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Fachhochschule Frankfurt am Main University of Applied Sciences Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering

Vietnamese German University Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering DC- and AC-current networks


Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Joachim Lmmel

Academic Year 2012/2013

Contents
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 Electric Field and Important Quantities Fundamentals of fields Electric charge Q Electric field strength E Electric potential and electric voltage U Electric flux and electric flux density D Capacitor and capacity C Parallel and series Connection of Capacitors Capacitor with layered dielectric Electric Flow Field and Resistance Electric current I and current intensity J Electric resistance R and Ohms Law Electric energy W and power P Temperature dependency of the resistance Series- and parallel- connected resistors Analysis of Linear DC Networks Voltage and current divider Kirchhoffs equations Electric sources Kirchhoffs node equation Kirchhoffs loop equation Analysis of networks by Kirchhoffs equations Superposition method Mesh current method Real voltage and current sources Equivalent circuits of electric sources Representation of Periodical Quantities Parameter of periodical quantities Current and voltage at the elements R, L and C Phasor diagrams with periodical quantities Complex operator Power in AC networks Analysis of AC Networks Basic circuits Series connection of R and L (real coil) Parallel connection of R and C (real capacitor) Low pass (RC-circuit) High pass (CR-circuit) Phase-turn circuit

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5.2 6 6.1 6.2 6.3

Resonant circuits Three-Phase Electric Power Systems Generation of a three-phase power system phase Star and delta connection Power of the three-phase system phase

1 1.1

Electric Field and Important Quantities Fundamentals of fields

In common the field describes the distribution of a quantity in a space. There are:

1.2

Electric charge Q

[As], [C] (Coulomb)

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Examples of electric fields with different arrangements of charges

1.3

Electric field strength E

vector; [V/m]

equation for definition of the electric field strength:

forces between 2 point charges charges:

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1.4

Electric potential and electric voltage U

scalars; [V]

dependence between voltage and field strength:

common is valid:

in case of homogeneous field is valid:

1.5

Electric flux and electric flux density D

: scalar;[As]; D vector; [As/m2] D:

Demonstrative solution:

The relation between electric flux density D and electric field strength E is realized by the material equation of the electrostatic field.

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1.6

Capacitor and capacity C

[As/V] = [F]

(Farad)

Consequential the equation for the definition of the capacity C of a capacitor follows:

For the dimensioning of a capacitor we can use the size and the material. It is valid:

Therefore the design equation of a capacitor with a homogeneous field is the following.

Features of capacitors: See remarks page 7 Calculation of capacitances: See remarks page 8

The capacitor storages electric energy by charging. We can use the accumulated energy by means of varying the voltage between the electrodes. By dischar ing we can use the energy. discharging The accumulated electric energy can b calculated according to: be

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Capacitors
1. Properties of Differentiation of Capacitors: Capacitors differ according to the following properties, - if there is a fixed or variable capacitance (e. g. capacitors with variable capacitance are: rotary capacitors, flat trimming capacitors) - which kind of dielectric is used between the electrodes (e. g. paper and glimmer capacitors, foil capacitors, porcelain and electrolytic capacitors) or - which kind of construction is used (e. g. capacitors with plane electrodes, tube capacitors, cup capacitors, )

2. Relative Permittivityr of Selected Materials : (absolute permittivity 0 = 8.85410-12 As/Vm) acetone barium titanate glass glimmer hard paper cable paper in oil air paper, dry acrylic glass 21.5 1000...2000 5...12 5...8 5 4.3 1.0006 2 3 polyethylene polypropylene polystyrene polyvinyl chloride porcelain sulphur hexafluoride transformer oil water special ceramic for hf-technology 2.3 2.3 2.5 3...4 6 2.4 2.3 80.8 10000

special materials for electrolytic capacitors: 8 Al2O3 Ta2O5 26

3. Standardization of Capacitors: Capacitors are produced in classes of capacitance values between 0.6 pF and 10000 F resp. for operation voltages from 3V until more than 100 kV. There are German DIN-standards: DIN 42007 (variable capacitors), DIN 45910 (porcelain-, synthetic- and electrolytic capacitors, ...)

