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Whenever the body is in need of additional energy during conditions like fasting,
strenuous exercise etc, glucose is released from this energy reserve glycogen and the
necessary energy is gained. Glycogen is present as β particles, and having a size of
approximately 30 nm in diameter consisting up to 60,000 glucose units.
Central nervous system (CNS) depends upon the hepatic glycogen for its energy
requirements. If we can compare glycogen with fats, the primary suppliers of energy in
our body, glycogen can be rapidly mobilized in skeletal muscles. Even it can be utilized a
fuel substrate in the absence of oxygen.
Glycogen can maintain blood glucose levels for the use of certain significant tissues like
the brain. One disadvantage about fats is that the carbon atoms of fat can not be used
by any pathway of the body. Glycogen stores significantly more limited than adipose
tissue.
Increased storage of glycogen levels can double the duration of exhaustive work.
Instead, if there are low or depleted glycogen stores, then it will limit exercise intensity,
decreases time to exhaustion.
The average person stores enough glycogen for 12 to 14 hours. The average amount of
glycogen ingested daily is 400 grams. In order to maintain an adequate supply to the
body, a minimum of 100 grams of carbohydrates should be consumed daily.
Structure of Glycogen:
Glycogen is primarily made by the liver and the muscles, but can also be synthesized by
the brain, uterus, and the vagina.
In the liver hepatocytes, glycogen can compose up to 8% of the fresh weight of an adult
soon after a meal. Even glycogen is synthesized in liver, brain and muscles, only the
glycogen stored in the liver can be made accessible to other organs.
In the muscles, glycogen is found in a much lower concentration, but the total amount
exceeds than that of the liver. Traces of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even
smaller amounts in the brain and white blood cells.
The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo. It is also
secreted in the vagina which is ultimately converted into lactic acid to maintain the acidic
environment in order to avoid outside bacterial infections.
2. Introduction to Glycogen Metabolism
Glucose enters the cells in the body by facilitated diffusion. The glucose levels in blood
are kept at approximately constant levels around 4-5 mM.
This process does not allow the cell to contain glucose at a higher concentration than
the one present in the bloodstream; the cell chemically modifies glucose by the process
of phosphorylation with the help of the enzyme hexokinase.
Large amounts of glucose-6-phosphate inside the cell create and increase the osmotic
pressure. In these conditions, water will tend to flow into the cell, increasing its volume.
This eventually leads to the cell lysis.
In order to prevent this, the cell stores glucose-6-phosphate as a polymer which is the
glycogen. Glycogen is a sparsely soluble and this property makes it osmotically inactive.
It is a branched polysaccharide, composed of glucose monomers joined through
glycosidic bonds of the type α 1-4 and α 1-6 in the branching points.
In order to be used for glycogen synthesis, glucose-6-fosfato is first isomerized to
glucose-1-fosfato by the enzyme fosfoglucomutase.
Addition of glucose-1-phosphate to the 4' carbon of a glycogen chain is not favored
thermodynamically. Glucose-1-phosphate will therefore be activated by transformation
into a species with high phosphate transfer potential.
UDP-glucose has a high phosphate transfer potential, and this allows it to donate
glucose to the 4' end of a glycogen chain, in a reaction catalyzed by glycogen synthase:
Glycogen synthase can only add glucose to pre-existent glycogen chains and it is unable
to start the synthesis of a new glycogen molecule.
(α 1-4 → α 1-6)
Glycogen synthase:
This enzyme converts excess glucose residues one by one into a polymeric chain for
storage as glycogen.
Branching enzyme:
The last residue in the branch (with a (α 1-6) glycosidic bond) is removed by
hydrolysis, yielding free glucose and debranched glycogen. Hydrolysis of this
residue is catalyzed by the same debranching enzyme.
Glycogen phosphorylase is much faster than the debranching enzyme, and
therefore the outer branches of glycogen are degraded very rapidly in muscle
when much energy is needed.
Glycogen degradation beyond this point demands the action of the debranching
enzyme and is therefore slower.
Diabetes mellitus:
Hypoglycemia:
In hypoglycemia caused by excessive insulin, liver glycogen levels are high, but the high
insulin level prevents the glycogenolysis necessary to maintain normal blood sugar
levels.
Glycogenoses:
The devastating effect of many glycogen storage diseases depends on the severity of
the mutation causing the deficiency. In addition, although the glycogen storage diseases
are attributed to specific enzyme deficiencies, other events can cause the same
characteristic symptoms.
Points to Remember: