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Module I

Thermodynamics
Definition
The word thermodynamics is the combination of two Greek words: therme and dynamics. Therme means heat and dynamics means movement or force. Thus thermodynamics is the science which deals with heat and work. Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science dealing with the conversion of energy from one form to another, especially involving heat. All activities in the nature involve interactions between energy and matter. T.D is concerned with the relationship between energy in the form of heat and its relationship with the properties of matter. Energy -------------------- Matter interaction For an efficient utilization of energy a deep knowledge of the subject is essential

Some of the present-day applications of thermodynamics are

Automobiles Aircraft and rocket propulsion etc

Fundamental Concepts
Thermodynamic System It is the prescribed & identifiable collection of matter, object, quantity of matter, region of space etc. In any scientific or engineering analysis it is essential to clearly identify the material on which we focus our attention. A thermodynamic system (or simply system) is defined as a prescribed quantity of matter or region in space upon which attention is concentrated for study.This quantity of matter or region is separated from its surroundings by a boundary.

Classification of Systems Thermodynamic systems are classified into three types based on the kinds of interactions between the system and its surroundings. 1. Closed Systems are those that exchange energy (heat and work) but not mass with their environment. Since the mass of the system remains constant it is also known as control mass.

2.

Open Systems exchange energy (heat and work) and mass with their environment. The boundary of the system is permeable. Flow systems are........ open systems since they allow mass flow. An open system specified with a fixed volume is called control volume.

3.

Isolated Systems are completely isolated from their environment. They exchange neither matter nor

energy (heat and work) with their surroundings. So, an isolated system is one in which both energy and mass are constant.

Comparison of closed, open & isolated systems CLOSED SYSTEM 1 Has fixed mass; hence, also called control mass Mass does not cross the system boundary Energy, both in the form of heat and work can cross the system boundary System boundary can usually move Examples:- Greenhouse IC engine in compression and expansion strokes OPEN SYSTEM When it has fixed volume it is also called control volume Mass can enter and leave across the system boundary Both heat and work can cross the system boundary System boundary is usually fixed Ocean IC engine in suction and exhaust strokes ISOLATED SYSTEM Has both fixed mass and fixed volume Mass does not cross the system boundary No energy, neither heat nor work can cross the system boundary System boundary is fixed Universe Insulated gas cylinder

4 5.

Thermodynamic Properties The measurable characteristics of a system which would describe/identify the system are called as property of system. Examples are mass, volume, energy, pressure and temperature. Classification of Properties Thermodynamic properties can be divided into two categories: extensive and intensive. Extensive Properties are those whose values depend on the size or extent of the system. Mass m, volume V, total energy, E are some examples of extensive properties.

Intensive Properties - Their values are independent of the size or extent of the system.

Pressure,

temperature, density are some examples of intensive properties. In a system divided into parts, each part has the same pressure, temperature and density as the whole system.

To differentiate extensive & intensive properties A simple method to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with a partition. The values of intensive properties of the two halves will be the same as those of the undivided system, whereas the values of the extensive properties of the halves will only be half of the values of the original system. Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of specific properties are Specific volume, Specific total energy e Note:Specific properties may be considered as intensive properties, since their values are independent of the mass of the system. However, they are not true intensive properties in the sense of their definition.

E m

Pressure Pressure is an important quantity in thermodynamic analysis. It is defined as the normal force per unit area. Absolute pressure of the system is the force exerted by system on unit area of its boundaries Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere Gauge pressure is the pressure measured by gauges. It is the difference between Absolute pressure and Atmospheric pressure

A pressure which is less than atmospheric is referred to as vacuum. A pressure which is less than atmospheric pressure by 600 mm Hg is called a vacuum of 600 mm Hg. Pressure above atmospheric Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Pressure gauge reading Pressure below atmospheric Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - vacuum gauge reading

Relationship among absolute, atmospheric, gauge and vacuum pressures

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to 1 N/m2 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 bar = 1 * 105 N/m2 One standard atmosphere is defined as equal to the pressure exerted by a column of 760 mm of mercury at specified conditions.

