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I. Elasticity
As we learned in Chapter 3, there is a clear relationship between the quantity demanded of a good and the price of the good. When the price increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and when the price decreases, the quantity demanded increases. We know in what the direction the change occurs, but what we dont know the magnitude of the change. What we will focus on in this chapter is measuring the size of the market demand responses when there is a change in price or another factor which affect demand. The tool which we will use to quantify the response in demand is elasticity. In general elasticity quantifies the response of one variable when another variable changes. Elasticity of A with respect to B =
Elasticity is an important concept in economics and will help answer questions such as By what percentage will demand fall if price increases by 1% By what percentage will demand increase if income increases by 1% By what percentage will supply increase if price increases by 1% To start we will look at the relationship between quantity demanded and price.
Figure 1(a)
Figure 1(b)
Figure 1(b) presents the same demand curve, with the only difference being that price per gallon is measured in cents and not dollars. Whether we measure the price of milk in dollars or cents should not affect the schools demand response to a change in price. However in Figure 1(b) we see that the change in price (Y) = -200 while X remains at 10. The slope of the demand curve in Figure 1(b) is -200/10 = -20. This is completely different from what we calculated for the first demand curve. This example leads to a key point: Using slope to measure demand responses to price change is not a good idea. One can get different slopes to explain the same behavior depending on what units are used. One easy way to get around this problem is to convert the changes in price and quantity to percentages. Instead of using slope of the demand curve to measure the response to price changes, we use price elasticity of demand. Price Elasticity of Demand =
% Change in Quantity Demanded % Change in Price The price elasticity of demand will always be negative.
A good example of a product that might have perfectly inelastic demand is cocaine. Cocaine addicts will want to consume the same amount of cocaine even if the price of cocaine went up drastically. 2. Inelastic (-1 < d < 0) Demand is inelastic if the quantity demanded changes a little if the price of the good changes. In other words demand is somewhat responsive to changes in price. The price elasticity of demand will be a number between 0 and -1 and graphically the demand curve will be relatively steep. For example, suppose the price elasticity of demand for milk is -0.4. A 10% increase in the price of milk will reduce the quantity demanded of milk by 4%. Goods that are considered necessities will have an inelastic demand curve. 3. Unit Elasticity (d = -1) Demand is unit elastic if the quantity demanded changes by the exact same percentage as the change in price. If an increase in 10% in the price of good X will result in a decrease of 10% in the quantity demanded of good X we say that good X is unit elastic. 4. Elastic (- < d < -1) Demand is elastic if the quantity demanded changes a lot when the price of the good changes. A good that has elastic demand will be very responsive to changes in price. The price elasticity of demand will be a number less than -1, and graphically the demand curve will be relatively flat. For example, suppose that the price elasticity of demand for lobster is -6.7. A 10% increase in the price of lobsters will reduce the quantity demanded by 67%. Goods that are considered luxuries will have an elastic demand curve. 5. Perfectly Elastic (d = -) An extreme example of elastic demand is perfect elasticity. A good is perfectly elastic if the demand drops to 0 even if the price changes by 1 penny. The price elasticity of demand will be equal to negative infinity, and graphically the demand curve will be horizontal. An example of a good with perfectly elastic demand is most farm goods. There is nothing to distinguish the wheat from farmer A from farmer B. If farmer A tries to sell his wheat at a higher price than his neighbor farmer B, everyone will just buy from farmer B and thus the demand for farmer As wheat will go to 0.
