Journal of Career Assessment

http://jca.sagepub.com Career Assessment and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Mary H. McCaulley and Charles R. Martin Journal of Career Assessment 1995; 3; 219 DOI: 10.1177/106907279500300208 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jca.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/2/219

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Career Assessment and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Mary H. McCaulley and Charles R. Martin Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Inc. Gainesville, FL
The

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI; Myers & McCaulley,

1985) is used at each stage of career assessment and career counseling. Based on Jungs theory of psychological types, the psychodynamic
model of the MBTI is useful for self-understanding and life-long development. MBTI type descriptions characterize 16 types at their best; provide positive, self-affirming goals; and note blind spots and problems to avoid. MBTI type tables apply Jungs theory to groups; type tables for careers not only validate Jungs theory, but provide ways for looking at occupations attractive to each of the 16 psychological types. Career counselors use type tables to help clients see the fit between their preferences and career families and to highlight careers especially worth considering. The MBTI problem-solving model is a useful tool in the career planning process. Finally, counselors who understand the MBTI find it useful for individualizing counseling approaches and strategies to the type preferences of their clients.

History
History

and

Applications of the

MBTI

The MBTI is a theory-based instrument. The theory is the part of that monumental work of C. G. Jung, the Swiss psychologist, described in his Psychological Types (Jung, 1971). Jung described his types as an attempt to find a few general principles to understand the multiplicity of points of view he encountered in working with people. The components of his model are four fundamental mental processes (sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling) and two attitudes toward the world around us (extraverted or introverted). For each of the types, Jung described a specific configuration of the components to create a picture of that types path toward individuation or the development of consciousness. The MBTI is a questionnaire developed by Myers and Briggs to see if it was possible to &dquo;indicate&dquo; Jungs types so that Jungs theory could be tested and, if validated, put to practical use. Career assessment was a motivation for creating the MBTI. Myers saw many people in World War II trying to be patriotic but hating the war work they were doing. She hoped Jungs ideas could be used to provide a better fit between personality and work. Myers and Briggs were two very gifted women, Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs. Briggs first discovered Jungs book
Published and

copyright @

1995

by Psychological Assessment Resources,

Inc. All

rights

reserved.

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carefully because it fit into work she had been doing on her identify individual differences. Both mother and daughter studied Jungs work line by line. Twenty years of type watching convinced them of the validity of Jungs model. The story of this intellectual journey can be read in Katharine and Isabel: Mothers Light, Daughters Journey (Saunders, 1991) and Gifts Differing (Myers with Myers, 1980). Myers created the MBTI, working alone in her home, from 1942 until her death in 1980, developing and refining a series of forms. In the early 1950s, working at home with no outside financial support, she conducted a longitudinal study of 5,355 medical students from 45 medical schools, following up the students 5 years later to study academic achievement, and again in the early 1960s to study specialty choice. Her results were presented at the American Psychological Association convention in 1964. This study is reviewed in the research section of this article. In 1957, her work came to the attention of Educational Testing Service (ETS) through one of the medical schools. ETS collected data on college students and, in 1962, published the MBTI as a research instrument (Myers).
own

and studied it
to

Grant at Auburn and

few others discovered the MBTI and dissertations

began to appear. In 1968, the ETS bibliography contained 81 references. In 1975, the nonprofit Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) was formed by Myers and McCaulley in Gainesville, Florida to further research and applications of the MBTI. Also in 1975, Consulting Psychologists Press became the publisher and in 1976, for the first time, the MBTI was listed in CPPs catalog, no longer a research instrument but ready for application. By then, the CAPT bibliography had 337 entries. In 1979, 1 year before her death, Myers completed her major popular work, Gifts Differing (Myers with Myers, 1980) and saw the formation of the Association for Psychological Type (APT), a membership organization for
persons interested in her work. In the following 20 years, interest in the MBTI rapidly increased. It is now one of the most widely used personality measures and has been translated into languages worldwide. A revised manual appeared in 1985 (Myers &

McCaulley). As of January 1995, the CAPT Bibliography for the MyersBriggs Type Indicator (Center for Applications of Psychological Type) shows over 4,000 entries. A number of popular books, many concerned with work life, have recently appeared (Hirsh & Kummerow, 1989; Kroeger with Thuesen, 1992; Lawrence, 1993; Provost, 1989, 1990, 1992; Quenk, 1993; Tieger & Barron-Tieger, 1992).
MBTI

Applications

All applications of the MBTI are meant to show how type differences can be used constructively in making individual decisions, understanding and communicating with others, and helping groups be more productive. The MBTI is not about identification of psychopathology. It is about developing strengths and life journeys toward increasing consciousness and competence. Counselors use the MBTI for individual, family, and career counseling. Educators use it to address the problem, &dquo;How does a teacher with one

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teaching style reach a classroom of students with 16 favorite learning styles?&dquo; Increasingly educators are using the research on type differences in motivation, aptitude, achievement, learning styles, and preferences for media to design new ways of learning for the 21st century. In organizations, the MBTI is used for leadership development, teamwork, managing for change, understanding work requirements and work styles, and career planning. In the religious community, the MBTI is used for understanding type differences in ministry and spirituality. Jungs
can one instrument have so many diverse uses? The answer is that model is based on differences in the ways human beings take in information and make decisions-perception and judgment. These differences operate in every waking action-and in all aspects of life.