Temperature Temperature is a measure of the hotness of a system as felt by the human body.

The basic SI unit for temperature is kelvin (K). Quite often, the Celsius temperature ( oC) is used to express temperature of a substance. The Celsius temperature is defined as
o

C + 273.15 = K

Absolute temperature Scale This unique temperature of the intersection point is known as the absolute zero temperature, which corresponds to -273.15oC. The absolute temperature scale begins at absolute zero temperature and is always positive. Based on the concept of temperature as a measure of molecular motion of matter, at absolute zero temperature, there is no molecular motion. In the SI system the absolute temperature is given in kelvin (K). Thus we define K = oC + 273.15 STP and NTP The reference conditions, standard temperature and pressure are 15 oC and 760 mm by Hg respectively. The normal temperature and pressure are taken as 0 oC and 760 mm Hg respectively.

Laws of thermodynamics
Zeroth law of thermodynamics This law states that if object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then object C is also in thermal equilibrium with object A.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. The zeroth law also gives us a method to measure the temperature of a system. If the third body is replaced with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as, two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact. The temperature of a body is measured by bringing a thermometer in contact with the body till the thermometer and the body reaches thermal equilibrium. At that state both have the same value of temperature. Therefore, the temperature of the thermometer indicated on it gives the temperature of the body. Although we will familiar with temperature as a measure of hotness or coldness, it is not easy to define it directly. It is common experience that when a hot body is brought into contact with a cold body heat flows from the hot body to cold body. When the heat transfer stops the bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium. On the bases of the zeroth law of thermodynamics we can say that there must be some property of the systems (bodies) which attains equal value when the systems attain thermal equilibrium with each other. Thus property is called temperature. State of a system The condition of physical existence of a system at any instant is called as its state. The state of a system at any given instant is determined by the values of its properties at that instant. At a given state each property of the system has a definite value. The system can change its condition due to work and heat interactions with its surroundings. When the system changes from one state to a second state

its properties will have a different set of definite values. In other words, when any of the properties of a system changes, a change of state occurs. Thermodynamic process When a thermodynamic system changes from one state to another it is said to have undergone a process.

A process between states 1 and 2, and the process path The series of states through which a system passes during is called the path of the process. To describe the process completely one must specify the initial and final states of the process as well as the path it follows and the interactions with its surroundings. Point function vs. Path function If a thermodynamic system passes through a series of states, it is said to describe a path. A quantity whose value depends on the particular path followed during any process is called as path functions. Examples: - work and heat interactions during a process Consider the change of a system from state 2 (with pressure P2, volume V2, temperature T2) to state 1 (with pressure P1, volume V1, temperature T1) It is possible to go from state 2 to state 1 along 2 paths here 2-b-1 & 2-c-1. But At state 1, when it reaches the pressure is P1, volume is V1, temperature is T1 irrespective whther it reaches through 2-b-1 & 2-c-1. We can say the values of pressure, volume, temperature, are independent of the path followed and hence these quantities are point functions or state functions. Work and heat interactions are influenced or dependent by path. It is different when it reaches the state 1 through 2-b-1 & 2-c-1 and hence they are path functions.

Reversible and irreversible processes A process which retains its initial state condition, when direction of process reversed is called as reversible process. Some examples of nearly reversible process are extension and compression of spring. A process is a reversible process if it can be completely reversed. A process which does not retains its initial state condition, when direction of process reversed is called as reversible process. A non-equilibrium process can not be completely reversed and the system can not be brought back to the initial state without leaving a net change in the surroundings. Such a process is an irreversible. All real process is irreversible process.

Thermodynamic cycle

When a thermodynamic system changes from one state to another, it is said to have undergone a process. At the end of the last process, if the system returns to its original state, it is said to have completed a cycle. A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the same state. At the conclusion of a cycle all properties of the system have the same values they had at the beginning. Consequently, over the cycle the system experiences no net change of state.

