraction Expansion: Distinct Real Roots

Solution of differential equation using Laplace Transform

Partial-fraction Expansion: Distinct Complex Roots

Y (s ) =

(s + 2)(s + 4) s(s + 1)(s + 3)

C C1 C2 + + 3 s s +1 s + 3

Y (s ) =

(s + 2)(s + 4) = 8 (s + 1)(s + 3) s =0 3 (s + 2)(s + 4) = 3 C2 = s(s + 3) s = 1 2 (s + 2)(s + 4) = 1 C3 = s (s + 1) s = 3 6

C1 =

F (s ) =

1 s s + s +1

C1 = sF (s ) s =0 = 1

C C s + C3 F (s ) = 1 + 22 s s + s +1
f (t ) = 1 e t / 2 cos

(s

+ s + 1 + (C2 s + C3 )s = 1

s+ 1 + 1 1 2 2 F (s ) = s (s + 1 )2 + 3 2 4
3 4

8 3 1 y (t ) = 1(t ) e t 1(t ) e 3t 1(t ) 3 2 6

1 t / 2 e sin 3

3 4

t 1(t )

Solution of differential equation using Laplace Transform

Partial-fraction Expansion: Distinct Repeated Roots

F (s ) =

s+3 (s + 1)(s + 2)2

C1 = (s + 1)F (s ) s = 1 = C2 =

(s + 2)2 s =1

s+3

=2

C C C3 F (s ) = 1 + 2 + s + 1 s + 2 (s + 2 )2

d (s + 2)2 F (s ) = 2 ds s = 2
2 s = 2

C3 = (s + 2) F (s )

s+3 = 1 s + 1 s = 2

f (t ) = 2e t 2e 2t te 2t 1(t )

16