favorite

How

Jungs

Model and the

Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator

The model of psychological types uses four bipolar preferences: (a) extraversion or introversion, (b) sensing or intuition, (c) thinking or feeling, (d) judging or perceiving. It assumes that every human being goes back and forth between each pole of each preference (i.e., sometimes extraverts and sometimes introverts). All human beings are born with the capacity to use all poles, but each person has a (probably inborn) preference for one pole of each preference over the other. In normal development, a person finds one pole more interesting and is motivated to spend more energy on the activities for that pole. This focused energy leads to the expertise, habits of mind, and characteristics associated with the chosen preferences. The important point is that the preferences lead to qualitative differences. A sensing type is not simply nonintuitive. A sensing type willindeed, must-use both sensing and intuition, but will develop a whole set of characteristics different from another person who has followed the intuitive path. Characteristics attributed to types are not traits; they are examples of the results of energy directed toward developing specific

preferences.
The Foundation: Four Preferences
Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I) describe attitudes toward the world. When extraverting, we turn our attention to the outside world, people, objects, and the changing scene around us. People who prefer extraversion tend to give weight to these outer activities and events and want to be part of the action. People who prefer introversion tend to give weight to the concepts and ideas that explain and underlie what goes on in the world. In career choices, extraverts gravitate toward activities where there is much talk, action, and contact with others-sales or outdoor work, for example. Introverts gravitate to careers where ideas need to be understood and organized, as in computer programming or social sciences. MBTI data suggest that extraverts are in the majority in the United States with estimates from 60% to 70%. Sensing (S) or Intuition (N) are the basic mental processes of perceiving. When we use sensing, our minds are concerned with using our five senses to perceive the immediate situation, what is real and tangible-the facts of

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case. When we use intuition, our minds are concerned with perceiving possibilities, what we can imagine, the abstractions or theories or symbols suggested by the facts. In career choices, sensing types are attracted to work where the products can be seen and measured-for example, construction, hands-on patient care, civil engineering, or sales. Intuitive types are more attracted to work that requires the big picture, a future orientation, or use of symbols, such as strategic planning, science, communication, or the arts. MBTI data suggest that about 75% of people in the United States prefer sensing. Relatively more intuitive types go on to higher education; about 60% to 65% of college teachers prefer intuition. Intuitive types are in the majority in all fields of counseling. Thinking (T) or Feeling (F) are the basic mental processes of judging or decision-making. Jung describes these as two rational mental processes. When we use thinking, we weigh our decisions objectively, with logical analysis. When we use feeling, we weigh our decisions in terms of our values-the people, things, and ideas we care about. Thinking types are drawn to careers in engineering, science, finance, or production where logical analysis is a powerful tool. Feeling types are drawn to careers where skills in communicating, teaching, and helping are valuable tools. The TF scale is the only scale to show male-female differences, with more males preferring thinking and more females preferring feeling. (However, female engineers are more likely to prefer thinking, and male counselors are more likely to prefer feeling.) Judging (J) or Perceiving (P) indicates whether we use a judging mental process (T or F) or a perceiving mental process (S or N) when we are in the extraverted attitude. The JP scale was implicit in Jungs model and made explicit by Myers and Briggs. The scale has two purposes. It describes important characteristics observable in extraverted behavior. It is also the key Myers used to indicate Jungs dynamic configuration of each of the 16 types. Judging types prefer to collect just enough data to make a decision. They tend to live their extraverted lives in a decisive, planful, organized way. Perceiving types prefer to keep options open for new developments, deferring decisions in case something new and interesting turns up. They live their extraverted lives with curiosity, anticipation of change, and spontaneity. Judging types are in the majority (about 55%) in the general population and are found in large numbers (60-80%) among managers and executives in business, industry, government, and academia.

the

Type Dynamics and Lifelong Development Although everyone uses daily all four mental processes-sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling-each mental process has its own motivation or sphere of activity. Jungs model assumes that equal development of all four would lead to lack of focus and an undifferentiated personality. His model assumes that one of the four will emerge as the leading or dominant process, giving balance and direction to the personality. Dominant sensing types are oriented toward full experience of the activities of daily life; dominant intuitives are oriented toward achieving future possibilities and visions; dominant thinking types seek logical order in understanding and engaging life; dominant feeling types seek to live and work to achieve their values.

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Jung described eight types depending

on

whether the dominant mental

process is used in the extraverted or introverted world. For example, extraverted thinking types seek to bring logical order to the world around them; introverted thinking types want internal order-logical consistency

explain their world. Jung (1971) mentioned briefly a second, auxiliary mental process also brought into consciousness, &dquo;different from the dominant in every respect&dquo; (p. 406). From that statement, Myers deduced that the dominant and auxiliary must be opposite both in extraversion or introversion and in judging (T or F) or perceiving (S or N). Myers MBTI types take into account both the dominant and auxiliary mental processes. The result is that where Jung has two dominant thinking types, extraverted thinking and introverted thinking, Myers describes four dominant thinking types, extraverted thinking with sensing as auxiliary (ESTJ), extraverted thinking with intuition as auxiliary (ENTJ), introverted thinking with sensing as auxiliary (ISTP), and introverted thinking with intuition as auxiliary (INTP). Similarly, there are four types with sensing dominant, four with intuition dominant, and four with feeling dominant. Jung also discussed the two preferences left relatively unconscious, the tertiary process and the inferior process, opposite the dominant and slowest to develop (because most of the energy has gone to developing the dominant). The details of type dynamics and their representation in the MBTI are discussed in the MBTI manual and in Gifts Differing. The point for career assessment is that the unit of measurement for the MBTI is the person who indicates a four-letter type, not the four preferences separately. Counselors work with individuals, not scales, and much is lost if the MBTI is used without taking type dynamics into account. For example, the MBTI describes eight types of extraverts, each with a common tendency to turn outward more than inward but each with unique ways in which extraversion appears. For example, ENTJ extraversion shows in fastmoving, visionary, tough-minded action for future goals; ESFP extraversion shows in lively, sociable enjoyment of the activities of the present moment. For readers unfamiliar with the MBTI, here is an example of the type dynamics of ENFP, a type often attracted to the counseling profession. For ENFP, the dominant mental process is extraverted intuition-the greatest motivator is new possibilities out in the world. The introverted feeling auxiliary provides balance. An ENFP overcommitted to too many exciting possibilities uses the balance of the auxiliary to slow down and retire temporarily to the world of introverted feeling: &dquo;Which of these possibilities is most important? How do I make sure I do not fritter away my energies on trivial matters? How do I set priorities by what I care most about?&dquo; Time management usually does not work with ENFPs, but using the auxiliary, introverted feeling does help with choices. ENFPs use intuition and feeling most often and most consciously. They may neglect their tertiary thinking and, especially, their inferior sensing, which they may characterize as &dquo;grim reality&dquo; or &dquo;unnecessary bean counting.&dquo; ENFPs are adapted to todays world of rapid, global change. Dominant intuitive types gain energy from new possibilities; when they have mastered them, they are ready to go