Thermodynamic equilibrium If the system has no tendency for a change of state, spontaneously or under outside influences it is in complete thermodynamic equilibrium A system said to be in Thermodynamic equilibrium, when System isolated from its surroundings There is a State of balance There is no unbalanced potensial or driving forces the values of properties become constatnt A complete thermodynamic equilibrium implies 1. Mechanical equilibrium - no pressure gradient 2. Chemical equilibrium - no chemical reactions 3. Thermal equilibrium - no temp difference

When there is no unbalanced force or toque in the interior of a system and also none between a system and its surroundings, the system is said to be in a state of mechanical equilibrium. When there is mechanical equilibrium, the pressure of the system must be the same as that of its environment When a system does not tend to undergo a spontaneous change of internal structure, such as a chemical reaction, or a transfer of matter from one part of the system to another, such as diffusion or solution, or between the system and its surroundings, then it is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium. It is common experience that when a hot body is brought into contact with a cold body heat flows from the hot body to cold body. When the heat transfer stops the bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium.

Quasi-state process As the name implies, a quasi-static process is almost static. A quasi-static process (or quasi-equilibrium process) is defined as one during which the system will always be in thermodynamic equilibrium. Or, a quasi-static process is succession of equilibrium states. A quasi-static process is defined as one during which the system will always be in thermodynamic equilibrium. Hence a quasi-static process is a succession of equilibrium states.

Salient characteristics : i) A quasi-static process is in idealised process and is not a true representation of an actual process. ii) Quasi-static processes are easy to analyse and serve as standards with which actual process can be compared. iii) A quasi-static process is a succession of equilibrium states, the system being always in thermodynamic equilibrium during the process. iv) Since the changes in the state of a system in a quasi-static process are infinitesimally small so as to remain in thermodynamic equilibrium always, such a process is extremely slow. Consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder. The system initially is in an equilibrium state, represented by the properties P1, V1, T1. The weight on the piston balances the upward force exerted by the gas. If the entire weights removed all of a sudden, piston move upwards quickly until it hit the stopper. But if the weights are going to be removed one by one, piston move upwards very slowly and it creates a seies of equilibrium states in between. A process performed in this ideal way is called a quasi-static process. A quasi-static process is an idealised process and is not a true representation of an actual process. Engineers are interested in quasi-static process for reasons. 1. they are easy to analyse, and 2. they serve as standards with which actual process can be compared.

The most common process, all assumed to be quasi-static, are : Isochoric or isometric (constant volume) Isobaric or isopiestic (constant pressure) Isothermal (constant temperature) Adiabatic (no heat exchange) Gas laws A perfect or ideal gas is the gas which strictly obeys all the gas laws under all conditions of pressure and temperature. Comparison of Ideal and Real gases IDEAL GAS Obeys the ideal gas equation of state. Molecules are assumed to be point masses. Intermolecular forces are assumed to be negligible. Molecules are considered to be perfectly elastic. Boyles law REAL GAS Equations of state are more complicated. Molecules have finite sizes. Intermolecular forces are significant. Molecules change momentum on collision.

The volume of a given quantity of gas varies inversely as its pressure, when temperature remains constant

We can write Boyles law as

1 when T is constant P

or PV = C where C represents constant

For different states, this equation can be written as PV = P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = C, for constant T Charles law The volume of a given quantity of gas varies directly as its absolute temperature if the pressure is held constant.

Mathematically, Charles law can be written as

V = constant, when pressure is constant T

Ideal gas equation of state By combining Boyles law and Charles law into a single equation we can obtain a general gas law known as the ideal gas equation of state or characteristic equation of gas.

