MATHEMATICS

(COURSE MATERIAL FOR DEPARTMENTAL PROMOTION EXAMINATION (DPE))

Mathematics

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1.

Operations With Indices:............................................................................................................. 7

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

2.

Multiplication............................................................................................................. 7 Division ...................................................................................................................... 7 Negative Powers ........................................................................................................ 7 Base Raised To Two Powers ..................................................................................... 8 Multiple Bases To The Same Power .......................................................................... 8 Fractional Powers....................................................................................................... 8 The 0 And 1 Power .................................................................................................... 8 The Laws Of Indices .................................................................................................. 9

Surds: .......................................................................................................................................... 10

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

3.

Simplification Of Surds ........................................................................................... 10 Basic Rule Of Surds ................................................................................................. 10 Surds As Indices ...................................................................................................... 10 Rationalizing The Denominator ............................................................................... 10 Splitting Up Roots.................................................................................................... 11

Equations: ................................................................................................................................... 12

3.1 Manipulating Expressions.............................................................................................. 12 3.1.1 Collecting Like Terms ..................................................................................... 12 3.1.2 Multiplication................................................................................................... 12 3.1.3 Fractions ........................................................................................................... 12 3.2 Solving Equations ......................................................................................................... 13 3.2.1 Changing The Subject Of An Equation ................................................................. 13 3.2.2 Solving Quadratic Equations ................................................................................ 14 3.3 Simultaneous Equations ................................................................................................. 14 3.3.1 Elimination Method .............................................................................................. 15 3.3.2 Substitution Method ......................................................................................... 15 3.3.3 Graphical Method ................................................................................................. 17 3.3.4 Solving Problems With Simultaneous Equations ................................................. 17
4. Polynomials:................................................................................................................................ 19

4.1 Basics Of Polynomials ................................................................................................... 19 4.1.1 Degrees Of Polynomials ....................................................................................... 19 4.1.2 Notation................................................................................................................. 19 4.2 Operations With Polynomials ........................................................................................ 20 4.2.1 Addition ................................................................................................................ 20 4.2.2 Subtraction ............................................................................................................ 20 4.2.3 Multiplication........................................................................................................ 21 4.2.4 Multiplication Table.............................................................................................. 21 4.2.5 Long Multiplicatio ................................................................................................ 22 4.2.6 Division Of Polynomials: ...................................................................................... 22

Page 3 of 102

Mathematics

4.2.6.1 Long Division ............................................................................................... 22 4.2.6.2 Synthetic Division .......................................................................................... 23 4.2.6.3 Remainder Theorem...................................................................................... 24 4.3 Factorizing .................................................................................................................... 25 4.3.1 The Factor Theorem ......................................................................................... 25 4.4 The Rational Root Theorem..................................................................................... 25 4.5 Curves Of Polynomials .................................................................................................. 26 4.5.1 Turning Points ....................................................................................................... 26 4.5.2 Behavior With Extreme Values Of X ................................................................... 27 4.5.3 Intersections With Axes ........................................................................................ 27 4.6 Quadratic Expressions ................................................................................................... 28 4.6.1 Graph..................................................................................................................... 28 4.6.2 Completing The Square ........................................................................................ 28 4.6.3 The Quadratic Formula ......................................................................................... 31 4.6.4 The Discriminant .................................................................................................. 32
5. Error Bounds And Inequalities: ............................................................................................... 33

5.1 Errors.............................................................................................................................. 33 5.1.1 Absolute Error ....................................................................................................... 33 5.1.2 Relative Error ................................................................................................... 33 5.1.3 Percentage Error.................................................................................................... 34 5.2 Inequalities ..................................................................................................................... 34 5.2.1 The Four Signs Of Inequalities ............................................................................. 34 5.2.2 Combining Inequalities ......................................................................................... 34 5.2.3 Solving Linear Inequalities ................................................................................... 35 5.2.4 Multiplying Or Dividing By A Negative Number ........................................... 35 5.2.5 Solving Quadratic Inequalities .............................................................................. 35
6. Coordinate Geometry And Graphs: ......................................................................................... 37

6.1 Straight Lines ............................................................................................................... 37 6.1.1 Equations Of A Straight Line ............................................................................... 37 6.1.2 Finding The Equation Of A Straight Line ............................................................. 37 6.1.3 Gradient Of A Line ............................................................................................... 37 6.1.4 Point-Gradient Form ............................................................................................. 38 6.1.5 Parallel And Perpendicular Lines ......................................................................... 38 6.1.6 Distance Between Two Points .............................................................................. 38 6.1.7 Mid-Point Of A Line ............................................................................................. 38 6.1.8 Intersection Of Lines............................................................................................. 38 6.2 Curves ............................................................................................................................ 40 6.2.1 Curves In The Form Y = Xn.................................................................................. 40 6.2.2 Curves In The Form .............................................................................................. 41 6.2.3 Curves In The Form .............................................................................................. 42 6.2.4 Intersection Of Lines And Curves ........................................................................ 42 6.2.5 Intersection Of Curves .......................................................................................... 43 6.2.6 Graphical Rules ..................................................................................................... 43 6.3 The Circle....................................................................................................................... 43 6.3.1 Properties Of A Circle .......................................................................................... 44 6.3.2 Equation Of A Circle ............................................................................................ 45

Page 4 of 102

Mathematics

6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8

7.

Angular Measurement And Circular Sectors ................................................... 45 Angular Degree ................................................................................................ 46 Angular Radian ................................................................................................ 46 Conversion Between Degrees And Radians .................................................... 46 Arc Length ....................................................................................................... 47 Area Of A Sector ............................................................................................. 48

Differentiation : .......................................................................................................................... 49

7.1 The Limit Of A Function ............................................................................................... 49 7.2 The Derivative ............................................................................................................... 49 7.3 Differentiation Rules ...................................................................................................... 50 7.4 Gradient Of A Line ........................................................................................................ 50 7.4.1 Tangent Lines........................................................................................................ 51 7.4.2 Normal Lines ........................................................................................................ 51 7.5 Higher Derivatives ........................................................................................................ 52 7.6 Application Of Derivatives To Graphs .......................................................................... 52 7.6.1 Rules Of Stationary Points .................................................................................... 53 7.6.2 Locating And Evaluating Stationary Points .......................................................... 53
8. Sequences And Series: ............................................................................................................... 57

8.1 Definitions................................................................................................................ 57 8.2 Sigma () Notation .................................................................................................. 57 8.3 Recognizing Simple Progressions............................................................................ 57 8.4 Arithmetic Progression (Ap) .................................................................................... 58 8.4.1 Rules ....................................................................................................................... 58 8.4.2 Example ................................................................................................................. 58 8.5 Geometric Progression (Gp) .................................................................................... 59 8.5.1 Rules ............................................................................................................... 59 8.5.2 Sum Of An Infinite Geometric Series ............................................................. 59 8.6 Binomial Expressions .............................................................................................. 60 8.6.1 Expansions Of (X + 1) .................................................................................... 60 8.6.2 Pascal's Triangle ............................................................................................. 60 8.6.3 Binomial Coefficient Formula ........................................................................ 61 8.6.4 Expanding Binomials ............................................................................................. 61
9. Logarithms And Exponentials: ................................................................................................. 63

9.1 Operations With Exponential Function ................................................................... 63 9.1.1 Multiplication.................................................................................................. 63 9.1.2 Division ........................................................................................................... 63 9.1.3 Base Raised To Two Powers .......................................................................... 63 9.1.4 Multiple Bases ................................................................................................ 63 9.1.5 Fractional Exponents ...................................................................................... 64 9.1.6 The Laws Of Exponents.................................................................................. 64 9.1.7 Solving Exponential Equations ....................................................................... 64 9.2 Logarithmic Functions ............................................................................................. 65 9.2.1 Laws Of Logarithmic Functions ..................................................................... 65 9.2.2 Change Of Base .............................................................................................. 66

Page 5 of 102

Mathematics

10. Trigonometric Functions: .......................................................................................................... 67

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9

The Trigonometric Ratios Of An Angle .................................................................. 67 Graphs Of Trigonometric Functions ........................................................................ 69 The Cast Model ........................................................................................................ 69 Important Trigonometric Values.............................................................................. 69 The Law Of Cosines ................................................................................................ 70 The Law Of Sines .................................................................................................... 70 Area Of A Triangle .................................................................................................. 71 Pythagorean Identity ................................................................................................ 72 Tangent Identity ....................................................................................................... 72

11. Integration: ................................................................................................................................. 74

11.1 Basic Integration ...................................................................................................... 74 11.1.1 Notation........................................................................................................... 74 11.1.2 Integration Rules ............................................................................................. 74 11.1.3 Examples ......................................................................................................... 74 11.1.4 Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus ................................................................ 75 11.2 Indefinite Integrals ................................................................................................. 75 11.2.1 Example ............................................................................................................... 75 11.3 Definite Integrals ..................................................................................................... 76 1.3.1 Rules Of Definite Integrals ............................................................................. 76 11.3.2 Area Of A Region Bounded By A Curve ....................................................... 76 11.3.3 Example .......................................................................................................... 77 11.4 Areas Involving Two Curves ................................................................................... 77 11.4.1 Area Bounded By Two Curves ....................................................................... 77 11.4.2 Example .......................................................................................................... 78 11.4.3 Area Between Two Curves ............................................................................. 79 11.4.4 Example .......................................................................................................... 79 11.5 Estimating Area Underneath A Curve ..................................................................... 81 11.5.1 Trapezium Rule ............................................................................................... 81 11.5.2 Example .......................................................................................................... 81 11.5.3 Midpoint Rule ................................................................................................. 82 11.6 Integrals To Infinity ................................................................................................ 83
12 Permutations And Probability .................................................................................................. 85

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7

Permutations ............................................................................................................ 85 Combinations ........................................................................................................... 85 Probability ................................................................................................................ 86 Some Rules Of Probability ...................................................................................... 87 Probabilities And Odds ............................................................................................ 88 Additional Addition Rules ....................................................................................... 88 Conditional Probability ............................................................................................ 89

Formulae .............................................................................................................................................. 93 MCQs ................................................................................................................................................. 101

Page 6 of 102

Mathematics

1.

OPERATIONS WITH INDICES:

You are probably already familiar with indices, for example x2 is just a shorter way of writing and x4 is similarly . With x5, x is called the base and 5 is called the power or exponent. x4 is pronounced "x to the four", or "x raised to the 4th power" in full. Some powers are so useful that they have special names: x2 is referred to as "x squared", x3 is "x cubed" and x - 1 (which you will soon learn about if you haven't already encountered it) is called "the reciprocal of x". Note: The "law of indices" is sometimes also called the "exponent laws" or "power rules". More generally, an index in mathematics is a superscript or subscript to a symbol.

1.1

MULTIPLICATION

When you multiply indices you add the powers together. Here is an example: is the same as is . . which

As you can see

1.2

DIVISION

When you divide two indices you subtract the denominators exponent from the numerators exponent.

For example:

is

(when

).

As you can see

1.3

NEGATIVE POWERS
- 1

The next logical step is to ask what x (when

is. Well by dividing "backwards"

).

Page 7 of 102

Mathematics

For example

1.4

BASE RAISED TO TWO POWERS

When you have a base raised to two powers you multiply the powers.

Here is an example:

is which is x6.

As you can see that multiplied.

and so the powers have been

1.5

MULTIPLE BASES TO THE SAME POWER

When you have two bases to the same power, you can raise both bases to the same power and multiply them. For example:

which is the same as

. Here is an example with numbers: . There is a similar situation

with division:

1.6

FRACTIONAL POWERS
, you could . is defined

What if the power isn't an integer? Suppose you wanted to find say that as (as in 1.1 above) which means that However it is customary to only use the positive root and so

must be

. You can use a similar argument for other such fractions, for example

so . In cases when the numerator is not 1 we need to use other laws of indices to prove the square definition, for example , and remember the general rule that (using the definition above). It's useful to .

1.7

THE 0 AND 1 POWER

Page 8 of 102

Mathematics

You may well have realised that . You can prove this by clearly x which is xn-(n-1) = xn-n+1 = x1 = x. Also with we can prove that it is equivalent to 1, equivalent to xn n = x0

which is

, and it is also

1.8

THE LAWS OF INDICES

The rules that have been suggested above are known as the laws of indices and can be written as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Page 9 of 102

Mathematics

2.

SURDS:

In mathematics, a Surd is an expression containing a root with an irrational solution that can not be expressed exactly for example, 3 = 1.732050808... . Sometimes it is useful to work in square roots, rather than using an approximate decimal value. Square roots can be manipulated just like algebraic expressions and sometimes it may be possible to eliminate the square root (called rationalising the expression), which may have not been possible if you tried to work with the approximate value. When asked to give the exact value, approximate decimal answers will not do and you will have to manipulate surds in order to give a final answer in simplified surd form.

2.1

SIMPLIFICATION OF SURDS

Because surds can be manipulated like algebraic expressions, you can easily multiply out the terms and add the like terms. However, there are also a few rules that will be useful when simplifying surds.

2.2
Because

BASIC RULE OF SURDS

, it is useful to know that it can be rearranged to give

and

2.3

SURDS AS INDICES

Because the laws of indices also apply to any n-th root. The most frequently used instances with square roots are: becomes

becomes The first of these points is often used to simplify a square root, for example . In an exam, you will be expected to write all square roots with the smallest possible number inside the square root (i.e. the number inside the root shouldn't have any square factors).

2.4

RATIONALIZING THE DENOMINATOR

Page 10 of 102

Mathematics

Another technique to simplify expressions involving square roots is to rationalize the denominator. This means getting rid of square roots from the bottom of a fraction. In the case of a fraction such as can be multiplied by to give . , both numerator and denominator

If the fraction is of the form the strategy used in the previous paragraph will only work if it is modified slightly. This time you should multiply the numerator and denominators by . If you are familiar with the standard difference of two squares expansion you should already know what happens next:

. As you can see the denominator now does not contain any square roots. For example:

2.5

SPLITTING UP ROOTS

A common mistake is to split into or into x2 + y2, usually whilst moving it to the other side of the equals. Trying a few examples will quickly convince you that this is not possible: And so on

Page 11 of 102

Mathematics

3.

EQUATIONS:

An equation consists of two expressions joined by the equals sign ( = ). Everything on the left-hand side is equal to everything on the right-hand side, for example 2 + 3 = 4 + 1. Some equations contain a variable, usually denoted by x, y or z.

3.1

MANIPULATING EXPRESSIONS

Sometimes, expressions will be messier than they need to be, and they can be represented in an easier-to-understand form.

3.1.1 COLLECTING LIKE TERMS

When collecting like terms, you simply add all the terms in x together, all the terms in y together, and all the terms in z together. The same applies for any other letter that represents a variable. For example, 2x + 4y + 8z 3x 7y 2z + 4x after collecting like terms, becomes: 2x 3x + 4x = 3x 4y 7y = 3y 8z 2z = 6z So, by adding all the answers, 2x + 4y + 8z 3x 7y 2z + 4x simplified is 3x 3y + 6z.

3.1.2 MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication of different variables such as become indices, so is x .
2

becomes ab. Single variables

Like addition and subtraction, you keep like terms together. So, for example: becomes: 24x3y4z3

3.1.3 FRACTIONS
It is quite often that fractions are encountered. Therefore we need to learn how to handle them properly. When working with fractions, the rule is to make all of the denominators equal, and then write the expression as one fraction. You need

Page 12 of 102

Mathematics

to multiply both the top and bottom by the same amount to keep the meaning of the fraction the same.

For example, for

, the common denomimator is 10.

Multiply both parts of the first term by 5:

Multiply both parts of the second term by 2:

Leave the thurd term as it is:

You now have

, which becomes

3.2 SOLVING EQUATIONS

Often, to solve an equation you must rearrange it so that the unknown term is on it's own side of the equals sign. By rearranging 2 + x = 5 to x = 5 2, x has been made the subject of the equation. Now by simplifying the equation, you can find that the solution is x = 3.

3.2.1 CHANGING THE SUBJECT OF AN EQUATION

You will usually be given equations that are more complex than the example above. To move a term from one side of the equals sign to the other, you have to do the same thing on both sides of the equals sign. For example, to make x the subject of Multiply both sides by 3 Divide both sides by 4a : 3y = 4a(x2 + b)

Subtract b from both sides

Page 13 of 102

Mathematics

Square root both sides

3.2.2 SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Quadratic equations are equations where the variable is raised to the power of 2 and, unlike linear equations, there are a maximum of two roots. A root is one value of the variable where the equation is true, and to fully solve an equation, you must find all of the roots. For a quadratic equation you can factorise it and then easily find which values make the equation valid. The example above is quite a simple case. You will usually be given a more complicated equation such as 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0. If the equation isn't already in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, rearrange it in this form. The steps needed to factorise 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 are: Multiply 2 by 3 (coefficient of x2 multiplied by the constant term) Find two numbers that add to give 5 (coefficient of x) and multiply to give 6 (answer from previous step) Split 5x to 2x + 3x (from the results of the previous step) ,2+3 =5 2x2 + 2x + 3x + 3 =0 2x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1) = 0 (2x + 3)(x + 1) = 0

Simplify

Simplify further

So (2x + 3)(x + 1) = 0 is 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 in factorised form. You can now use the fact that any number multiplied by 0 is 0 to find the roots of the equation. The numbers that make one bracket equal to 0 are the roots of the equation. In the example, the roots are 1.5 and - 1. It is also possible to solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula or by completing the square.

