Chapter 1: Vectors

1.1 Basic concepts

1.2 Dot product

- Definition
- Angle between 2 vectors

1.3 Cross product

- Definition
- Area of parallelogram/triangle

1.4 Lines in space

- Parametric and symmetric equation
- Angle between two lines
- Intersection of two lines
- Distance from a point to a line

1.5 Planes in Space

- Equation of a plane
- Intersection of two planes
- Angle between two planes
- Angle between a line and a plane
- Shortest distance
- from a point to a plane
- between two parallel planes
- between two skewed lines

1
1.1: Basic concepts

Vector: quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

E.g: Force, velocity.

A vector can be represented by a directed line segment where

the
i) length of the line represents the magnitude
ii) direction of the line represents the direction

2
Notation:
Q Q
Q
§
a
PQ QP P
P P

Vector components:

v =ai+bj
a and b: scalar component
i and j : direction

In 3D:
v = a i + b j + c k or v =< a, b, c >

Note that v =< a, b, c > ≠ v = (a, b, c)

3
• The vector PQ with initial point P( x1, y1, z1 ) and terminal
point Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) has the standard representation
PQ = ( x2 − x1 )i + ( y2 − y1 ) j + ( z2 − z1 )k
Or PQ =< x2 − x1, y2 − y1, z2 − z1 >

4
Important Formulae

Let v = v1 , v 2 , v3 and w = w1 , w2 , w3 be vectors in 3D

space and k is a constant.

1. Magnitude
2 2 2
v = v1 + v 2 + v3

2. Unit vector in the direction of v is

v v1 , v2 , v3
vˆ = =
v v

3. v ± w = v1 ± w1 , v2 ± w2 , v3 ± w3

5
Example 1.1.1:
Given that a = 3,1,−2 , b = − 1,6,4 . Find
(a) a + 3b (b) b (c) a unit vector in the direction of b.

Example 1.1.2: (Test 1, Sem 1 2006/07)

Given the vectors u = 3i + j − 5k and v = 4i − 2 j + 7 k .
a) Find a unit vector in the direction of 2u + v.

Example 1.1.3:
Given two points, P(1,0,1) and Q(3,2,0). Find a unit vector u in the
direction of PQ .

Example 1.1.4: (Test 2, Sem 1 2005/06)

If a  2i  j  3k , b  4i  2 j and c  2i  j . Find the
value of p, q and r such 4i  6 j  k  pa + qb + rc .

Example 1.1.5: (Test 1, Sem 1 2007/08)

Given that
u  4i  j  k , v  2i  3 j  k and w  5i  j  2k . Find
a) the vector u + 2v.
b) the unit vector which has the opposite direction to the vector w.

Example 1.1.6: (Test 1, Sem 1 2005/06) :

Given the vector u  1, 2, 2 , v  1,0, 7 . Find the unit
vector in the direction of u + v.

6
1.2 The Dot Product (The Scalar Product)
The scalar product between two vectors
v = < v1, v2 , v3 > and w = < w1, w2 , w3 > is defined as
follows:
in components
v ⋅ w = v1 , v 2 , v3 ⋅ w1 , w2 , w3
= v1 w1 + v 2 w2 + v3 w3

geometrically
v ⋅ w = v w cosθ
where θ is the angle between v and w.

7
 Example 1.2.1 (Test 1, Sem 2 2006/07)
Given u = 5i – j + 2k, v = 2i + 3j – k. Find
a) u gv
b) the angle between u and b

Example 1.2.2 (Test 1, Sem 1 2006/07)

Given the vectors u = 3i + j − 5k and v = 4i − 2 j + 7 k .
a) Find the angle between u and v.

Example 1.2.3 (Final Sem 1, 2005/06)

The coordinates of A,B and C are A(1,1,-1), B(-1,2,3) and C(-2,1,1).
Find the angle ABC, giving your answer to nearest degree.

Example 1.2.4 (Final Sem 2, 2006/07)

Given the vectors a = 2i + 2j – 3k and b = i + 3j + k . Find the angle
between a and b.

Example 1.2.5 (Test 1, 2005/06)

Given u = mi + j and v = 3i + 2j. Find the values of m if the angle

between u and v is . Ans: 1/5, -5

Example 1.2.6 (Test 1, Sem 1 2005/06) :

Given the vector u  1, 2, 2 , v  1,0, 7 . Find the angle
between u and v.