in the ideas that

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new adventures. This is in contrast to their opposite, ISTJ, introverts sensing dominant and extraverted thinking as auxiliary. For ISTJ, the challenge comes from mastering the world as it is, relying on past experience; their inferior intuition does not trust &dquo;unsubstantial&dquo; imagination and vague possibilities. ISTJs may have more difficulty in a rapidly changing world where past experience is no longer a useful guide to the future. Myers wrote descriptions of each of the 16 types, using Jungs model of type dynamics. Each description is based on the characteristics of the type with good development of the dominant and auxiliary. Each description ends with a brief statement of problems to be expected if the auxiliary is not developed enough to balance the dominant. Jungs model assumes life-long development toward individuation or on

to

with

to

consciousness. In midlife statements such as, &dquo;Is this all there is?&dquo; often lead exploration of the tertiary and inferior functions (Corlett & Millner,

1993; Quenk, 1993).

Do not assume Jungs model is as straightforward as it is described here. Although, Jung and Myers both assumed there is an inborn predisposition for the pathways of ones type, development is not always smooth. Families and cultures can support the development path of a type or disconfirm it. Jung talked about falsification of type which in extreme cases can lead to neurosis or exhaustion. This is why MBTI users help individuals verify the best-fit type before using MBTI concepts in assessment.

MBTI

Psychometrics

Indicating Type for Individuals

The MBTI is a forced-choice questionnaire. The choices are between equally valuable opposites, not right or wrong or good or bad. Some questions provide choices between key words; other questions provide choices between phrases. Omissions are permitted, because the best estimate of type is between clear preferences, not random guesses. The MBTI has been successfully administered to sixth-graders but it is best used with persons who read at least at an eighth-grade level. There have been many forms over the years. The current forms are Form G (126 questions) and Form G Self-Scorable (92 questions). Form F (166 questions) includes all but 2 Form G questions, plus unscored research questions. Form J (290 questions), created by Saunders (1987) after Myers death, begins with the 166 Form F questions and adds all questions in any other published form of the MBTI. Form K (131 questions) is Form G, plus

other questions needed for expanded computer reports. Hand scoring of Form F, Form G, or Form K takes about 5 minutes using templates that give the item weights for scored items. Each response to each question is scored separately. Answers may be weighted 0, 1, or 2; item weights take into account omissions, social desirability, and prediction to total score. The sums of the item weights for E, I, S, N, T, F, J, and P are called total points. They are transformed into preference scores such as E 17 or N 25. Preference scores consist of a letter showing the direction of preference and a number showing the consistency of reporting the preference.

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Ties in points are broken in the direction of I 01, N 01, F 01, and P 01. Preference scores are the unit of measurement for the scales but the type formula made up of letters for the four preferences-ESTJ, INFP-is the unit of measurement for the individual. Jungs theory and every step of Myers work to create the MBTI assume a choice of one pole of a preference over the other leads to qualitatively different (dichotomous) characteristics. However, because most research methods assume a normal curve and a continuum, not dichotomies, Isabel Myers provided a formula for transposing preference scores to continuous scores so that researchers could report their findings consistently. In this formula, a midpoint is set at 100. The numerical portion of the preference score is subtracted from 100 for E, S, T, and J, and added for I, N, F, and P. Thus, continuous scores for S 17 become 83 and for N 17 become 117. Continuous scores are only for research. Computer scoring is available for Form F, Form G, Form J, and Form K. In addition to basic scoring, generating types, and type descriptions, Forms F, J, and K can be scored for expanded reports showing subscales for EI, SN, TF and JP. Form J can also be scored for the Type Differentiation Indicator which adds to the expanded reports seven &dquo;Comfort Scales.&dquo; Because the MBTI does not have questions to identify pathology, the Comfort Scales are not used for diagnosis, but are helpful in identifying issues in type development. Form J is available only to persons qualified to purchase Level C instruments; all other forms are available to persons who have completed coursework in tests and measurements to be qualified to purchase Level B instruments. The publisher can provide information on other MBTI training programs it will accept for qualification to purchase the MBTI. MBTI Data for Groups The MBTI is also a measure for groups. The type table showing Myers placement for each type is the unit of measurement for groups. Table 1 shows a type table from the Atlas of Type Tables (Macdaid, McCaulley, & Kainz, 1986). The Atlas and its associated MBTI Career Report Manual (Hammer & Macdaid, 1992) are major resources for career assessment and counseling. The data in Table 1 are from 673 persons who described themselves as vocational or educational counselors on answer sheets submitted for computer scoring by the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT). Notice that the dominant function for each type is printed in bold. The counselor sample shows 59% extraverts, 61% intuitives, 64% feeling types, and 55% judging types. The most frequent type is ENFP whose 113 counselors make up 16.79% of the sample. The least frequent is ESTP with 7 counselors (1.04%). A column to the right of the table shows the number and percentage for the major type groupings. Pages 30 through 38 of the MBTI manual (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) describe the placement of types and interpretation of type groupings on the type table. Myers called the four columns of the type table Combinations of Perception and Judgment and believed these groupings were most useful for career assessment. Her reasoning was that the best career choices let us focus on the aspects of life that most interest and motivate us (i.e., let us perceive