PV = a constant. T
If the constant for a gas per unit mass is R, and the mass of the gas is m, the above equation becomes

PV T
or

mR
PV = mRT This is called the ideal gas equation of state or characteristic equation of state and the constant R is

called the characteristic gas constant whose values are different for different gases R is usually expressed in the unit kJ/kgK where P = pressure, m = mass, V = volume, R = specific (characteristic) gas constant

Energy, Heat and Work Energy

Thermodynamics is defined as the science of energy. Energy can be considered as the ability to cause changes, the capacity to do work. Energy can exist in many forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear. The sum of all these forms of energy is the total energy, E of a system. It is an extensive property, being dependent on the size of the system. Mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal machine such as an ideal turbine. Kinetic and potential energy are two forms of mechanical energy. Thermal energy is not mechanical energy since it can not be completely converted to mechanical work. Internal energy is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is related to the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity. Thus it is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules. The internal energy, U, is thus a part of the total energy of a system. The kinetic energy of molecules consists of translational, rotational and vibrational velocities. The average velocity and the degree of activity of the molecules are proportional to the temperature of the gas. Hence this is called thermal energy. The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical energy. During a chemical reaction such as a combustion process, some chemical bonds are destroyed while others are formed. As a result the internal energy changes. An atom consists of neutrons and protons bound together by very strong nuclear forces in the molecules and electrons orbiting it. The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy. Thus, internal energy consists of the following components of microscopic energy. 1. thermal energy 2. chemical energy 3. nuclear energy The chemical energy changes when the structure of the electrons of atoms changes due to a chemical reaction. A nuclear reaction involves changes in the nucleus. An atom preserves its identity during a chemical reaction but loses it during a nuclear reaction.

It is not practically possible to measure the absolute internal energy of a system in a given state. This is not essential in thermodynamic analysis as it is concerned with only changes in internal energy and not their absolute values. Heat Heat is defined as the dynamic energy that is transferred across the boundary of a system due to a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. Therefore, an energy interaction is heat, only if it occurs because of a temperature difference and the heat transfer stops when the system and its surroundings reach the same temperature.

Heat is energy in transition and is recognized only as it crosses the boundary of a system. Being a form of energy the unit of heat in SI system is the kilojule (kJ). We shall use the sign convention that heat into a system from its surroundings is positive and the heat out of a system is negative. Work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. Heat is the energy interaction driven by a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. Energy interactions not caused by a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings are all work.

More specifically, work is the energy transfer-associated with a force acting through a distance. Such work interactions are involved in a moving piston, a rotating shaft and an electric wire crossing the system boundary.

Work is also a form of energy transfer and, therefore, has the SI unit kJ. The work done per unit time is called power. The unit of power is kJ/s or kilowatt (kW)

Specific heat The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the unit mass of a substance by one unit of temperature. In thermodynamics, specific heats under two processes are considered, specific heat at constant volume, Cv and specific heat at constant pressure, Cp. The specific heat at constant volume is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature by one unit of mass of a substance through a constant When a gas is heated at constant pressure, it expands thus doing work in addition to increasing its temperature. The heat supplied to it is used partly in raising its temperature and partly in doing work against external pressure. When a gas is heated at constant volume no work is done and the heat supplied to it is used only for raising the temperature. Hence the amount of heat required to be supplied to 1kg of gas to raise its temperature by 1oC at constant pressure will be greater than that at constant volume. Therefore, the specific heat at constant pressure, Cp is greater than the specific heat at constant volume, Cv or Cp > Cv The ratio

CP
CP

CV

is denoted by , called the adiabatic index. Its volume for air, air = 1.4.

the ratio

CV

1 . Cpair = 1.005 kJ/kg, Cvar = 0.718 kJ/kg

In case of solids and liquids, the values of Cp and Cv are almost equal, since they are considered incompressible. Hence, usually, only one value of specific heat is specified for solids and liquids.

Flow Work Consider a steady-flow system where in both mass, and energy can cross the system boundaries. The term steady denotes a process or system that negative during a compression process. The total inflow work done during the entire process from state 1 to 2 is obtained by adding all the differential works from the initial state to the final state.
2 1 W2 1

PdV

This integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional relationship between P and V during the process, i.e., the equation for the process path on the PV diagram. It can be seen from the PV diagram that the differential area da below the process path is equal to PdV , which is the differential work. The total area under the process curve 1-2 is obtained by adding these differential areas.
2 2

i.e., Area = da
1 1

PdV

Thus, the area under the process curve on the PV diagram is equal in magnitude to the work done during a quasi-static expansion for compression process of a closed system. First Law of Thermodynamics The first law of thermodynamics is essentially the statement of the principle of the conservation of energ y for thermodynamic systems. It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only converted from one form to another. The first law of thermodynamics can be stated as for a system operating in a cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work transfer . = Non-flow work In a closed system work is transferred across the system boundary due to compression or expansion of the gas inside the system. During such a process part of the system boundary (e.g. the inner face of the piston in a cylinder) moves back and forth. Therefore, the expansion and compression work is also called moving boundary work.