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Calculation of Capacitances
1.)

distance d area A

C = 0 r

A d

0 - absolute permittivity = 8.86.10-12As/Vm r - relative permittivity

plate capacitance

2.)
1 dr 1 dr 1 d = = 2 C 0 r A 4r

ri
dr

ra

1 a 1 1 a dr 1 1 1 = d = r 2 = 4 ri ra C ri C 4 ri
r r

Kugelkondensator spheric capacitance

C = 0 r

4 ri ra ra ri

(Vergleich 1. compare withmit 1.) _____________________________________________________________________


3.)
Q = C U ,

U = E (r )dr
ri

ra

E (r ) =
l

D(r )

ri

ra

D(r ) =

Q Q = A(r ) 2 rl

ra

U=

cylindric capacitance
C=

Zylinderkondensator

ri

r Q dr Q = ln a 2l r 2l ri

Q 2l 2l = = 0 r ra r U ln ln a ri ri (Vergleiche mit compare with 1.1.)

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1.7

Parallel and series connection of capacitors

It is valid:

and

Using the equation of definition of the capacity C=Q/U results: or common for an arbitrary number n of capacitors

e. g.: C1=100nF; C2=0,1F

It is valid:

and with follows

or

or common for an arbitrary number m of capacitors

e. g.: C1=100nF; C2=0,1F or

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1.8

Capacitor with layered dielectric

The arrangement is identical with the series connection of two capacitors. The electric field strength E and the voltage drop U over the two layers are from technical meaning especially in case of coaxial arrangements e. g. as cables.

For the electric flux intensity in both layers is valid: Therefore the following dependence results: The ratios of electric field strength and voltage drops over the layers can be calculated.

2 2.1

Electric Flow Field and Resistance Electric current I and current density J

I scalar;[A]; J vector [A/m] ector

The definition of the current I is described by:

generally written:

resp. in homogeneous fields

To the definition of the Technical current direction Technical direction The current is positive in the opposite direction of moving of negative charges. VGU 2012/10/Lae

Conduction in Solid Materials


According to the ability to conduct the electric current we can distinguish 3 groups: a) conductors incl. fluids b) semiconductors c) insulators
*)

Energy-band model Bndermodell eines Atoms


Elektronenenergie

energy of electrons

Leitungsband conduction band

Leitungsband conduction band Leitungsband conduction band

- - - - - - - - - - - - semiconductor Halbleiter

Energy gap Energielcke

- - - - - - - - - - - - examples

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Au, Ag, Cu, Cr, Hg, Na, K, ...


23 -3

- - - - - - - - - - - - insulator Isolator

Valenzband valence band

metal Metall

Si, Ge, compoundsemiconductor, (e.g. GaAs) and divers oxids <<10 cm (e.g. Ge 13 23 -3

glas, resin, porcelain, polymers, quartz

density of charges

ca. 10 cm (e.g. Cu 22

negligible
-3

8,510 cm , ..., K - .. 1,310 cm )


22 -3

-3

2,410 cm , .,GaAs 6 -3 1,310 cm ) ... 10 Ohmm ...


-6

spezific resistance

e.g. Ag 1,610 Ohmm, ..., Hg 5,810 Ohmm


-8 -8

porzelain ...10 Ohmm quartz ...10 Ohmm


16 13

*)

in fluids the current conduction is connected with the essential transport of materials

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In the electric flow field a dependency exist between the current density J and the electric field strength E by the material equation of the electric flow field (compare D = E ). (Kappa) electric conductivity

From this equation the dimension of the electric conductivity follows:

2.2

Electric resistance R and Ohms Law

This results in the definition equation for resistance R.