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Note. 1% of sample. This type is one of a series of type tables from the CAPT Data Bank of MBTI records submitted to CAPT for computer scoring between 1971 and June, 1984. This sample was drawn from 59,784 records with usable occupational information, coded at the time of scoring, from the total data bank of 232,557. From Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Atlas of Type Tables by G. P. Macdaid, M. H. McCaulley, and R. I. Kainz, 1986, p. 207, Copyright 1986 by Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Gainesville, Florida. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
=

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sensing or intuition) and make decisions the way that comes most naturally (i.e., use thinking or feeling judgment.) Such career choices should remain motivating and challenging because they let us do what comes naturally with our best skills. The ST types (sensing with thinking) she called the practical and matter of fact types and predicted they would be most attracted to work requiring technical skills with facts and objects. In the second column, SF types (sensing with feeling) are called the sympathetic and friendly types and are attracted to work that gives practical help and services to people. In the third column, NF types (intuition with feeling) are called enthusiastic and insightful. They are attracted to careers that require understanding and communication with people. Finally, in the NT column (intuition with thinking) are the logical and ingenious types, who are attracted to work with theoretical and technical developments. Notice that 43.98% of the counselors fall in the NF communication column. As an example of the more general questions type tables can pose, consider these facts. Three-fourths of the population prefer sensing. About two-thirds of counselors and psychologists prefer intuition, usually associated with feeling. This NF preference is consistent with predictions from type theory. What does it say about the probability that counselors may be missing ways of helping the majority of sensing types, whose minds work so differently from their own? (An ENFP counselor was told by an ISTJ client, &dquo;You keep talking about my being happy. Forget happy! I just want you to help me solve my problem!&dquo;)

with

Examples of MBTI Research Relevant to Careers MBTI career research is concerned with questions about type

differences

in choice of careers, choice of specialties, career satisfaction, and career success. The current bibliography has over 100 articles, research projects,

dissertations, and theses that have examined the relationship between careers. Applications have far outstripped supporting research. In the pressures of daily work, rich data sources lie untouched.
type and
The

Myers Longitudinal Medical Studies Myers conducted a longitudinal study of 5,355 freshman medical students from 45 medical schools. The students entered medical school in the early 1950s, mainly from the class of 1955. She followed up 4,556 who reported a primary specialty in the 1963 Medical Directory of the American Medical Association (AMA). Ten years later, with McCaulley, Myers followed up 4,953 listed with primary specialties in the AMA records of December 31, 1973 (see McCaulley, 1977 for a report of all studies). Representative significant findings for both 1963 and 1973 showed that extraverts were attracted to orthopedic surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, and pediatrics; introverts had chosen pathology, anesthesiology, and psychiatry. Sensing types chose anesthesiology, obstetrics and gynecology; intuitive types chose pathology, neurology, and psychiatry. There were few significant TF and JP differences, but pathologists were more likely to prefer thinking and psychiatrists were more likely to prefer perceiving. An example of the difference one letter can make is shown in the 1963 comparison of the lists of the two introverted feeling types: ISFP and INFP. For ISFP, anesthesiology

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headed the list and psychiatry was second from the bottom; for INFP, psychiatry headed the list with anesthesiology at the bottom. The ISFPs concentrated on the observable symptoms and readings of their instruments; the INFPs on what could be read between the lines. A comparison was made of changes in ranks of specialties over the decade from 1963 to 1973. Nineteen percent of physicians changed primary specialty over the decade; all types changed specialty but intuitives significantly more often moved to specialties more compatible with their MBTI preferences of 20 years before.

Comparisons of Career Rankings From Atlas of Type Tables Myers reasoned that the most successful career choices would allow scope for a persons favorite way of perceiving (sensing or intuition) and favorite way of judging (thinking or feeling.) This is why she emphasized ST, SF, NF, and NT for understanding career matching. She recognized that EI and JP were also important, but mainly in the work environment (e.g., indoors, outdoors, high people contact, structure, or crisis management). CAPT conducted a series of data bank analyses to see if comparison of high and low rankings for careers grouped by ST, SF, NF, and NT would be more informative than career rankings by IJ, IP, EP, and EJ. The data are summarized in the MBTI Career Report Manual. The 208 careers in the Atlas of Type Tables were ranked from highest to lowest for each type, based on the percentage of that type in the various careers. For example, all 208 careers were ranked for ISTJs, with the careers having the highest percentage of ISTJs at the top of the list and those careers with the lowest percentage of ISTJs at the bottom of the list. A general test of the theory was made by looking at the percentage of overlap between the top 50 careers for opposite types (e.g., ESTJ and INFP). There was an average of only 5% overlap. A more specific test of Myers reasoning was carried out by comparing the percentage overlap of top 50 careers for types that shared the same mental processes but opposite attitudes (e.g., ISTJ vs. ESTP) with the percentage overlap of top 50 careers of types that shared the same attitudes but had opposite functions (e.g., ISTJ vs. INFJ). Supporting Myers hypotheses, types with the same middle letters averaged 41% overlap, whereas those with the same outer letters but opposite middle letters averaged only 3.5% overlap, a number that is very similar to the percentages found for types where all four preferences were opposite. In other words, the pairing of the combinations of perception and judgment (ST, SF, NF, and NT) provide us with more information about career choice. As noted in the Career Report Manual, distributions with a 3.5% overlap are separated by 4.23 standard deviations, whereas distributions with a 41% overlap are separated by 1.65 standard deviations. This study suggests MBTI types clearly find their way into different careers.
Research Comparisons of MBTI Type Tables The Selection Ratio Type Table (SRTT; Granade, 1987; McCaulley, 1985; Moody & Granade, 1993) computer program was designed to compare MBTI type tables. Written originally for Myers longitudinal medical study, it