Non-Flow work given by area under the process curve Consider the case of piston-cylinder arrangement in which A is cross-sectional area of the cylinder, dl be the distance moved by piston (due to expansion/compression process). By Engineering Mechanics definition ofwork, Thermodynamics work = Force x Distance moved = (Pressure x Cross-sectional area) x Distance moved dW = p x A x dl = p x dV (Where dV=change in the volume due to distance movement.)

Hence this work is sometimes called the PdV work.

The volume change dV is positive during an expansion process (volume increasing) and negative during a compression process (volume decreasing). Thus the work done is positive during at expansion process and the total energy entering and total energy leaving the system during the process.
Total energy entering the system Total energy leaving the system = Change in total energy of system

i.e.,

Ein Eout = E

This is often referred to as the energy balance equation

The first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle, which can be stated as: When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat supplied to the system from the surroundings is equal to the net work done by the system on the surroundings. When a closed system executes a thermodynamic process, the net heat supplied to the system is equal to the sum of the net work done by the system and the increase in its internal energy.

A perpetual motion machine of the first kind (PMM1) is a machine that would be one to violate the 1st Law of Thermodynamics, to permanently produce useful energy (work) without any energy source, or to produce more energy than it consumes (thus generate energy from nowhere);. Since this contravenes the first law of thermodynamics, PMM 1 is impossible.

Enthalpy For a constant pressure non-flow process the energy balance equation is
1Q2

= (U2 U1) + 1W2

2

1 Q2 1

PdV

P(V)12

P(V2 V1 ) P2 V2 P1V1 , since P = P1 = P2

Substituting, the energy balance equation becomes

1Q2

= (U2 U1) + P2V2 P1V1) = (U2 + P2V2) (U1 + P1V1)

i.e.

1Q2

= H2 H1 , where H = U + PV

The composite term (U+PV) has been found to occur frequently in the thermodynamic expressions. Hence it is defined as enthalpy, H. It has great utility when flow processes are considered, since it is the sum of internal energy (U) and flow energy (PV). Since both u and PV are state functions or properties of a system, their sum, enthalpy, H, is also a property. Since enthalpy is stored energy of a system it is an extensive property and has the unit kilojoule (kJ) As seen above, the heat transfer in a constant pressure quasi-equilibrium process is equal to the change in enthalpy, which includes both the change in internal energy and the change in flow energy for this particular process.

Second law of thermodynamics

The first law does not specify this direction of process.It is also observed that work can be completely converted into heat (joules experiments), but the complete conversion of heat into work in a cycle is not possible. This degradation of energy (work being a higher form of energy than heat) is not brought out by the first law.This direction of process and the quality of energy are identified based on the second law of thermodynamics, whereas the first law only deals with the quantity of energy. A refrigerator or heat pump is a device that, operating in a cycle, transfers heat from a low-temperature body to a high-temperature body. Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in their objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a lower temperature removing heat form it, whereas the objective of a heat pump is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature.

The Clausius statement of the second law is as follows: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a higher-temperature body.

This implies that a refrigerator or heat pump can operate only with a net supply of work from the surroundings. A perpetual motion machine of the second hind (PMM 2) is a machine that produces work utilizing the internal energy of only one heat reservoir. This violates the second law of thermodynamics (Kelvin - Planck statement). Hence, PMM 2 is impossible. Otherwise, is would be possible to run a power-plant by extracting heat from the surrounding air.

The Kelvin-Plach statement of the second law can be expressed as follows: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces on effect other than exchange of heat with a single reservoir and the production of work. This means that a heat engine must exchange heat with a low-temperature sink as well as a high-temperature source to produce work.