8
 Theorem 1.6:(Angle between two vectors)

The nature of an angle θ , between two vectors

u and v.
1. θ is an acute angle if and only if u ⋅ v > 0
2. θ is an obtuse angle if and only if u ⋅ v < 0
3. θ = 90  if and only if u ⋅ v = 0

Example 1.2.7 (Final, Sem 1 2004/05)

Given a = i + j + k and b = i + α j − 5k .
a) Find the value of α if the vectors a and b are orthogonal.
b) If α = 3, find a unit vector which is orthogonal to the vectors a and b.
(Hint: use cross product)

Example 1.2.8 (Test 1, Sem 1 2004/05)

Given u = 4i – j + k, v = 2i + 3j – k and w = 5i – j + 2k.
Find the scalar α such that v is orthogonal to the vectors u – α w.

Example 1.2.9 (Test 1, Sem 2 2006/07)

Given u = 5i – j + 2k, v = 2i + 3j – k. Find the scalar α such that v is
orthogonal to (u – α v).

Example 1.2.10 (Final, Sem 1 2007/08) :

a) Find the values of x if vector a  x,3, x and b  x, 2, 5 are

orthogonal.
b) A vector v has magnitude 8. If v is orthogonal to both vectors c and
d given by c  2,1, 3 and d  1, 2,1 find the vector v.

9
1.3 The Cross Products (Vector Products)
The cross product (vector product) u × v is a vector
perpendicular to u and v whose direction is determined by the
right hand rule and whose length is determined by the lengths
of u and v and the angle between them.

u× v v

θ
u

Theorem :(cross product)

If u = u1i + u 2 j + u 3 k and v = v1i + v 2 j + v3 k , then

i j k
u × v = u1 u 2 u3
v1 v 2 v3
= (u 2 v3 − u 3 v 2 )i − (u1v3 − u 3 v1 ) j + (u1v 2 − u 2 v1)k

10
Definition 1.10: (Magnitude of Cross Product)
If u and v are nonzero vectors, and θ ( 0 < θ < π ) is the
angle between u and v, then
u × v = u v sin θ ,

Theorem 1.9 (Properties of Cross Product)

The cross product obeys the laws
(a) u × u =0
(b) u × v = −( v × u )
(c) u × ( v + w ) = u × v + u × w
(d) ( ku ) × v = u × ( kv ) = k ( u × v )
(e) u // v if and only if u×v = 0
(f) u × 0 = 0× u = 0

11
Example 1.3.1

Given that u = 3,0,4 and v = 1,5,−2 , find

(a) u × v (b) v × u

Example 1.3.2 (Final 2004/05)

Given a = i + j + k and b = i + 3 j − 5k .
Find a unit vector which is orthogonal to the vectors a and b.

Example 1.3.3 (Final Sem 1, 2005/2006)

Find a unit vector perpendicular to both vectors

Example 1.3.4 (Test 1, Sem 1 2005/06) :

Given the vector u  1, 2, 2 , v  1,0, 7 . Find the angle
between u × v .

12
Area of parallelogram & triangle

Area of a parallelogram = u v sin θ = u × v

1
Area of triangle = u × v
2

Example 1.3.5 (Final Sem 2, 2006/2007)

Find an area of a parallelogram bounded by two vectors

Example 1.3.6 (Test 1, Sem 1 2007/08)

Given u = 4i – j + k and v = 2i + 3j – k. Find the area of a
parallelogram bounded by vectors u and v.

Example 1.3.7: (Test 1, Sem 1 2006/07)

Given the vectors u = 3i + j − 5k and v = 4i − 2 j + 7 k . Find the
area of a parallelogram bounded by vectors u and v.

13
Example 1.3.8
Find an area of a triangle that is formed from vectors
u = i + j - 3k and v = -6j + 5k.

Example 1.3.9
Find the area of the triangle having vertices at P (1,3,2),
Q(-2,1,3) and R(3,-2,-1). Ans: 11.52sq units.

Example 1.3.10 (Test 1, Sem 2 2006/07)

Given u = 5i – j + 2k, v = 2i + 3j – k. Find the area of a parallelogram
that bounded by vectors u and v.

Example 1.3.11: (Final Sem 2, 2006/07)

Given the vectors a = 2i + 2j – 3k and b = i + 3j + k . Find the area
of a parallelogram bounded on two sides by vectors a and b.

14
1.4 Lines in Space
1.4.1 How lines can be defined using vectors?

Suppose L is a straight line that passes through

P( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and is parallel to the vector
v = ai + bj + ck .

Thus, a point Q ( x, y , z ) also lies on the line L if vectors

PQ and v are parallel, that is:

PQ = t v
Say r0 = OP and r = OQ

∴ PQ = r − r0

r − r0 = tv or r = r0 + tv

In component form,

< x, y, z >=< x0 , y0 , z 0 > +t < a, b, c >

15
 (equation of line in vector component)

Theorem 1.11(Parametric Equations for a Line)

The line through the point P ( x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and parallel to the

nonzero vector V = a, b, c has the parametric equations

x = x0 + at , y = y 0 + bt , z = z 0 + ct

Example 1.4.1:
Give the parametric equations for the line through the point (6,4,3)
and parallel to the vector 2,0,−7 .

Example 1.4.2: (Final 2004/05)

The position vectors of points A and B are and

. Find the parametric equation of the line AB.

Example 1.4.3: (Test 1, Sem 1 2007/08)

Find the parametric equations for the line r = 2,1, 1  t 4, 1,1 .

Example 1.4.4: (Test 1, Sem 1 2005/06)

Find the parametric equations for the line passing through (1,6,-4) and
(3,2,-7).

Example 1.4.5: (Final, Sem 1 2006/07)

16
Find the vector u which is perpendicular to both vectors a = i - 2j + k
and b = -2i + j – k and hence write down the parametric equations of
the straight line which passes through (2,3,1) and is parrarel to u.

Theorem 1.12 (Symmetric Equations for a line)

The line through the point P ( x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and parallel to the

nonzero vector V = a, b, c has the symmetrical equations

x − x0 y − y 0 z − z 0
= =
a b c
Example 1.4.6:
Given that the symmetrical equations of a line in space is

2x + 1 3 − y z + 4
= = , find
3 4 2
(a) a point on the line.
(b) a vector that is parallel to the line.

Example 1.4.7: (Test 1, 2006/07)

The line l is passing through the points X(2,0,5) and Y(-3,7,4).
Write the equation of l in symmetrical form.

Example 1.4.8: (Test 1, Sem 2 2005/06)

Given a line L: .

17
Write the equation of L in symmetrical form.

1.4.2 Angle Between Two Lines

Consider two straight lines

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
l1 : = =
a b c
x − x2 y − y 2 z − z 2
and l2 : = =
d e f
The line l1 parallel to the vector u = ai + bj + ck and the
line l 2 parallel to the vector v = di + ej + fk . Since the
lines l1 and l 2 are parallel to the vectors u and v respectively,

then the angle, θ between the two lines is given by

u⋅v
cosθ =
uv

18
Example 1.4.9:
Find an acute angle between line
l1 = i + 2j + t(2i – j + 2k)
and line
l 2 = 2i – j + k + s(3i – 6j + 2k).

Example 1.4.10: (Test 1, Sem 1 2006/07)

Find the angle between lines l1 and l2 which are defined by

19
1.4.3 Intersection of Two Lines
In three-dimensional coordinates (space), two lines can be in
one of the three cases as shown below

20
 a) intersect b) parallel c)skewed

Let l1 and l2 are given by:

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
l1 : = = and (1)
a b c
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
l2 : = = (2)
d e f
From (1), we have v1 = < a, b, c >
From (2), we have v 2 = < d , e, f >

Two lines are parallel if we can write

v1 = λ v 2

The parametric equations of l1 and l2 are:

21
l1 : x = x1 + a t
y = y1 + b t
z = z1 + c t

l2 : x = x2 + ds 

y = y2 + es  (3)
z = z2 + fs 


Two lines are intersect if there exist unique

values of t and s such that:
x1 + a t = x2 + ds
y1 + b t = y2 + es
z1 + c t = z2 + fs
Substitute the value of t and s in (3) to get x, y
and z. The point of intersection = (x, y, z)

22
Two lines are skewed if they are neither parallel
nor intersect.

Example 1:
Determine whether l1 and l2 are parallel,
intersect or skewed.

a) l1 : x = 3 + 3t , y = 1 − 4t , z = −4 − 7t
l 2 : x = 2 + 3s , y = 5 − 4 s , z = 3 − 7 s

23
 x −1 2 − y
b) l1 : = =z
1 4
x−4 z+2
l2 : = y −3 =
−1 3

Solutions:
a) for l1 :
point on the line, P = (3, 1, - 4)
vector that parallel to line, v1 =< 3,−4,−7 >
for l2 :
point on the line, Q = (2, 5, 3)
vector that parallel to line, v 2 =< 3,−4,−7 >