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used to answer questions such as, &dquo;What types entered orthopedic surgery?&dquo; &dquo;What types practice direct patient care?&dquo; The word selection in SRTT comes from its initial use to look at career selection data, but SRTT can be used for many other relationships, dropout being the most frequent. The program compares a sample type table (e.g., Myers 415 psychiatrists from the 1973 follow-up) with a reference type table (e.g., the 4,953 physicians in the follow-up for whom primary specialty was known). The program computes two kinds of data for each type and each of the type groupings of a type table. The first is a ratio of the observed frequency in the sample table, compared to the expected frequency from the reference table distribution. The second statistic is chi-square (or a Fishers Exact Test if numbers in cells are less than five). The table presents for each type and grouping the number, percentage in the sample, ratio, and significance based on chi-square. Instructions for interpreting SRTT (McCaulley, 1985) caution against overinterpreting SRTT data, given the fact that 44 sets of analyses have been carried out on the same data set. With rapid advances in contingency table analysis, more complex methodologies for comparing type tables are being developed. The advantage of SRTT is that it is not just for the researcher. With SRTT, the busy practitioner can quickly and easily organize a large number of data for ready analysis and/or later reference.
was

in Career Satisfaction There is considerable evidence that careers attract more of the types who, in theory, would find the work interesting. One would expect, then, that persons in careers that fit their type preferences would express higher job satisfaction. There is some evidence to support this hypothesis. Smith (1988) examined the ability of type-knowledgeable judges to determine an individuals level of career satisfaction, based solely on the judges knowledge of the persons four-letter type and a brief description of the job and job title. Judges were able to predict a significant amount of variance in job satisfaction based on knowledge of four-letter type and occupation alone. However, judges were unable to make statistically significant predictions to satisfaction when they were given only the information on preference scales (E or I, S or N, T or F, J or P). Smiths work supports the importance of using the type, not just individual preferences. Olguin (1988) hypothesized that types would differ in the aspects of the job most important for their job satisfaction. He found that workers rated as significantly more important those aspects of their work predicted to be of more interest to their types. These studies by Smith (1988) and Olguin (1988) are examples of the kinds of type-knowledgeable and sophisticated research that needs to be expanded to verify other career hypotheses of type theory. Apostal (1988) reported MBTI type differences in student reports of their career interests and perceived competencies. Those who expressed interests in producing ideas had preferences for intuition and thinking; and those who expressed interests in being a helper of persons had preferences for sensing and feeling. Those who saw themselves as skilled analyzers of data were introverted, as skilled producers of ideas were intuitive and perceiving, and as skilled helpers of persons were feeling types.

Type Differences

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Resignations and turnover can indicate lack of work satisfaction. Early work by Laney (1945) related turnover to degree of congruence between type and work tasks at the Washington Gas Light Company. Extraverts were more likely to stay on outdoor jobs and introverts on desk jobs; extraverts and feeling types were more likely to stay on sales jobs. Sensing-judging (SJ) types were more likely to stay with the company whether the jobs were mechanical, clerical, or other. Laneys research is summarized in the MBTI manual (Myers & McCaulley 1985, pp. 92-93.) Roush (1989) examined voluntary resignation from the United States Naval Academy and found that cadets with preferences for introversion, intuition, feeling, and perceiving (less typical preferences for military cadets) were significantly more likely to resign. To study career satisfaction, Myers added to the MBTI Form G answer sheet an optional question for persons who reported they are working: &dquo;Do you like it 0 A lot, 0 O.K., 0 Not much. In preliminary studies from the 1991-1992 CAPT data bank of 75,628 Form G records (McCaulley, Macdaid, & Granade, 1993), the satisfaction option was answered on 49,841 records. Decisive extraverts (EJ) significantly more often chose A Lot and the spontaneous introverts (IP) significantly more often chose Not much. A more extensive report on a larger sample will be reported at the llth international conference of the Association of Psychological Type in July, 1995. At that time we shall be looking for data to understand how general the phenomenon is over different kinds of careers or whether it appears that the more ebullient EJs and more reserved IPs are showing a type-related response set. We shall also look more closely to see if types more attracted to careers also report more satisfaction with those same careers.
Career Research Within a Single Career Some researchers have sought to verify type hypotheses through a close examination of the members of a single career. Richard (1994) examined not only the psychological type of practicing lawyers, but also the relationship between type and satisfaction. Law is concerned with deciding on impersonal principles that are fair to all (i.e., the use of thinking judgment). In Richards sample of 1,202 lawyers (Table 2), 76% of the practicing lawyers in the sample preferred thinking judgment. Note that 41% of the sample fall in the logical and ingenious NT column, 35% in the practical and matter-of-fact ST column, 15% in the communications NF column, and 9% in the sympathetic and friendly SF column. Half of the sample is in the four corners of the type table, the TJ logical decision-makers. Richard found significantly more NTs in litigation and more STs in the specialties that require great attention to details-taxes, trusts, and estates. Consistent with the CAPT data bank findings, the ESTJs and ENTJs had high mean job satisfaction scores. They were significantly higher than all of the IPs, even the INTPs who were overrepresented in the sample of lawyers. Thinking and judging types consistently scored higher than feeling and perceiving types on job satisfaction. The types most frequent in legal practice also were most satisfied with their profession. Jacoby (1981) studied 333 accountants from the Washington, D.C. offices of three of the &dquo;Big Eight&dquo; public accounting firms to look at specialty

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= 1% of sample. From L. R. Richard (1994). Psychological type and job satisfaction among practicing lawyers in the United States. (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University, 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55(04), 1654B. (University Microfilms No. AAC94-22677). Adapted with permission of the author. The 1,202 lawyers (369 female and 851 male) returned usable data from a random sample of 3,014 American Bar Association members admitted to the bar after 1-1-67, excluding those not in active practice (judges, professors, retired) and foreign lawyers. Data consisted of MBTI Form G, the Hoppock Job Satisfaction Blank, and a demographic questionnaire constructed by

Note.

the author.