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OHMIC LAW:

The material and size (length and cross section) can be changed to dimension the value of a resistor. The following relation results:

Features of resistors: See remarks page 14 : Calculation of resistances: See remarks page 15 :

Remark to the notation of the dimension in the tables:

Sometimes it could be easier to calculate with the reciprocal value of the resistance R. We call it the electric conductance G. .

2.3

Electrical energy W and power P

W [VAs]; P [VA]; scalars

We use

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Resistors

1. Properties of Differentiation of Resistors: Resistors differ according to the following properties and their design. There are film resistors, which has a thin conductive layer at a porcelain body, fixed wire- or band resistors, where the wire or the band is wound around a porcelain body, temperature-dependent resistors(thermistors), changing the resistance with the temperature, consisting of sintered ceramic on the basis of semiconductors, voltage-dependent resistors (varistors), changing the resistance with the voltage level, consisting of sintered ceramic on the basis of SiC (e. g.) and adjustable resistors, where the resistance can be changed by a sliding contact.

2. Resistivity, Conductivity and Cofficient of Temperature of Selected Materials

in mm2 / m
aluminium argent copper gold platinum iron manganin Al Ag Cu Au Pt Fe
Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni

in m / mm2
36 63 56 44 9 8 2,5 1

20 in 1/C
0,00377 0,0038 0,00393 0,004 0,002 0,0046 0,00001 0,00005

0,028 0,016 0,018 0,023 0,11 0,125 0,4 1

chromium- Cr, Ni, Fe nickel

3. Standardization of Resistors: Resistors are produced in classes of resistance values between 10-3 and 1014 for different voltage and power values There are German DIN-standards e.g. DIN 40712 (symbols), DIN 41450 (adjustable resistances), DIN 44080 (temperature dependent resistors), DIN 44050...55 ( fixed film resistors), DIN 45921 (metallic and nonmetallic fixed resistors),..

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Calculation of Resistances

length l

area A

1.)

R=

l A

- conductivity
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.)

E=

, E= I 4r 2

S=

I I = A 4 r 2

ri
ra
Widerstand (Kugelfeld)

U =

ra

dr I 1 1 4 r = 4 ri ra ri I

U 1 1 1 R= = I 4 ri ra

spheric resistance

compare with 1.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.)

dR =
R= 1

dr dr = A 2 lr
ra

dr
l

ri

dr 1 ra r = 2l ln ri 2l ri

ra

Widerstand (Zylinderfeld)

compare with 1.

cylindric resistance

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respectively considering the resistance R

The power can be calculated if we divide the energy W by the time t:

2.4

Temperature dependency of the resistance

It is valid: (related to 20C) For the calculation of the temperature inside of windings out of the changing of the resistance measured at the terminals can be used the equation:

2.5

Series- and parallel- connected resistors

We know that the voltage drops in a series connection of components have to be added to the connection total voltage drop. Using the Ohmic Law the following derivation results by dividing by the current I

Thereby for the ratio of the voltage drops hereby results:

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It is valid:

Using the Ohmic Law follows:

Finally results:

and expressed by the electric conductance G

The ratio of the parallel currents can be formulated by the equation equation:

3 3.1

Analysis of Linear DC Networks Voltage and current divider

and it follows:

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Loaded Voltage Divider

For the voltage-divider ratio results from the circuit


x R s Rv x Rv U2 = = U (1 x) R s + x Rs Rv Rv + Rs ( x x 2 )

I R1= (1-x)RS U R2= x RS RV U2

x 1+ Rs x (1 x ) Rv

and for the load current follows


Iv = U2 xU = Rv Rv + R s x (1 x )

Circuit of the voltage divider loaded with the resistor RV

With x = 1 the maximum load current results according to the equation I Vmax = damit
Iv I v max = U2 = U x 1+ Rs x (1 x ) Rv

U and RV

Border cases are: Rv (unloaded voltage divider, linear dependency)


and Rv = 0 (short circuit at the output, U x = 0 )
Iv =

U2 =x U U Rs (1 x )

Beetween the border cases the nonlinarity increases with increasing load or load current.