Entropy When mechanical work is converted to heat, the energy is degraded; Entropy is defined as the measure of degradation which energy experiences as a result of energy conversion. It is also defines as the measure of irreversibility associated with any processs.

Thermodynamic Processes

Process

P.V.T. Relationship

Constant Volume V=C

= =

mCv T2

T1

Constant Pressure P=C

P V2

V1

mCp T2 T1

Constant Temperature T = C Polytropic

P1V1 l n

V2 V1

P1V1 l n

V2 V1

P1V1 P2 V2 n 1

n 1

1W2

Adiabatic

P1V1 P2 V2 1

Air standard cycles The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are called engines. Heat engines produce power by converting energy absorbed in the form of heat. These devices operate on a thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are classified as internal combustion and external combustion engines, depending on how the heat is supplied to the working fluid. In external combustion engines, like steam power plants, heat is supplied to the working fluid from an external source such as a furnace, a nuclear reactor, or the sun. In internal combustion engines like automobile engines this is done by burning the fuel within the system boundaries. The thermodynamic cycles of actual heat engines are difficult to analyse because of the presence of complicating effects such as friction, turbulence, irreversibility, loss of heat and the chemical reaction of combustion. Hence, to make the mathematical analysis feasible the cycles are simplified by neglecting these effects. Thus, the idealizing assumptions are:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

The working substance at all times is air which behaves like an ideal gas with constant specific heats. All processes are quasi-static. There is no friction or turbulence. There is no loss of heat through engine walls. The processes are reversible, with heat addition and rejection occuring with external heat reservoirs. Such a cycle is called an airstandard cycle or ideal cycle and the thermal efficiency of heat engines

operating on such cycles is called the air standard efficiency or ideal efficiency. An air standard cycle resembles the actual cycle closely but consists of idealised processes. Hence the air standard efficiency is considerably higher than the thermal efficiency of an actual cycle.

The Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes :

1-2 2-3 3-4 4-1

: isothermal heat addition at temperature T H : adiabatic ( isentropic) expansion : isothermal heat rejection at temperature T L : adiabatic (isentropic) compression

The Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is invented by the German engineer Nikolaus Otto in 176 developing the idea of a four-stoke engine put forth by the Frenchman Alphonse Beau de Rochas in 1862. The cycle has the following processes.

1-2 : Adiabatic (isentropic) compression 2-3 : Constant volume heat addition 3-4 : Adiabatic (isentropic) expansion 4-1 : Constant volume heat rejection The air standard thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is given by
otto

Heat supplied - Heat rejected Heat supplied

mCv T3 T2

mCv T4

T1

mCv T3 T2

where m is the mass of air in the piston-cylender device, Cv the specific heat at constant volume, and T1,T2,.......... are the absolute temperatures at respective states. Thus,
T3 T2
otto

T4

T1

T3 T2

T4

T1

T3 T2

T1 T4 / T1 1 T2 T3 / T2 1

.......... (1)

For adiabatic process 1-2

T1V1
1

T2V2

or

T2 T1

V1 V2

............. (2)

Similarly, for adiabatic process 3 4

T3V3
1

T4V4
V4 V3

T or 3 T4

But V2 = V3 and V1 = V4, 2-3 and 4-1 being constant volume processes. Therefore,
T2 T1 T3 T4

or

T4 T1

T3 T2

Hence

T4 1 T1 1 T1 T2
1
1

T3 1 . Therefore, equation (1) above becomes T2 1 T2 / T1 1 1 V1 / V2

1

otto

otto

where

is the compression ratio and

Cp / C v

Diesel cycle Diesel cycle is the cycle on which the diesel engine works. Air standard diesel cycle consists of four reversible processes. Heat is supplied at constant pressure and rejected at constant volume. Expansion and compression of air takes place adiabatically. Fig. 1.38 shows these processes on p-V diagram. Consider a cylinder containing m kg of air. Let p 1, V1 and T1 be the pressure, volume and temperature of air inside the cylinder at state 1. This air is compressed adiabatically to state 2, doing work on the air. Curve 1-2 in the p-V diagram represents this process. Now heat is supplied to the air at constant pressure from an external hot body till state 3 is reached. This process is represented by a horizontal line 2-3 in the p-V diagram.