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Twenty percent of the accountants fell in one type, the thorough, detail-oriented, responsible ISTJs. Among the auditors, ISTJs were 36% of partners and 42% of managers. When success in the accounting firms was measured by level of advancement to partner or manager, significantly more analytical and decisive TJ types and the ISTJ type were in the successful group. Sensing types were significantly more frequent among successful auditors, whereas intuitives were in the majority among successful accountants specializing in tax accounting and management advisory services, positions that required more communication and innovation. These few examples of career research with the MBTI indicate directions for learning more about important issues of career selection, reasons for satisfaction, retention, and career success. As more practitioners become researchers and share their experiences through research, the career counselor will have much more precise information for assessment and counseling.
choice and
success.

Applications of the
An
an

understanding and important part in the

MBTI in Career Counseling appreciation of ones psychological type

career

can

play

exploration

and

decision-making

process.

process. No career decision should be made the basis of one instrument alone, and MBTI data are best used in conjunction with other career assessment measures of interests, values, skills, and development. MBTI preferences alone should never be used to exclude (or determine) a particular career choice. Type tables of careers with reasonable samples show all 16 types represented, though not in equal numbers (as demonstrated in Table 1 and Table 2). The MBTI is designed to indicate preferences, not competencies. MBTI responses do not show whether a person is a mature example of a type, with good command of perception and judgment, or a less mature example struggling more with the liabilities of the type than in command of the assets. Particular care should be used when the MBTI is used in organizations, especially when making employment decisions. MBTI questions are straightforward. As with other psychological assessment, persons wishing to protect themselves can bend answers at least somewhat toward their picture of their employers expectations. Type theory is sometimes seen as limiting-perhaps because MBTI type tables can lead to the impression that the MBTI puts people in boxes. The appropriate application of the MBTI is to see the results in terms of life-long developmental pathways that open options for fulfilling the motivations and gifts of an individual.

It

is, however, only one part of the

on

Analysis Using the Lens of Type Theory Type theory may be used for job matching without administering the MBTI. For instance, look at job requirements to see what preferences they require. Do the main requirements of the job require similar or opposite preferences? A job requiring careful attention to detail, a quiet work environment, and an orderly approach fit well with preferences for sensing, introversion, and judging. A job requiring careful attention to detail, longrange strategic planning and a focus on customer service requires opposite
Job

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preferences-sensing, intuition, introversion, and extraversion. Jobs need not be pared down to fit narrow type preferences; everyone can use lesspreferred preferences when a situation requires it. It is useful, however, to look carefully at jobs that require constant use of opposing type preferences. Understanding MBTI types can improve interviews of candidates without administering the MBTI. For example, a job may require long-range strategic analysis, on-the-spot decisions, and building top-flight work teams. The interviewer might work from the hypothesis of an ENTJ &dquo;job type.&dquo; How have candidates responded to similar assignments? Was the assignment stressful or challenging? Have they avoided the ENTJ problems of underestimating the need of communication to build cooperative support groups (F)? or of overlooking necessary detail work (S) as they rushed forward? Whether or not the candidate is ENTJ, these job-type questions can bring out important facts about candidate-job match. Self-Understanding and Self-Esteem By far the most frequent report from career counselors is that MBTI feedback promotes better understanding of oneself, of ones strengths and weaknesses, and ones future directions. With type theory as a basis, clients come to understand the reasons why past work experiences were energizing or draining, why communication with coworkers and superiors was successful or went sour. Counselors use these insights to confirm the accuracy of the
MBTI report or to raise questions about uncertainties about the best-fit type. For example, one introverted student whose mother had strongly encouraged social participation (cheerleader, beauty queen) discovered her joy in the world of ideas at the university and claimed her introversion. A worker whose sensing parents had criticized her &dquo;crazy ideas&dquo; and lack of common sense discovered her intuition was trustworthy. &dquo;I feel as if I have been throwing away a gift. I feel more integrated within myself.&dquo; Discussions of life history and values in light of type preferences are not only confirming for the client, but improve the counseling relationship because the client feels understood and confirmed. Weaknesses in the skills of the less-preferred functions are seen as the natural result of spending more time and effort to develop their opposite preferred functions. The new understanding ends selfblame and leads to action plans to put more trust in the dominant and auxiliary and also to learn the less-interesting skills of the third and inferior functions when they are needed.

Academic Advisement and Educational Decisions The MBTI is used in several ways for career assessment with students, where counseling involves academic advisement, academic achievement, and learning styles. Academic advisement and choice of major often include concerns about self-expectations and family-expectations. Students who are usually in the transition between dependence on families and independent adulthood may find it is useful to compare their current MBTI type with &dquo;the type my parents want me to be.&dquo; Type tables from the Atlas of Type Tables can inform students of the likelihood that careers they are considering will have many or few people

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with similar interests. (Unpublished data at the Isabel Briggs Myers Memorial Library at CAPT show that type patterns for college majors are similar to the patterns in comparable careers.) Students sometimes find that the career they have dreamed of since childhood attracts few of their type. It can be disheartening to enter a career where you assume you will find kindred spirits, only to discover you see the world much differently from those around you. We call this &dquo;inadvertent pioneering.&dquo; It can be challenging to pioneer on purpose-to enter a career where you are different from most people, with the plan of finding a niche where you can contribute new viewpoints or skills. However, the discrepancy between the dream career and type data should never cause the student to give up the dreams, but should generate a discussion of the need to go out and explore the dream career in real life, to see if it really will give the satisfactions expected. The MBTI can also be helpful in advising students about the tasks of passing the courses needed for their fields of study. A consistent MBTI finding is that intuitive types receive higher mean scores on academic aptitude tests than do sensing types (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). Academic aptitude measures are designed to identify abilities needed for academic work-dealing with concepts and ideas (I) and with symbols, abstractions, and theories (N). Sensing types, particularly extraverts with sensing, often come to advisement with a sense that they have to struggle harder than their classmates and that they are not intelligent enough to meet requirements of fields to which they aspire. Counselors have resources to show students how to use their own learning strategies when the professor is on a different wavelength and how to achieve well academically (Lawrence, 1985, 1993; Provost, 1992). Assessment and Matching The MBTI sets a framework for understanding skills, interests, and values. Are the values of a client what we might expect from knowledge of his or her type? For example, high rankings for economic values are frequent for ESTJ, and rare for INFP. High rankings for altruism are frequent for INFP and rare for ESTJ. Discussions around these patterns are not designed to move persons toward consistency for their type; they are designed to illuminate past history and the individual differences within each type. Type tables provide valuable facts for assessment and matching. Information available in the Atlas of Type Tables (Macdaid et al., 1986), the MBTI manual (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), the Career Report Manual (Hammer & Macdaid, 1992), and the Career Reports available from computer scoring by CPP and CAPT provide listings of careers most frequently and least frequently chosen by each type. The careers at the top of the list not only broaden options, but also give insights into the characteristics of careers that offer scope for the gifts of the type. MBTI results suggest questions to ask during assessment: Does this career call for use of your preferences? How much will it stretch you to use your less-liked preferences? Of course, no work will be a perfect fit for type. The goal is to find work that most of the time gives scope for a types interests and skills.

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Gathering Type preferences can influence the kinds of activities the client finds attractive or is inclined to avoid. For example, a client with preferences for extraversion, feeling, and perception (EFP) is more likely to network widely, make cold calls for information interviews, and do volunteer work. A client who prefers introversion, thinking, and judging (ITJ) may resist these activities, but enjoy research in the library or career resource center. Both ways of gathering information are important and necessary at different times. A knowledge of type helps counselors determine which activities a client is most likely to pursue and which may be stumbling blocks. Decision-Making Jungs model and
the MBTI are based on differences in taking in information (S and N) and making decisions (T and F). Myers (1970; Lawrence, 1993) developed a problem-solving model to encourage controlled and conscious use of all four of these mental processes, the two preferred and the two less-preferred. The model makes explicit many activities of career assessment. In the context of careers, the counselor would lead the client through the following

Information

steps:
1. Use your sensing to examine what your situation is. What are the facts from your education, your work history, your family history, the present economic situation that show the realities you must take into account as you make your decisions? 2. Use your intuition to look beyond the present to new possibilities. Use your imagination to see options you havent considered before. Have you been stuck in old ways of looking at your work? Are there patterns in your past experience that you have been missing? Can you see opportunities in your present situation that you have missed? Try to expand your possibilities from a year ahead to 10 years ahead, even to the end of your life. 3. Use your thinking to make a critical and impersonal analysis of the consequences of choosing options you have come up with. Look especially hard at the dreams you have had for years. What

could be the up-side of choosing each option? What could be the down-side? Be as tough-minded as you can. 4. Use your feeling to look at how your decision will affect other things you care about. How would your choices affect relationships with family, friends, coworkers? How about your values of security, excitement, meeting challenges, or living life with integrity? How will the choices you are considering affect the things in life you care most about? Individuals strengths and weaknesses in applying this method of problemsolving will tend to correspond to their type dynamics. The counselor alerts the client to natural tendencies to put most weight on the steps that involve the dominant and auxiliary function and skip over or find more difficult the steps of the third and fourth functions. Individuals who report using the

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MBTI model have rated themselves more effective problem-solvers once they become more conscious users of their less-preferred mental processes (Yokomoto & Ware, 1982).

Planning and Taking helping the

Action

career counseling process involves client to engage in planning and goal-setting and helping them to act on their decisions. A knowledge of the MBTI helps clients and counselors refine these strategies. Types differ in their tendencies to set specific or broad goals; immediate or long-term goals; concrete, tangible goals; or personal lifestyle or visionary goals. Types differ in the ways they implement intermediate goals and tasks-working harder in school, getting outside training, writing resumes, interviewing. The tempo of extraverts and introverts can be different at this stage, with introverts taking more time to get their plans firmly in mind, while extraverts move into action. Counselors will recognize when introverts are staying too long in planning, or when extraverts move precipitously into action without taking useful time for reflection. In data from The Ohio State University medical students (McCaulley, 1978, p. 193), the fastmoving, decisive EJ types reported making decisions to enter medical school early and being sure of their choices. The more thoughtful, open, IP medical students reported that they were slow to decide on medical school and were still not sure it was a good choice.

One of the final components of the

The Career Counseling Process The field of career assessment and counseling has developed a wealth of information about career maturity, career development, and the strategies of job seeking and job-finding. This information has been codified into steps that clients should take. Not all MBTI types will see the relevance of all steps. Clients with a preference for judging (J) more easily engage in the organized and scheduled task completion counselors often assume is necessary to the successful navigation of these steps. Clients with a preference for perceiving (P) may not fit as easily into a model of counseling that insists they plan and follow the steps in a systematic way. This, of course, does not absolve them of the need to complete tasks. Rather, they have their own strengths (e.g., seizing new opportunities and working through stuck plans) that may achieve goals without initially appearing to fit with structured career planning.

The Client-Counselor Relationship How is the MBTI best introduced into the process of career counseling? Counselors are careful in administering and interpreting the MBTI so that clients confirm their best-fit type. Counselors explain both the power and limitations of type theory and the MBTI. Counselors help clients understand that their type preferences can have an impact not only on their career choice, but on how they learn and relate as well. Type should not be used to exclude career choices; but type can provide a nonthreatening language for exploring how they may differ from others in their chosen field.