24
 v1 = λ v 2 ?
v1 = v 2 where λ = 1
Therefore, lines l1 and l2 are parallel.

b) Symmetrical eq’s of l1 and l2 can be rewrite as:

x −1 y − 2 z − 0
l1 : = =
1 −4 1
x − 4 y − 3 z − (−2)
l2 : = =
−1 1 3
Therefore:
for l1 : P = (1, 2, 0) , v1 =< 1,−4,1 >
for l2 : Q = (4, 3, -2) , v 2 =< −1,1, 3 >
v1 = λ v 2 ?

25
 v1 ≠ λ v 2 → not parallel.

In parametric eq’s:
l1 : x  1  t , y  2  4t , z  t
l2 : x  4  s , y  3  s , z  2  3s

1 t  4  s (1)
2  4t  3  s (2)
t  2  3 s (3)
Solve the simultaneous equations (1), (2), and
(3) to get t and s.

5 7
s and t 
4 4

The value of t and s must satisfy (1), (2), and (3).

Clearly they are not satisfying (2) i.e

26
 7 5
2  3 ?
4 4
1 17

4 4

Therefore, lines l1 and l2 are not intersect.

This implies the lines are skewed!

1.4.4 Distance From A Point To A Line

Q


PQ sin θ

θ
P
v

27
 Distance from a point Q to a line that passes through
point P parallel to vector v is equal to the length of the
component of PQ perpendicular to the line.

d = PQ sin θ
PQ × v
=
v

Example 1.4.11:(Test 1, 2005/06)

Given a line L: .
Find the shortest distance from a point Q(4,1,-2) to the line L.

Example 1.4.12:
Find the shortest distance from the point M(1,-2,2) to the line

Example 1.4.13: (Test 1, Sem 1 2005/06)

Find the shortest distance from the point (-2,1,7) to the line

28
Example 1.4.14: (Test 1, Sem 1 2005/06)
Find the shortest distance from the point (-2,1,0) to the line

Example 1.4.14: (Test 1, Sem 1 2007/08)

Find the shortest distance from the point (4,5,1) to the line

1.5 Planes in Space

1.5.1 Equation of a Plane
Suppose that α is a plane. Point P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and Q( x, y, z )

lie on it. If N = ai + bj + ck is a non-null vector perpendicular

(ortoghonal) to α , then N is perpendicular to PQ .

N

Q (x,y,z)
α
P (xo,y0,z0)

Thus, PQ ⋅ N = 0

< x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z 0 > ⋅ < a, b, c >= 0

a ( x − x0 ) + b ( y − y 0 ) + c ( z − z 0 ) = 0

29
Conclusion:
The equation of a plane can be determined if a point on the
plane and a vector orthogonal to the plane are known.

Theorem 1.13 (Equation of a Plane)

The plane through the point P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and with the nonzero

normal vector N = a, b, c has the equation

Point-normal form:
a ( x − x 0 ) + b( y − y 0 ) + c ( z − z 0 ) = 0
Standard form:
ax + by + cz = d with d = ax0 + by0 + cz0

Example 1.5.1:
Give an equation for the plane through the point (2, 3, 4) and perpendicular to

the vector 6,5, 4 .

Example 1.5.2: (Final 2006/07)

Find the equation of a plane through (2,3,-5) and perpendicular to the line l:

30
Example 1.5.3: (Test 1, 2005/06)
Given the plane that contains points A(2,1,7), B(4,-2,-1), and C(3,5,-2). Find:
a) The normal vector to the plane
b) The equation of the plane in standard form

Example 1.5.4:
Find the parametric equations for the line through the point (5, -3, 2) and

perpendicular to the plane 6x + 2 y − 7 z = 5.

1.5.2 Intersection Of Two Planes

Intersection of two planes is a line. (L)

To obtain the equation of the intersecting line, we need

1) a point on the line L
2) a vector that is parallel to the line L which is given by
= N1 × N 2
If N =< a, b, c > , then the equation of the line L is

31
 x − x0 y − y 0 z − z 0
= =
a b c (symmetric)

or

x = x 0 + at , y = y 0 + bt , z = z 0 + ct (parametric)

Example 1.5.5:
Find the equation of the line passing through P(2,3,1) and
parallel to the line of intersection of the planes x + 2y - 3z = 4
and x - 2y + z = 0.

