ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION: - Organic chemistry is the behavioral study of those chemicals which

are not only used in our daily life but also touches all walks of our
life. Our very own existence, growth and survival depends on
organic chemicals.

Domain of organic chemistry is so vast that it not only extends to

whole universe around us but also exists deep inside us down to the
level of microscopic cell and tissue. That is why study of these
chemicals though is very simple yet very complex but very
important.

DEFINITION: - Definition of organic chemistry is being constantly modified. In the

eighteenth century it was the study of chemicals found in
organism. It was so called because it was thought that organic
chemicals could not be synthesized in the laboratory.

However now large number of chemicals is not only prepared in

laboratory but also produce industrially. During the process of
research it was discovered that all organic compounds contain
carbon.

Therefore modern definition is the study of carbon compound.

Although there are quite a few compound which contain carbon and
are not organic.
But the name organic stuck because it is still the study of
chemical found in living being

CONSTITUENT 1) Carbon – Present in all organic compounds

ORGANIC
2) Hydrogen - It is not found in few compound but present in
most compounds of organic chemicals

In addition to these element nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, bromine,

sulfur, phosphor, etc as well as some metals are also present in
organic chemicals

COMPOUND: - A compound is formed when at least two atoms are bonded to

each other.
However there are several compound which contain more than two
atoms
BONDS: - a) These are forces that keep the two atoms together.
b) The attractive and repulsive electrostatic forces between
negatively charged electrons and positively charged nuclei
bond the two atoms

c) Principals of higher stability to posses lower energy is the

cause of formation of bond.

d) Electrons posses energy. Lower energy increases stability

Hence electrons are constantly thriving for opportunity to
reduce their energy. The energy is minimum when the
electrons are nearest to nuclei and maximum when farthest from
electron.

When two atoms come closer electrons of one atom are nearest
to nuclei and farthest from the electron of other atom. This
conditions suit the electron and nuclei of both atoms. Thus
both atoms posses lower energy and achieve higher stability

Stability of atoms is also explained on the basis of electronic

configuration of inert gasses. All the gasses are highly stable.
Nobel gasses (inert gasses) have either two or eight electron in
their outer most shell. This explains that atoms are highly stable
when they either have eight or two electrons in their outer most
shell.

Octet rule: - The presence of eight electrons in outer most shell

Duet rule: - The presence of two electrons in outer most shell

TYPE OF BOND

a) Ionic bond: - Ionic bond is formed when both bonding atoms achieve octet or duet
by loosing or accepting electron e.g. MgO (Magnesium Oxide)
 Magnesium oxide is formed when two electrons from magnesium is
transferred to oxygen. Thus both atoms achieve their octet.

b) Covalent bond: - The bond is formed when the atomic orbital overlap each other. The
two overlapped atomic orbital form a single orbital called – Bond
Orbital which contains electrons from both atoms. Thus electrons
in bond orbital is shared by both atoms forming the bond.

Sharing of electrons follow octet and duet rule with few exception
Covalent bond needs minimum two electrons to form a bond, one
from each of the atom forming the bond. However the two
electrons can also come from same atom

Single bond: - A bond is called single bond when one pair of electron is shared between
bonded atoms.
Double bond: - Double bond needs two pairs of electron to be shared.
Triple bond: - For formation of triple bond three pairs of electron are required

Coordination : It is the bond formed when the two electrons come from the same
Atom bond
Sigma bond : The σ – bond is formed by head on overlap of atomic orbital
( σ – bond ) along a line drawn between the nuclei of the two atom. The
σ - bond is formed by haring of one pair of electron.

Pi – bond Pi – bond is formed in addition to σ – bond. After the formation

(∏ - bond ) of σ – bond when orbital of the bonding overlap side ways a
pi – bond is formed. Carbon can form maximum two pi – bond
First side way overlap of orbital forms one pi – bond and second
side way overlapping of orbital form two pi – bond.

A sigma bond forms a single bond. A pi – bond forms double bond

one sigma and one pi – bond and a triple bond is formed when one
sigma and two pi – bonds are formed.

Formulae: - Organic chemistry needs in depth knowledge of various

Compounds, their physical and chemical properties, In order to study all
these properties it is essential to know constituent of the compound

To study these compounds a system of formulae have been developed.

There are various types of formulae and each serves a different purpose.

Type of Formulae;-

Molecular formula;- It shows exact number of atoms of various elements

present in the compound.
Ethyl alcohol is represented as C2H5OH it means two
carbon atoms, five hydrogen atoms attached to carbon
and one atom of each oxygen and hydrogen attach to carbon

Empirical formula:- It represent simplest ratio of number of atoms present in a

Compound. Benzene (molecular formula C6H6 ) and
Glucose( molecular formula C6H12O6 ) has empirical formula CH
and respectively

Structural formulae;- These are very important tools used by the organic
chemists. It is like infrared glasses which allows to see
through the darkness inside a molecule.