Diagram: Related values of load voltage U2 (UX ) and load current IV as function of the slider position x of the voltage divider

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and it follows:

resistive current divider

3.2 Kirchhoffs equations 3.2.1 Electric sources

3.2.2 Kirchhoffs node equation We can simply conclude:

and for the example beside: 3.2.3 Kirchhoffs loop equation We can conclude again:

and for the circuit on the left:

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3.2.4 Analysis of networks by Kirchhoffs equations

Example for solution by Kirchoffs equation

Result for I3:

In the following chapters we will introduce more techniques for the analyses of networks. All have their distinct advantages and handicaps. 3.3 Superposition method I3 : current by means of only Uq1

I3 : current by means of only Uq2 The final result is the addition of both currents:

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3.4

Mesh current method The first step is to find the number of independent mesh currents in. In our case there are two of it.

If you solve the equation system for the unknown mesh currents we find with: currents, e. g. for the current I3 :

3.5

Real voltage and current sources real voltage source

real current source

precondition for equivalence of both sources:

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3.6

Equivalent circuits of electric sources

network

a)

b)

active terminal circuit

passive terminal circuit

Steps of calculation: 1st step: calculation of Uq ?

2nd step: calculation of Ri ?

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3rd step: calculation of Ra ?

4th step: calculation of IRa and URa BASIC CURRENT CIRCUIT

Example:

Example: maximum available power at load resistor Ra mesh equation:

for the power delivered to the load Ra is valid: d

Imagine the following: Ra = 0 or Ra = . In both cases the power at the load resistor is zero. . That means, between both the power should have a maximum. By differentiating the power equation we get: VGU2012/23/Lae

The last equation shows that the load resistance has to have the same value as the internal resistance: alue That means, the maximum ava available power is:

Technical meaning:

Example: maximum efficiency of transmission Now we will see the circuit from another point of view. Due to the internal resistor Ri not the total power Pq of the source will find the way to the load resistor Ra. Because of the current IRa there will be a dissipation of power P over Ri.

The efficiency of each transfer of energy is defined as

Technical meaning:

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4 4.1

Representation of Periodical Quantities Parameter of periodical quantities

Eine zeitabhngige Gre wird als periodisch bezeichnet, wenn sich ihr zeitlicher Verlauf nach einer bestimmten Zeitspanne Periodendauer T wiederholt.

Nach FOURIER lsst sich eine periodische Funktion durch die Summe bestehend aus einem Gleichanteil und Sinusfunktionen unterschiedlicher Frequenz und Amplitude ersetzen. Die Grundfunktion aller periodischen Funktionen ist deshalb die Sinusfunktion. Die Anzahl der Schwingungen, die eine periodische Funktion in einer Sekunde durchfhrt, ist die Frequenz f.

[s-1] = [Hz] = [Hertz]


Die Periodendauer T ist der Kehrwert der Frequenz f.

e. g.: power grid f = 50Hz (USA f = 60Hz; train grid in Germany f = 16 2/3Hz; example for radio frequency f = 107,2MHz Therefore we find:

aufgetragen.

and

with the angular frequency

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Representation of the sinusoidal function

The definition of the phase shift between voltage and current is given by the equation:

e. g. the characteristic above: u = 60(/3); i = -30(-/6); = u-i = 60-(-30) = 90( /2) We say: The current is lagging to the voltage with 90.

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More parameter can be calculeted of importance for different technical processes.

For the description of voltage shapes two further parameter are useful. for sinusiodal shape

for sinusiodal shape

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4.2

Current and voltage at the elements R, L and C

a) resistor precondition The voltage over the resistor is calculated:

The result is

a1) current-voltage relation

a2) phase and phase shift

3 3 2

a3) impedance (AC resistance)

(resistance)

L
b) Inductivity precondition The voltage over the inductivity is calculated:

The result is

a1) current-voltage relation

a2) phase and phase shift

2 2 3 2

a3) impedance (AC resistance)

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(inductive reactance)

i
b) capacity

C
precondition

i = I sin t , i = 0

u
The voltage over the capacity is calculated:

The result is The result is a1) current-voltage relation voltage

a2) phase and phase shift a2)


2 2

3 2

a3) impedance (AC resistance)

(capacitive reactance) capacitive 4.3 Phasor diagrams with periodical quantities

a)

b)

c)

d)

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to the construction of phasors:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

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4.4

Complex operator Z

The definition of the complex operator is given by the equation:

The exponential form is:

Written in the Cartesian form:

The equations for the calculation of the absolute value (length of the phasor) and angle of the phase shift are:

Survey over the known dependencies for the components R, L and C Preconditions: Resistor Inductivity Capacitor

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Application: Series connection of R, L and C uq = 10Vsint, f = 50Hz, R = 1k L = 10H, C = 6F ,

mesh equation

solution of the differential equation of the current i

or direct approach by complex operators:

solution of the algebraic equation for the current i

Inserting the given values:

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Solution by phasor diagram

steps of construction 1.)

2.)

3.)

Solution by means of a quantitative phasor diagr diagram

Therefore follows:

We can measure for the phase shift: VGU2012/33/Lae

4.4

Power in AC networks

In DC networks the power is calculated by the formula

The product of the time-depending voltage and current

has no practical meaning.

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Conclusions for the power components and their calculation with R, L and C

Widerstand

Further on is valid:

Kapazitt

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Fr die Auswertung von Leistungsmessungen ist die Tatsache wichtig, dass sich in einem beliebigen Netzwerk die Gesamtleistung aus der Summe der Teilleistungen an den einzelnen Bauelementen ergibt. Das gilt fr Wirkund fr Blindleistungen.

or

e.g. z.B.

I2
R1

R2

-j1/C

2 PGesamt = I12 R1 + I 2 R2

= (1A) 2 1 + (1A) 2 1 PGesamt = 2 W


2 QGesamt = I 32 L I 2

I1

I3
jL

1 C 2 = ( 2A) 1 (1A ) 21

QGesamt = 1 var

geg.: given: R1=R2=1; jL=1; -j1/C=-j1 I1=I2=1A; I3=1,41A

S = P 2 + Q 2 = 5VA S = 2,24VA

From the calculation follows: We have always to calculate the total apparent power of an arbitrary network with the following equation.

Never

e.g.: Three units with different components of active and reactive power:

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5 Analysis of AC Networks 5.1 Basic circuits 5.1.1 Series connection of R and L (real coil) Circuit Phasor jL R diagram

There are the wellknown equations:

Further on is valid: complex impedance = resistance + j reactance

and the impedance (absolute value of the complex impedance)

In consequence of the both triangles follows for the phase

After the multiplication of the edges of the impedance triangle with I2, we get the triangle of the power components.

The relations between the power components is described by:

For the phase follows: VGU2012/37/Lae

5.1.2 Circuit

Parallel connection of R and C (real capacitor)

Phasor diagram

1 1 = j jC C
Again is wellknown:

Further on is valid: admittance = conductance + j susceptance

Y = G + jC
and the conductance (absolute value of complex admittance)

In consequence of the both triangles follows for the phase

After the multiplication of the edges of the admittance triangle with U2, we get the triangle of the power components.