3.3 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Simultaneous equations are useful in solving two or more variables at once. Basic simultaneous equations consist of two linear expressions and can be solved by three different methods: elimination, substitution or by plotting the graph.
Page 14 of 102

Mathematics

3.3.1 ELIMINATION METHOD

The basic principle of the elimination method is to manipulate one or more of the expressions in order to cancel out one of the variables, and then solve for the correct solution. An example of this: 2x + 3y = 10 2x + 6y = 6 (1) (Assigning the number (1) to this equation) (2) (Assigning the number (2) to this equation)

From this, we can see that by multiplying equation (1) by a factor of 2 and then subtracting this new equation from (2), the y-variable will be eliminated. (1) equation) (1a) (Assigning the number (1a) to this

Now subtracting (2) from (1a): 4x + 6y = 20 - 2x + 6y = 6 = 2x + 0y = 14 Now that we have 2x = 14, we can solve for x, which in this case is 7. (1a) (2)

x = 7.
Substitute the newly found x into (1):

14 + 3y = 10 And we find that y = 4 / 3 So, the solution to the two equations (1) and (2) are:

x=7 y=4/3

3.3.2 SUBSTITUTION METHOD

Page 15 of 102

Mathematics

The substitution method relies on being able to rearrange the expressions to isolate a single variable, in the form variable = expression. From this result this new expression can then be substituted for the variable itself, and the solutions evaluated. An example of this: 2x + 3y = 12 (1) (2) (Assigning the number (1) to this equation) (Assigning the number (2) to this equation)

x+y=6

From this expression, it is possible to see that (2) is the most simplistic expression, and thus will be the better choice to rearrange. Taking (2), and rearranging this into x = 6 y Subbing (2a) into (1) we get 2(6 y) + 3y = 12 Solving this, we get that y = 0 Again we can sub this result into one of the original equations to solve for x. In this case x = 6. Note that for situations in which one of the equations is non-linear, you must isolate one variable in the linear equation and substitute it into the non-linear one. Then you can solve the quadratic equation with one of the methods above. Another form of substitution is if you've got a similar expression in both equations, like in this case: 2x + 3y = 10 2x + 6y = 6 (1) (2) (Assigning the number (1) to this equation) (Assigning the number (2) to this equation) (2a)

Here, 2x is found in both equations, so: 2x = 10 3y 2x = 6 6y (1) (2)

And since 2x = 2x, you could do: 10 3y = 6 6y 6y 3y = 6 10

Page 16 of 102

Mathematics

3y = 4

y=4/3
Now you've got y, and finding x will be the same as above.

3.3.3 GRAPHICAL METHOD

By plotting the lines of the two equations, you can solve them by seeing where the lines intersect. If the intersection is at the point (a,b), then the solution is x = a and y = b. For example for the equations 2x + 6y = 6 and 2x + 3y = 10 we have the graph:

We can see that they intersect at x = 7. However as you can see with the y coordinate there is a degree of error when using the graphical method.

3.3.4 SOLVING PROBLEMS WITH SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Often, you will be given problems which you must be able to write out as a pair of simultaneous equations. You will need to recognise such problems, and write them out correctly before solving them. Most problems will be similar to these examples with some differences. Example

At a record store, 2 albums and 1 single costs 10. 1 album and 2 singles cost 8. Find the cost of an album and the cost of a single.

Page 17 of 102

Mathematics

Taking an album as a and a single as s, the two equations would be: 2a + s = 10

a + 2s = 8
Now the above two equalitons are simple linear equations in two variabes and can be solved as described above to find the costs of an album and a single. An equation with a variable will only hold true for certain values of that variable. For example 2 + x = 5 is only true for x = 3. The values that the variables have when the equation is true are called the solutions of the equation. Therfore x = 3 is the solution of the equation 2 + x = 5.

Page 18 of 102

Mathematics

4.

POLYNOMIALS:

You are already familiar with expressions such as 3x+5 or 2x2+8x+2 and perhaps x3+2x-2. The general word for an expression that can be written in this form is a polynomial. Excluding the constant term, every power of x in a polynomial is a positive integer. Expressions that have x to a non-integer or negative power are not polynomials.

4.1 BASICS OF POLYNOMIALS

All polynomials can be written in the form: . The numbers are known as the co-efficients, and will often already be known. For example in 4x2 + 3x + 9 the coefficient of x2 is 4. The coefficients may be 1 or even 0, for example x3 + x is still a polynomial.

4.1.1 DEGREES OF POLYNOMIALS

The number n, i.e. the highest power in the polynomial is known as the degree, or sometimes the order, of the polynomial. For example, x4 + 4x2 + 9 is a degree 4 polynomial. Certain degrees have names, and are often written using certain letters for the coefficients when they are unknown: Degree Degree Degree Degree 0 1 2 3 Constant - c or k Linear - ax + b or mx + c Quadratic - ax2 + bx + c Cubic - ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

4.1.2 NOTATION
Most of the polynomials on this page are written in terms of x, for example, 4x2 + 2x - 9, although polynomials can be written with other letters. 3z2 + z - 2, for example, is called a polynomial in z. It is conventional to write polynomials in descending powers for clarity, although a polynomial may have the powers in any order. By writing polynomials in descending powers it is possible to see what the degree of the polynomial is simply by looking at the first term. Performing operations with two or more polynomials are also much simpler when the powers are in order, since like powers are usually grouped during calculations. Indeed, you may lose marks in your exam if you don't simplify things like x2 + 5x - 3x to x2 + 2x.

Page 19 of 102

Mathematics

4.2 OPERATIONS WITH POLYNOMIALS 4.2.1 ADDITION

To add polynomials you simply add the co-efficients of each term. If that sounds confusing don't worry as you will probably already know how to do this, it is basically the same as collecting like terms. You add the co-efficients of x together, the co-efficients of x2 together, and so on. For example:

Notice that 4 + 6 = 10 and 9 - 2 = 7. Some find it helpful to write this out like numerical addition: 4x2 + 6x
2 2

+ 2x + 2x

+9 -2 +7

10x

When using this method it is essential that terms with x to the same power are lined up, leaving spaces if necessary like in the example above.