It has been established that chemical and physical

 behavior of a compound is determined by molecular
structure. It shows connectivity among various atoms.

Dash formula: - The formulae not only shows exact number of atoms present in a
molecule but also how they are connected with each
other. e.g. ethyl alcohol and diethyl both have the same
molecular formula C2H6O but different structure

Dash formula does not show three dimensional structures

Dash and wedge

formula : This formula shows three dimensional structures as
well as exact number of atom present in a molecule.

Connectivity is shown by these ways. A dash, a solid

wedge and a dashed wedge.
Atom attached to solid wedge represents that it is coming out of
paper, while a dashed wedge shows atom going into the paper and
simple dash means atoms are in the plane of paper.
Lewis dot
Structure: The structure shows how electrons of each atom are shared
to complete either their octet or duet of the unshared
electrons are shown attached to the particular atom. The
electrons completing octet or duet are shown encircled.

Condensed
Formula: - The formula shows molecular formula in expanded form.
Propyle alcohol has molecular formula C3H7OH while
condensed formula is CH3CH2CH2OH. It does not show any
bond and it also does not follow any bond order, e.g. in CH2Cl2
chlorine shown in the formula do not bond to hydrogen but
bonded to carbon.
Bond line
formula : The formula does not show any carbon and hydrogen atom
attached to carbon. Each line represents a bond. Carbon is
present at each bending, line intersection, and the end of the line.
Hydrogen attach to carbon is calculated by subtracting number of
bond from valency of carbon

The other atoms or group of atom are shown at the location wherever these are present.

Fisher projections
formula : The carbon atom at the intersection of vertical and
horizontal line is not shown. In Fisher projections the
vertical lines are out of the plane of paper and horizontal
lines are in the plane of paper.
Newman projection
formula : The formula is used only for the molecules which have
two or more than two carbons. Molecules are viewed in
such a way that the first two carbons are in line and one is
exactly behind the other. Intersecting lines at a point

represent one carbon while a large circle represents

another. All sigma bonds are shown at the end of lines
extended redially outwards

Ball and stick

formula : The model shows 3 – D effect of the molecule. Another
important aspect of the model is that atoms, bond
length and bond angles are made to correct scale and
dimension. It means a large atom is shown larger
than a smaller atom as well as longer bond length
 shown larger than a smaller bond length.

All the structural representations have their usefulness and importance.

Writing of Lewis dot structure

Lewis dot structures are very important in organic chemistry. It shows

the sharing of electron between bonded atom as well as how non
bonded electrons are placed. It shows only valence electrons are
arranged around the constituent atom in such a way that all atoms
complete their octet and hydrogen atom its duet.

The method and procedure of developing Lewis dot structure is

explained by using a molecule of sulfur trioxide SO3

Step ( 1) Calculate total number of valence electron of all the atoms present in the
molecule
 (2) Determine the central atom - The central atom should be either of the
element with least electronegetivty or of the element with single atom in
the molecule. In the example the element with single atom is sulfur

(3) Arrange sulfur in the centre with

three oxygen atoms around it.

( 4) Each oxygen atom is bonded

to sulfur atom by one pair of
electrons. Arrange three pairs
around sulfur
( 5) Arrange non bonded pairs of oxygen
around oxygen to complete valence
electron of oxygen.

(6) The valence electrons of oxygen

are complete. However valency
of sulfur is incomplete.

(7) Arrange one pair from any oxygen atom

around sulfur to complete valency
of sulfur
 As a result of these steps every atom
completes its octet and Lewis dot
structure of sulfur trioxide is complete.

In formation of Lewis structure it is irrelevant that which electron comes from which
atom.
The only important fact is that hydrogen should complete its duet and the other
atoms their octet.

Valance: - It is the number of electrons of an atom which form bond. Valance of some of
the element forming organic compound are
Formal charge: It is the difference in number of valence electron in bonded form and
number of electron in valence shell of the unbounded atom. It is not
the charge of ion but the charge on each atom in the molecule
However sum of formal charges of all atoms is formal charge of
the molecule.

Index of hydrogen deficiency: It is very useful in obtaining structural information about

an unknown molecule from its molecular formula.. It is
defined as number of pairs of Hydrogen atoms that must
be subtracted from the molecular formula of
corresponding alkane to give the molecular formula of
 the compound under consideration.

For this purpose halogen is counted as hydrogen, Oxygen is not considered and
nitrogen is counted as half hydrogen. Index of hydrogen deficiency for
saturated hydrocarbon is always zero

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