The relations between the power components is described by:

For the phase follows: VGU2012/38/Lae

5.1.3 circuit

Low pass

R1

phasor diagram

1 j C 2
calculation of the ratio U2/U1 and the phase 21

absolute value

phase shift

step response u(t)

amplitude characteristic U2/U1= f()

phase characteristic 21= f()

cutoff frequency:

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5.1.4 Circuit

High pass

1 jC1

phasor diagram

R2
calculation of the ratio U2/U1 and the phase 21

absolute value

phase shift

step response u(t)

amplitude characteristic U2/U1 = f()

fr

phase characteristic 21= f()

cutoff frequency:

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5.1.5

Phase-turn circuit

example: double RC

precondition

1 j C

1 j C

R=

1 C

5.2

Resonant circuits

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circuit
1 j C

phasor diagram

impedance

jL

Impedanz Impedance

Z = R + j(L
Betrag value absolute

1 ) C
1 2 ) C

At the resonance point are U and I in phase. That means, only the resistance come into effect for the impedance. That means

Z = R 2 + (L
Phasenwinkel phase shift

so the angular resonance frequency is calculated by

= arctan

1 C ) R

resp. the resonance frequency is

In the case of resonance the impedance, its absolute value and the phase angle between voltage and current phasor result to Fr die Impedanz, deren Betrag und den Phasenwinkel zwischen Spannung und Strom ergibt sich im Zustand der Resonanz

Phasor diagram of Z :

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Characteristic frequencies for the evaluation of diagrams of resonance networks are the socalled 45-frequencies. The name results of the shape of the phasor diagram.

+45

-45

The following diagrams of the related parameter Z/R = f() and the phase angle = f() show the dependence from the angular frequency.

Z R1

90

45

+45

0
-45

1/C
-45

-45

+45

-90

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From the behaviour of the impedance Z we are able to conclude the diagram of I = f().

I I R1

I=
1

U Z

bei U = konstant

IR1 = I bei R1 und 0

0,5

-45

+45

Die Teilspannungen eines Reihenschwingkreises knnen die Gesamtspannung U wesentlich bersteigen. Die berhhung im Resonanzpunkt ergibt sich aus der Kreisgte Q .

U = konstant

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Alle im Reihenschwingkreis erluterten Zusammenhnge und Formeln ergeben sich in analoger Form fr den Parallelschwingkreis, in dem man systematisch
jL R,G
1 jC

IL
I R jL UL U
1 jC

IR IC

UR

UC

kapazitiv

induktiv

induktiv

kapazitiv

UC

UL

IL

IC

U = konstant

I = konstant

UR

IG

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6 Three-Phase Electric Power Systems 6.1 Generation of a three-phase power system In 1891 the first three-phase power transmission was realized between Lauffen am Neckar nach Frankfurt am Main . Three-phase current is the most effective kind to transmit electric power over long distances.

Grundlage ist Bewegungsinduktion und insbesondere die Bewegung einer Leiterschleife im Magnetfeld (siehe Kapitel 5.4.2)

For the three characteristics we find the equations:

u = U sin t

u = U sin(t 120)

u = U sin(t 240)
STNDER

Aus Leistungsgrnden wird die praktische Anordnung umgekehrt realisiert. Dabei wird das rotierenden Gleichfeld durch den Gleichstrom in einer Wicklung des sich drehenden Lufers (Rotor) hervorgerufen. Die drei Wicklungen U, V und W sind fest im Stnder der Maschine angeordnet. In ihnen werden die drei um 120 phasenverschobenen Wechselspannungen induziert.

ROTOR

GENERATOR

Fr die Energiebertragung vom Kraftwerk (Generator) zum Verbraucher (z.B. Motor)


FHF 2007/GET/L68_Drehstrom1

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9.2

Stern- und Dreieckschaltung

Star connection (Y, y, Y)

Delta connection(D, d, )

L1

L2

L3

L1

L2

L3

U Netz = 3U Str I Netz =


9.3

U Netz =

U Str

I Str

I Netz = 3 I Str

Power of the three-phase system

The power of the three-phase system must be consider the kind of the internal connections of the windings: Star connection Delta connection

S =3UStrIStr
(3 Strnge)

Stranggren Y

S =3UStrIStr
(3 Strnge)

INetz= IStr, UNetz= 3 UStr Netzgren INetz= 3 IStr, UNetz=UStr


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