With this formula in mind we can proceed to calculate price elasticity of demand
We need to find:
Q 2 - Q1 x 100% Q1 Where Q2 = New quantity demanded; Q1 = initial quantity demanded P -P (2) Percentage change in price = 2 1 x 100% P1 Where P2 = New price; Q1 = initial price
Lets use these definitions to calculate the elasticity for our earlier example. Recall Figures 1(a) and 1(b). Lets calculate the price elasticity of demand for milk of the elementary school. Example: Initial price = $4 New price = $2 Initial Quantity = 45 New Quantity = 55 Percentage change in quantity demanded =
55 - 45 x 100% = 22.22% 45
D. Midpoint Formula
Unfortunately, we run into another problem when using percentage change to calculate elasticity. Suppose that we return to our school milk example. Suppose that instead of the milk price falling it actually went up. Referring to Figure 1A suppose that instead of going from Point A to Point B, the school is going from Point B to Point A. In our new example: Initial price = $2 New price = $4 Initial Quantity = 55 New Quantity = 45
45 - 55 x 100% = -18.18% 55
4-2 x 100% = 100% 2 % Change in Quantity Demanded - 18.18% = 0.18 = % Change in Price - 100%
Compare this price elasticity with the one we calculated earlier. Youll see we get a different value for elasticity depending on whether we go up the demand curve or go down the demand curve. In actuality, the response to a change in price should be the same whether we go up or down the same point on the demand curve. The only reason the elasticity is different is because different initial values are used. The solution that is used is to use midpoints in calculating percentage change. Percentage Change (Midpoint Formula)
New Value - Initial Value x 100% New Value + Initial Value ( ) 2 Thus using the midpoint formula method we get: Q 2 - Q1 x 100% (1) Percentage change in quantity demand = Q1 + Q2 2 Where Q2 = New quantity demanded; Q1 = initial quantity demanded P2 - P1 x 100% (2) Percentage change in price = P1 + P2 2 45 - 55 x 100% = -20% Percentage change in quantity demanded = 50 4-2 x 100% = 66.67% Percentage change in price = 3 % Change in Quantity Demanded - 20% = 0.30 = % Change in Price 66.67%
Percentage Change = (Check to see that the elasticity is the same whether we go from BA or AB)
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the market demand curve for eggs. Suppose that we start at a price of $2.50 (Point A). At that price the quantity of eggs demanded will be 50. If the price of eggs were to fall to $2.00, the quantity demanded of eggs will be 60. What is the price elasticity of demand (using the midpoint method) as we move from A to B? 20 - 10 x 100% = 66.67% Percentage change in quantity demanded = 15 4.00 - 4.50 x 100% = -11.76% Percentage change in price = 4.25 % Change in Quantity Demanded 66.67% = 5.67 = % Change in Price - 11.76% As we can see as we go from A to B, the demand for eggs is very elastic. Now consider a different movement along the same demand curve. What is the price elasticity of demand as we move from C to D? 90 - 80 x 100% = 11.76% Percentage change in quantity demanded = 85 0.50 - 1.00 x 100% = -66.67% Percentage change in price = 0.75 % Change in Quantity Demanded 11.76% = 0.176 = % Change in Price - 66.67%
Now as we measure elasticity from C to D the demand has become inelastic. What is the economic intuition that would explain this change? The basic idea is that when prices are very low, the firm has already captured most of the market share. That is people who liked the product and wanted to purchase it would already have done so. By lowering the price further, the firm will not see much of an increase in quantity demanded since there are no more new customers. Conversely, when the price is very high, the firm wont have many people demanding their product. As they start lowering their prices, they will see a big response in quantity demanded as people who wanted to purchase the product (but were not willing to pay the super high prices) start buying the good as the prices are lowered.
Key Point: As we move down the demand curve we go from very elastic demand to inelastic demand.
% Change in Quantity Demanded . For income elasticity of % Change in Income demand we are interested in both the magnitude and the sign of the elasticity.
Income Elasticity of Demand =
If the income elasticity of demand is positive A D greater than 1, then the good is a normal good and is a luxury. If the income elasticity of demand is positive A D between 0 and 1, then the good is a normal good and is a necessity. If the income elasticity of demand is negative, then the good is inferior.
% Change in Quantity Demanded of Good X % Change in Price of Good Y If the goods have a positive cross-price elasticity of demand then the goods are substitutes. If the goods have a negative cross-price elasticity of demand then the goods are complements. If the goods have a cross-price elasticity of demand of 0, then the goods are not related.
% Change in Quantity Supplied % Change in Price As with price elasticity of demand, you should use the midpoint formula to calculate the % change in quantity supplied and the percentage change in prices. Since the relationship between quantity supplied and price is always positive, the price elasticity of supply will always be positive. However, the magnitude of the elasticity is important.
Price Elasticity of Supply =
If the price elasticity of supply is greater than 1, then the good has elastic supply. If the price elasticity of supply is equal to 1, then the good has unit-elastic supply. If the price elasticity of supply is less than 1, then the good has inelastic supply. As with the price elasticity of demand there are two special cases: (1) If the price elasticity = 0, then the supply curve is vertical and it is said to be perfectly inelastic. (2) If the price elasticity = , then the supply curve is horizontal and it is said to be perfectly elastic.