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Counselors find the MBTI useful in the counseling process itself. If a client completes the MBTI and verifies, for example, that ESTJ is his or her type, the counselor has clues to help build rapport and conduct sessions in a way that is respectful of the clients type preferences. The counselor prepares to provide structure; to give direct, to-the-point communication; and to assign homework tasks. The client will want to set clear, realizable goals. Do not expect much time to be spent on discussion of the meaning of life. In covering the steps of career assessment for an ESTJ, the counselor watches for problems related to premature closure or underestimating the importance of decisions on human relationships.

Summary
The MBTI provides five tools for career assessment and counseling. Understanding ones type provides an appreciation of ones gifts and a pathway to life-long development. Type tables provide the content for match-mismatch of ones interests and careers. The decision-making model provides a strategy to trust ones strengths and watch out for blind spots. Counselors use an understanding of type differences to plan the best ways for each type to cover the steps necessary for good career planning. Finally, counselors learn to &dquo;talk the language&dquo; of the clients type and develop better strategies to improve the client-counselor process itself.

References
Apostal, R. A. (1988). Status of career development and personality. Psychological Reports,
63, 707-714.
CAPT Bibliography for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. (Updated twice a year; available in bound copy or
as a guide. Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Granade, J. G. (1987). The Selection Ratio (PC-DOS Program) [Computer software]. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Hammer, A. L., & Macdaid, G. P. (1992). MBTI: Career Report manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Hirsh, S., & Kummerow, J. (1989). LIFETypes. New York: Warner. Jacoby, P. F. (1981). Psychological types and career success in the accounting profession. Research in Psychological Type, 4, 24-37. Jung, C. G. (1971). The collected works of C. G. Jung: Vol. 6. Psychological types (H. G. Baynes, Trans., rev. by R. F. C. Hull). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Kroeger, O. with Thuesen, J. M. (1992). Type talk at work. New York: Tilden. Laney, A. R. (1945). Occupational implications of the Jungian personality function-types as identified by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Unpublished masters thesis, George Washington University, Washington, DC. Lawrence, G. D. (1993). People types and tiger stripes (3rd ed.). Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Lawrence, G. D. (1985). A synthesis of learning style research involving the MBTI. Journal of Psychological Type, 8, 2-15. Macdaid, G. P., McCaulley, M. H., & Kainz, R. I. (1986). Atlas of type tables for the MyersBriggs Type Indicator. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. McCaulley, M. H. (1977). The Myers longitudinal medical study. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

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Palo

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McCaulley, M. H. (1978). Application of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to medicine and professions. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. McCaulley, M. H. (1985). The Selection Ratio Type Table: A research strategy for comparing type distributions. Journal of Psychological Type, 10, 46-56. McCaulley, M. H., Macdaid, G. P., & Granade, J. G. (1993, May). Career satisfaction and type: Data from the CAPT data bank. Unpublished manuscript. Moody, R., & Granade, J. G. (1993). The Selection Ratio Type Table (PC-Macintosh Program) [Computer software]. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Myers, I. B. (1962). Manual: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Myers, I. B. (1993). Introduction to type (5th ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
other health Press.
the

Myers, I. B., & McCaulley, M. H. (1985). Manual: A guide to the development and use of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Myers, I. B. with Myers, P. B. (1980). Gifts differing. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists

Press.

Olguin, A. (1988, April). The relative contribution of dispositional factors to job satisfaction. Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association, Burlingame, CA. Provost, J. A. (1989). Procrastination: Using psychological type concepts to help students. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Provost, J. A. (1990). Work, play, and type: Achieving balance in your life. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Provost, J. A. (1992). Strategies for success: Using type to do better in high school and college. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Provost, J. A. (1993). Applications of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in counseling: A casebook (2nd ed.). Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Quenk, N. L. (1993). Beside ourselves: Our hidden personality in everyday life. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Richard, L. R. (1994). Psychological type and job satisfaction among practicing lawyers in the United States. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 1654B. (University Microfilms (04),
No. AAC94-22677) Roush, P. E. (1989). MBTI type and voluntary attrition at the United States Naval Academy. Journal of Psychological Type, 18, 72-79. Saunders, D. R. (1987). Type Differentiation Indicator manual: A scoring system for Form J of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Saunders, D. R. (1989). MBTI Expanded Analysis Report manual: A scoring system for Form of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Saunders, F. W. (1991). Katharine and Isabel: Mothers light, daughters journey. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Smith, C. (1988). A comparative study of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire in the prediction of job satisfaction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, Muncie, IN. Tieger, P. D., & Barron-Tieger, B. (1992). Do what you are. Boston: Little, Brown, & Company. Yokomoto, C. F., & Ware, J. R. (1982). Improving problem-solving performance using the MBTI. Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) Annual Conference, 163-167.
J

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Resource

Organizations

Association for Psychological Type. Nonprofit membership organization. Regional and international conferences. Bulletin of Psychological Type. Distributes Journal of Psychological Type. Headquarters: 9140 Ward Parkway, Kansas City, MO 64114. Telephone 816-444-3500, fax 816-444-0330.

Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Nonprofit organization for research; professional programs and consultation; publisher and distributor of books and materials; scoring, research consulting. Isabel Briggs Myers Memorial Library. MBTI Bibliography. 2815 NW 13th Street, Suite 401, Gainesville, FL 32609. Telephone 904-375-0160, fax 904-278-0503. Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Publisher of the MBTI. Publishes test materials, handbooks, and professional and popular books related to MBTI Scoring. Responsible for protection of Myers copyrights and for licensing translations. 3803 East Bayshore Road, Palo Alto, CA 94303. Telephone 415-969-8901, fax 415-969-8608.

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