4.2.2 SUBTRACTION
For subtraction of polynomials, it is possible to use the same method as above, except subtracting instead of adding. It may get confusing when there are negative terms involved, so it is preferred to reverse the signs in the second row and then add the two polynomials together. This: 10x2 + 2x 6x
2 2

+7 -2 +9

4x

+ 2x

Would become this: 10x2 + 2x + 6x 4x

2 2

+7 +2 +9

+ 2x

This method is desirable in the exam because subtracting negative numbers may cause confusion, and mistakes may be overlooked in the pressure of the exam.

Page 20 of 102

Mathematics

4.2.3 MULTIPLICATION
To multiply polynomials you simply multiply all the terms in one by all the terms in the other and then sum the results. This method is known as the FOIL Method. It stands for First Outer Inner Last. For example:

can be broken down into: Multiply the First terms together.

Then multiply the Outer terms together.

Then multiply the Inner terms together.

Then multiply the Last terms together.

Then we add the results together to give us 6x4 + 4x3 - 15x2 - 10x, written in descending powers. As you become confident with the process, you'll be able to do the entire multiplication in one go without splitting it up, like this:

4.2.4 MULTIPLICATION TABLE

Some people find it helpful to show this in a table, with one polynomial as rows and the other as columns: 3x2 2x 2x2 -5 The headings are then multiplied to produce: 3x2 2x

Page 21 of 102

Mathematics

2x2 -5

6x4

4x3

- 15x2 - 10x

The answer is the sum of all the cells: 6x4 + 4x3 - 15x2 - 10x, as before. This method is particularly useful for multiplying longer polynomials where the answer might not fit on a single line and cause mistakes.

4.2.5 LONG MULTIPLICATION

The polynomials to be multiplied can be laid out like regular long multiplication, like this: 3x2 2x2 This is the 1st row multiplied by - 5 This is the 1st row multiplied by 2x2 This is the sum of the two answers 6x4 6x4 4x3 4x3 - 15x2 - 10x - 15x2 - 10x 2x -5

4.2.6 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS:

Division of polynomials can be done in the following ways:.

4.2.6.1 LONG DIVISION

Long division of polynomials is very similar to regular long division. We will use a problem to demonstrate how long division works. Divide x3 + 8x2 4x + 10 by x2 + 3x 1. The first set is to set up the equation. Make sure that it is in order from highest to lowest.

Then we divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor.

Page 22 of 102

Mathematics

We place this resultant on top.

Then we multiply the resultant by the divisor and subtract it from the dividend. x (x2 + 3x -1) = x3 + 3x2 - x

What is left becomes the new dividend and we repeat the process again. We continue to do this until the first term has a degree less than the first term of the divisor. What is left is the remainder.

4.2.6.2 SYNTHETIC DIVISION

Synthetic division is one of the easiest way to divide polynomials. It only works if the divisor has the form x - c. Note if the equation is x + c then you need to negate c: x - (-c). In order to demonstrate how synthetic division works here is a problem. Divide 2x5 + 5x2 10x3 30x 171 by x-3. The divisor is c. So in this case it will be 3. Then we need to arrange our divisor in order from highest to lowest, and replacing any missing degree with with + 0xdegree. 2x5 + 0x4 10x3 + 5x2 30x 171

Page 23 of 102

Mathematics

Then to set up the equation for synthetic division we need to remove all the variables. 2 + 0 - 10 + 5 - 30 - 171 Now we set up our division equation.

Next we carry up the first term of the divisor.

Then we multiply the resultant by the divisor and add it to the next term.

We continue to do this until we reach the end.

Now we need to readd the variables. When we readd the variables we go from one less from the highest degree to lowest degree. The last number is the remainder. 2x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 + 29x + 57 remainder 0. This is the answer to the problem.

4.2.6.3 REMAINDER THEOREM

The remainder theorem states that: If you have a polynomial f(x) divided by x c, the remainder is equal to f(c). Note if the equation is x + c then you need to negate c: f(-c). Here is an example. What will the remainder be if you divide x3 + 8x2 4x2 + 17x 40 is divided by x - 3?

The remainder is 74.

Page 24 of 102

Mathematics

4.3 FACTORIZING
When you factor an equation you try to "unmultiply" the equation. The N-Roots Theorem states that if f(x) is a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1, then f(x) has exactly n roots, providing that a root of multiplicity k is counted k times. The last part means that if an equation has 2 roots that are both 6, then we count 6 as 2 roots.

4.3.1 THE FACTOR THEOREM

The factor theorem allows us to check whether a number is a factor. It states:

A polynomial f(x) has a factor x - c if and only if f(c) = 0. In example:

Determine if x + 2 is a factor of 2x2 + 3x 2. Since c is positive instead of negative we need to use this basic identity:

Now we can use the factor theorem. . Since the resultant is 0, -2 is a factor of 2x2 + 3x 2.

4.4

THE RATIONAL ROOT THEOREM

The rational root theorem states that: Let be a nth degree

polynomial with integer coefficients. If

is a rational root then

and is in the lowest term, then p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an. If a possible root of the equation is disqualified it will never be a root of the equation. Let's use an example to see how this helps us to find factors. Find a factor of .

First we need to identify p and q. Since a0 is 24 then p is 24. Since an is 2 then q is 2. Now that we know p and q we need to find all the factors of p and q.

Page 25 of 102

Mathematics

Factors of p = 24 are Factors of q = 2 are Now we find all possible rational roots: Then we use synthetic division to find a rational root.

Let us test for

Since the remainder is zero we know that

is a factor of

. We can now write the equation as.