32
 1.5.3 Angle Between Two Planes
Properties of two planes

33
 (a) An angle between the crossing planes is an angle
between their normal vectors.
N1 ⋅ N 2
cosθ =
N1 N 2
(b) Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal
vectors are parallel, N1 = λN 2
(c) Two planes are orthogonal if and only if N1 ⋅ N 2 = 0 .

Example 1.5.6:
Find the angle between plane 3 x + 4 y = 0 and plane
2 x + y − 2 z = 5.

Example 1.5.7: (test 1, Sem 2 2006/07)

Let P(2,2,2), Q(1,-2,3), R(-1,0,5) and S(5,1,2). Find
a) the normal vector to the plane PQR.
b) the equation of the plane PQS.
c) the angle between PQR and PQS.

1.5.4 Angle Between A Line And A Plane

34
 L

Let α be the angle between the normal vector N to a plane

π and the line L. Then we have

where v is vector parallel to L.

If θ is the angle between the line L and the plane π , then
π π
α +θ = ⇒ θ = −α
2 2
π 
and sin θ = sin  − α  = cos α
2 
Therefore, the angle between a line and a plane is
v ⋅N
sin θ =
vN

Example 1.5.8: (Final exam, 2006/07)

35
Calculate the angle between the plane x – 2y + z = 4 and the

line .

Example 1.5.9: (Test 1, 2007/08)

Given the plane that contains points A(4,1,2), B(1,-1,0),
C(0,4,2) and D(0,1,1). Find the angle between the plane ABC
and the line that passes through points C and D

1.5.5 Shortest Distance Involving Planes

36
(a) From a Point to a Plane

-Theorem-
The distance D between a point P ( x1, y1, z1 ) and
the plane ax + by + cz = d is

N ⋅ QP ax1 + by1 + cz1 − d

D= =
N a 2 + b2 + c2
Where Q( x0 , y0 , z0 ) is any point on the plane.
N
P( x1, y1, z1 )



D D




Q( x0 , y0 , z0 )

Example 1.5.10: (Test 1, 2006/07)

37
 x 1 1 y z 1
a) Find the point where the line   passes
3 2 3
through the plane 5x + 3y - 4z = 3.

b) Find the distance D between the point (4, 5, -8) and the

plane 2 x  6 y  3z  4  0 .

Example 1.5.11:
i. Show that the line
x 1 y z 1
 
3 2 1

is parallel to the plane 3x − 2 y + z = 1 .

ii. Find the distance from the line to the plane in part (a).

Example 1.5.12: (Test 1, 2005/06)

a) Find the point of intersection between the plane 2x + 3y – 2z =

1 x y 1 z 1
6 with thw line  
2 3 4

c) b) Find the shortest distance from the point (-2,1,6) to the

plane 3x  2 y  6 z  5  0 .

Example 1.5.12: (Test 1, Sem 2 2006/07)

Show that the line l : x = 1 – 3t, y = -2 + 6t, z = 3 + 3t is parallel to the
plane x – 2y + 5z. Hence, find the distance between l and the plane.

38
(b) Between two parallel
planes

The distance between two parallel planes

ax + by + cz = d1 and ax + by + cz = d 2 is given by

d1 − d 2
D=
a2 + b2 + c2

Example 1.5.13:
Find the distance between two parallel planes
x + 2 y − 2 z = 3 and 2 x + 4 y − 4 z = 7 .

39
(c) Between two skewed lines

N  uv
L2
Q
v

θ L1
u
P
Assume L1 and L2 are skew lines in space
containing the points P and Q and are parallel to
vectors u and v respectively.

Then the shortest distance between L1 and L2 is

the perpendicular distance between the two lines

40
and its direction is given by a vector normal to
both lines.

So, the distance between the two lines is

d  PQ cos 
N PQ  u  v  PQ
 
N uv

Example 1.5.14:
Find the shortest distance between the skewed
lines.
l1 : x = 1+2t, y = -1+ t , z = 2 + 4t

l2 : x = -2+4s, y = -3s , z = -1+s

41
Example 1.5.15:
Find the distance between the lines
L1 : i + 2 j + 3k + t (i − k )
L2 : x = 0, y = 1 + 2t , z = 3 + t

Example 1.5.16:
Find the distance between the lines L1 through
the points A(1, 0, -1 ) and B(-1, 1, 0) and the
line L2 through the points C(3, 1, -1) and
D(4, 5, -2) .

42
43