At state 3, the hot body is removed and the air is allowed to expand adiabatically to state 4, doing external work. This process is represented by curve 3-4 in the p-V diagram. Heat is rejected at constant volume to an external cold body till state 1 is reached. This process is represented by a vertical line 4-1 in the p-V diagram. Thus the air finally returns to its original state after completing a cycle. Heat supplied during constant volume process 2-3 = mCp (T3 T2) Heat rejected during constant volume process 4-1 = mCv (T4 T1) Air Standard efficiency,

Heat rejected Heat supplied

mC v (T4 T1 ) mC p (T3 T2 ) C v (T4 T1 ) C p (T3 T2 )

1 (T4 T1 ) (T3 T2 )

(i)

Let

V3 V V be the cutoff ratio , 4 be the expansion ratio r1 and 1 be the compression ratio r. The V2 V3 V2

relation between these three ratios is obtained as follows.

V4 V3
V1 V2

V4 V2
V2 V3

V2 V3

r1

r
r

r1

For the adiabatic process 1-2,

T2 T1

V1 V2

T2

V T1 1 V2
-1

T2 = T1r

(ii)

For the constant pressure process 2-3,

T3 T2 V3 V2

T3 = T 2 T3 = T 1 r
-1

(iii)

For the adiabatic process 3-4,

T3 T4
r

V4 V3
1

r1
r 1 1

T4

T3

1 r 1

Substituting for T3 from equation (iii)

T4

T1r 1

1 r 1
(iv)

T4 = T 1

Substituting the expressions for T 2, T3 and T4 in equation (i),

T1 T1 1 T1 r 1 T1 r
1 r
1

1 1 1

The above expression shows that the air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is a function of compression ratio, cutoff ratio and the ratio of specific heats.

OTTO CYCLE 1. Consists of two reversible adiabatic

DIESEL CYCLE Consists of two reversible adiabatic processes, one constant

(isentropic) processes and two reversible (isentropic)

constant volume processes with heat pressure heat addition process and one addition and rejection during the constant constant volume heat rejection process. volume processes. 2. Air standard efficiency is given by Air Standard efficiency is given by
1 1
1

1
1

c c

1 1
C

where

where

r = compression ratio,

= compression ratio. = cut-off ratio. = adiabatic exponent.

adiabatic exponent. 3. For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is higher than that of the Diesel cycle, i.e., 4.
otto Diesel

Petrol engines work on cycles Diesel

engine

work

on

cycles

approximating the Otto cycle.

approximating the Diesel cycle.

5. Compression ratios of practical petrol Much higher compression ratios can be engines are limited by engine knock thus adopted in diesel engines due to absence limiting the efficiencies achievable. of engine knock. Hence, practical diesel engines work at higher efficiencies than petrol engines.

BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER

In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. It manifests itself as a degree of hotness, and can be used to predict the direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for

temperature is T. The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. Heat, on the other hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one. The usual symbol for heat is Q. In the SI system, common units for measuring heat are the Joule and calorie. Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer Thermodynamics tells us: how much heat is transferred (dQ) how much work is done (dW) final state of the system

Heat transfer tells us: how (with what modes) dQ is transferred at what rate dQ is transferred temperature distribution inside the body

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of intermolecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of matter.
It is the transfer of heat within a substance, molecule by molecule. If you put one end of a metal rod over a fire, that end will absorb the energy from the flame (this is radiation transferring energy). The molecules at this end of the rod will gain energy and begin to vibrate faster. As they do their temperature increases and they begin to bump into the molecules next to them. The heat is being transfered from the warm end to the cold end.

Convection: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport.

Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation does not need matter.

1. Nptel Notes 2. SJCET- Palai notes 3. http://images.google.com/ 4. http://www.wikipedia.org/

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