. We can now use the quadratic formula to find the remaining roots. The fully factored equation is:

4.5 CURVES OF POLYNOMIALS

It is possible to look at a polynomial and get an idea to the general shape of its curve. The most important factors are the degree of the polynomial, and the sign of the co-efficient of the highest power. For a more accurate sketch of the graph, you will need to know where the curve has turning points and where it intersects the x and y axis. A sketch with this information will often be sufficiently detailed, and is usually much quicker and easier than plotting the curve point by point.

4.5.1 TURNING POINTS

A turning point is where a curve that is decreasing changes to increasing, or vice versa. On a graph, the curve simply changes direction, hence the name turning point. In y = x2, the turning point is at (0,0), the trough of the "bucket". The

Page 26 of 102

Mathematics

turning point in y = x2 is a minimum (plural minima), and a maximum (plural maxima) is the same bucket shape, but upside down. For a polynomial of degree n, it's curve will have at most n - 1 turning points.

4.5.2 BEHAVIOR WITH EXTREME VALUES OF X

What happens to a polynomial at large positive and negative values for x? If we say 1000 is our large number, we can put it into 6x4 + 4x3 15x2 10x, we can take a look at what happens: First for x = 1000: 6000000000000 + 4000000000 15000000 10000 = 6003970000000 Now for x = 1000: 6000000000000 4000000000 15000000 + 10000 = 5995985010000 The most change in the final answer is made by the x4 term. This is the dominant term. For a polynomial of degree n, xn is the dominant term as . Once you have investigated the behavior of polynomials with extreme values of x, you may notice that if n is even, it will share the same general shape as x2, and if n is odd it will share the same general shape as x3. If the coefficient of xn is positive, curves with an even value of n will have a bucket shape, and curves with an odd value of n will generally be negative when x is negative, and positive when x is positive (like y = x). If the coefficient of xn is negative, curves with an even value of n will have an upside down bucket shape, and curves with an odd value of n will generally be positive when x is negative, and negative when x is positive (similar to y = x).

4.5.3 INTERSECTIONS WITH AXES

To find where the curve crosses the y axis, you can simply look at the constant term. y = x3 + 2x2 9x 18, for example, would cross the y axis at 18. If there is no constant term, the curve will go through the origin, (0,0), and would therefore cross the y axis at 0. In factorized form, you can find the points at which the curve crosses the x axis. y = (x + 3)(x + 2)(x 3) would cross the x axis at - 3, - 2, and 3, because by making one of the brackets equal to 0, it makes the whole polynomial equal to 0, and y equal to 0. y = 0 is of course the line of the x axis. Each instance of the

Page 27 of 102

Mathematics

curve crossing the x axis is a root of the equation. A polynomial of degree n will have at most n roots. To solve an equation means to find every root. Polynomials of degree 2 can be solved using the quadratic formula. For higher degree polynomials you may need to factorise the equation like above, plot the graph point by point and look at where the curve crosses the x axis, or use a numerical method. You can check your answers by substituting them into the original equation and seeing if the result is 0.

4.6 QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS

A quadratic is a polynomial of degree 2, in the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c.

4.6.1 GRAPH
A quadratic graph is one that can be written in the form y = ax2 + bx + c. The graph of y = 2x2 + 8x + 2 is shown on the right, and as you can see it has the same characteristic "bucket" shape that all quadratics have, called a parabola. The vertex is the maximum or minimum point. The line of symmetry is the line that divides the graph into two mirror half's. It can be found by the formula .

However, these properties can be more easily deduced from its completed square form ( a(x + d)2 + e ). In this form we know that, - d is the axis of symmetry, and that e is maximum or minimum point. If a is greater than the vertex (-d,e) will be a minimum point. If a is less than the vertex (-d,e) will be a maximum point.

4.6.2 COMPLETING THE SQUARE

Page 28 of 102

Mathematics

Completing the square is the process of changing a quadratic from the form ax2 + bx + c to the equivalent form a(x + d)2 + e, where a, d and e are constants. For example, the quadratic 2x2 + 8x + 2 would become 2(x + 2)2 - 6. Changing a quadratic to completed square form makes it easy to find several things, such as the roots of the quadratic and the vertex of the quadratic, without even requiring a sketch. Here are the steps for completing the square. Don't worry, it's easier than it looks. Ste p 1.

Action

Example

General case

Ensure the quadratic is in the conventional form: 2x2 + 8x + 2 ax2 + bx + c. Unless a = 1, "pull/factor out a", that is, divide the entire quadratic by a and put it outside a bracket.

ax2 + bx + c

2.

Note: If the quadratic is part of an equation you can divide each side by a, for example 2x2 + 8x + 2 = 0 simply becomes x2 + 4x + 1 = 0.
Replace the x2 + kx part

with

It is important to realize that 3. which is close to what it was there before but not equal. This will be corrected in the next step. To prevent writing something that isn't actually equal it is a

Page 29 of 102

Mathematics

good idea to do both these steps at once in your working once you have got used to the method. Correct the error introduced in the previous step by inserting the subtraction of a suitable number. This suitable number can be found in two ways: 1. By expanding the term inserted in the previous step and comparing it to the original; or 2. By remembering that the error is always .

1. (x + 2)2 = x2 + 4x + 4 which is 3 greater than x2 + 4x + 1, so - 3 is inserted: ;

4.

or
2. 4: so the error is

This step is known as "completing the square" and gives the method its name.
If step 2 was necessary then simplify the result a bit by expanding the outer bracket. Then you are finished. Check that what you have obtained expands back to what you started with.

5.

2(x + 2)2 - 6

6.

Note: You may feel confident enough to skip this step.

= 2x2 + 8x + 8 - 6 = 2x2 + 8x + 2 = ax2 + bx + c

Page 30 of 102

Mathematics

So the completed square form of y = 2x2 + 8x + 2 is 2(x + 2)2 - 6. The 6 tells us that the lowest point of the curve is at y = 6 and the x + 2 tells us that the line of symmetry is at x + 2 = 0 or x = 2. Therefore the vertex is at ( - 2, 6), and if you look at the graph, you can see that is the case.

4.6.3 THE QUADRATIC FORMULA

The quadratic formula is derived from the general case of completing the square:

It can be used to find the roots of a quadratic by putting numbers directly into it. For example, for y = 2x2 + 8x + 2:

so and

and .

. The factors of the equation are

Here is the way how the quadratic formula is derived from the completing the square method. Step Action Example General case

1.

To solve an equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 first 2(x + 2)2 - 6 = 0 complete the square using the method above.

2.

Isolate the (x + k)2 term.

2(x + 2)2 = 6 (x + 2)2 = 3

3.

Square root each side, including a

Page 31 of 102

Mathematics

as the bit inside the bracket might be negative or positive.

Then some simplification:

4.

Isolate x.

or or 3.73

4.6.4 THE DISCRIMINANT

Notice that the quadratic equation contains b2 - 4ac inside a square root sign. This part is called the discriminant and can be considered on its own to determine the number of roots of the equation. If b2 - 4ac < 0 then you will be unable to find the square roots as you don't know how to square root a negative number. The type of numbers you have encountered so far are known as real numbers and so it is said that the quadratic has no real roots. If b2 - 4ac = 0 then changing the sign in front of the square root won't make any difference, because it is zero either way. You will therefore get the same root twice, so it is said the quadratic has one repeated root. If b2 - 4ac > 0 then the will mean you get two answers, and so you can say the quadratic has two distinct (i.e. different) roots.

Page 32 of 102

Mathematics

5.

ERROR BOUNDS AND INEQUALITIES:

Sometimes you won't be able to find an exact answer, but only an estimate of where the answer lies. This answer, along with suitable error bounds, are perfectly acceptable and are often used for experimental data when a high degree of accuracy isn't always justifiable.

5.1 ERRORS
If you were told that a certain door was 2 meters tall, you could assume that the door could be anywhere between 1.5 and 2.5 meters, represented by the inequality , and was actually rounded to 2 meters. If you were told that the same door is 2.0 meters, then you could assume more accuracy, and say the door was anywhere between 1.95 and 2.05 meters, represented by the inequality . Here you would say that the height of the door is 2 meters with error bounds of . This means that the actual value is within the range of 0.05m greater or less than the stated value. If you are not given error bounds of a measurement, you should assume that the last digit was rounded, and take all of the other digits as accurate. The minimum and maximum value for the actual height of the door are called the lower and upper bounds, and are used to determine the accuracy of measurements.

5.1.1 ABSOLUTE ERROR

The absolute error is the difference between the value that is obtained and the true value. The absolute error of a measurement can be found by using the following formula:

5.1.2 RELATIVE ERROR

The relative error is the absolute error as a proportion of the true value. The relative error of a measurement can be found by using the following formula:

Page 33 of 102

Mathematics

5.1.3 PERCENTAGE ERROR

The percentage error is the absolute error as a percentage of the true value. The percentage error of a measurement can be found by using the following formula:

For example, if the true value of the 2 metre door was 1.95 metres, the absolute error is 2 1.95 = 0.05, the relative error is percentage error is . , and the

5.2 INEQUALITIES
An inequality is an expression which compares the relative sizes of points, lines, or curves. Unlike an equation, where both sides of the equals sign are always equal, inequalities can have one side greater than or equal to the other side.

5.2.1 THE FOUR SIGNS OF INEQUALITIES

There are four main basic signs: < less than, > greater than, less than or equal to, and greater than or equal to. For example, x < 4 means that x is less than 4, x > 4 means that x is greater than 4, means that x is four or any number less than this, and means that x is four or any number higher than this. Note that x > y and y < x are both essentially the same statement. If you become confused with which sign means less than and greater than, it is useful to remember that the inequality signs always point to the smaller number.

5.2.2 COMBINING INEQUALITIES

There are some cases where two inequalities can be combined into one. For example, the height of the door was said to be between The usual way of writing these is and x < 2.05. . Notice that the inequality

Page 34 of 102

Mathematics

signs are in the same direction. is perfectly acceptable, but it is incorrect to combine opposite facing inequalities and they must be left as two separate inequalities.

5.2.3 SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITIES

These signs can be used in place of equal signs, and an equation now becomes an inequality (since both sides are not always equal). For example, instead of 2x + 4 = 6 we could have 2x + 4 > 6. In this example, x may be any number which makes this inequality greater than 6. In this case x > 1 but take the value of 1. . If the inequality was , then x could

An inequality can be manipulated and therefore solved just like an equation, although there is an extra step you must take when you multiply or divide by a negative number.

5.2.4 MULTIPLYING OR DIVIDING BY A NEGATIVE NUMBER

When multiplying or dividing by a negative number, you must change the direction of the inequality sign. For example, look at the inequality 10 > 5. This is correct since 10 is obviously greater than 5. Now if we were to multiply both sides by -1, we would get: 10 > 5. This is incorrect, since -10 is actually less than -5. By reversing the inequality sign, we now have the correct inequality: 10 < 5.

5.2.5 SOLVING QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

To solve a quadratic inequality, you could factorise it, just like a quadratic equation. Take care to give the correct set of values when giving your final answer though.

Alternatively you could draw its graph as if it was a quadratic equation, and then shade the side that's covered by the inequality. This will clear up any confusion about location of the 'correct' set: (x-a)(x-b) > 0 gives the set of values on either side of the curve's critical points (outside of the interval (a,b)). (x-a)(x-b)

Page 35 of 102

Mathematics

< 0 gives the set of values between the critical points of the curve (between x=a and x=b).

Page 36 of 102

Mathematics

6.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY AND GRAPHS:

Co-ordinates are a way of describing position. In two dimensions, positions are given in two perpendicular directions, x and y.

6.1 STRAIGHT LINES

A straight line has a fixed gradient. The gradient of a line and its y intercept are the two main pieces of information that distinguish one line from another.

6.1.1 EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE

The most common form of a straight line is y = mx + c. The m is the gradient of the line, and c is where the line intercepts the y-axis. When c is 0, the line passes through the origin. Other forms of the equation are x = a, used for vertical lines of infinte gradient, y = b, used for horizontal lines with 0 gradient, and px + qy + r = 0, which is often used for some lines as a neater way of writing the equation.

6.1.2 FINDING THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

You may need to find the equation of a straight line, and only given the coordinates of one point on the line and the gradient of the line. The single point can be taken as (x1,y1), and the co-ordinates and the gradient can be substituted in the formula y y1 = m(x x1). Then it is simply a case of rearranging the formula into the form y = mx + c. You may only be given two points, (x1,y1) and (x2,y2). In this case, use the formula to find the gradient and then use the method above.

6.1.3 GRADIENT OF A LINE

The steepness of a line can be measured by its gradient, which is the increase in the y direction divided by the increase in the x direction. The letter m is used to denote the gradient.

Page 37 of 102

Mathematics

6.1.4 POINT-GRADIENT FORM

The equation of a line passing through the point . and having a slope m is

6.1.5 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

With the gradients of two lines, you can tell if they are parallel, perpendicular, or neither. A pair of lines are parallel if their gradients are equal, m1 = m2. A pair of lines is perpendicular if the product of their gradients is -1,

6.1.6 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Using the co-ordinates of two points, it is possible to calculate the distance between them using Pythagoras' theorem. The distance between any two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is given by

6.1.7 MID-POINT OF A LINE

When the co-ordinate of two points are known, the mid-point is the point halfway between those lines. For any two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2), the coordinates of the mid-point of AB can be found by

6.1.8 INTERSECTION OF LINES

Aompares the relative sizes of points, lines, or curves. Unlike an equation, where both sides o Co-ordinates are a way of describing position. In two dimensions, positions are given in two perpendicular directions, x and y. A straight line has a fixed gradient. The gradient of a line and its y intercept are the two main pieces of information that distinguish one line from another. The most common form of a straight line is y = mx + c. The m is the gradient of the line, and c is where the line intercepts the y-axis. When c is 0, the line passes through the origin.

Page 38 of 102

Mathematics

Other forms of the equation are x = a, used for vertical lines of infinte gradient, y = b, used for horizontal lines with 0 gradient, and px + qy + r = 0, which is often used for some lines as a neater way of writing the equation. You may need to find the equation of a straight line, and only given the coordinates of one point on the line and the gradient of the line. The single point can be taken as (x1,y1), and the co-ordinates and the gradient can be substituted in the formula y y1 = m(x x1). Then it is simply a case of rearranging the formula into the form y = mx + c. You may only be given two points, (x1,y1) and (x2,y2). In this case, use the formula to find the gradient and then use the method above.

The steepness of a line can be measured by its gradient, which is the increase in the y direction divided by the increase in the x direction. The letter m is used to denote the gradient.

The equation of a line passing through the point .

and having a slope m is

With the gradients of two lines, you can tell if they are parallel, perpendicular, or neither. A pair of lines are parallel if their gradients are equal, m1 = m2. A pair of lines is perpendicular if the product of their gradients is -1, Using the co-ordinates of two points, it is possible to calculate the distance between them using Pythagoras' theorem. The distance between any two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is given by

When the co-ordinate of two points are known, the mid-point is the point halfway between those lines. For any two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2), the coordinates of the mid-point of AB can be found by Any two lines will meet at a point, as long as they are not parallel. You can find the point of intersection simply by solving the two equations simultaneously. This is also true for curves.

Page 39 of 102

Mathematics

6.2 CURVES
To sketch a graph of a curve, all you need to know is the general shape of the curve and other important pieces of information such as the x and y intercepts and the points of any maxima and minima. ny two lines will meet at a point, as long as they are not parallel. You can find the point of intersection simply by solving the two equations simultaneously. This is also true for curves.

6.2.1 CURVES IN THE FORM Y = XN

Page 40 of 102

Mathematics

Degree 0 - Constant - c or k. In this case y=2 Degree 1 - Linear - ax + b or mx + c

Degree 2 - Quadratic - ax2 + bx + c

Degree 3 - Cubic - ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

Note: That all the odd powers of x share the same general shape, moving from bottom-left to top-right, and that all the even powers of x share the same "bucket" shaped curve.

6.2.2 CURVES IN THE FORM

Just like earlier, curves with an even powers of x all have the same general shape, and those with odd powers of x share another general shape.

Page 41 of 102

Mathematics

All curves in this form do not have a value for x = 0, because is undefined. There are asymptotes on both the x and y axis, where the curve moves towards increasingly slowly but will never actually touch.

6.2.3 CURVES IN THE FORM

All curves in this form will not have values for x < 0. They will all have the same general shape.

6.2.4 INTERSECTION OF LINES AND CURVES

When a line intersects with a curve, it is possible to find the points of intersection by substituting the equation of the line into the equation of the

Page 42 of 102

Mathematics

curve. If the line is in the form y = mx + c, then you can replace any instances of y with mx + c, and then expand the equation out and then factorise the resulting quadratic.

6.2.5 INTERSECTION OF CURVES

The same method can be used as for a line and a curve. However, it will only work in simple cases. When an algebraic method fails, you will need to resort to a graphical or Numerical Method.

6.2.6 GRAPHICAL RULES

In many cases it is easy to obtain a graph from a preexisting graph using these rules. REFLECTION 1. 2. STRETCHING 1. 2. is stretched towards the y-axis if towards the y-axis if towards the x-axis if TRANSLATIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. is a translation of f(x) by h units to the right. is a translation of f(x) by h units to the left. is a translation of f(x) by k units upwards. is a translation of f(x) by k units downwards. is stretched towards the x-axis if and compressed and compressed is a reflection of is a reflection of through the x axis. through the y axis.

. In both cases the change is by b units. . In both cases the change is by a units.

6.3 THE CIRCLE

A circle is a set of all points in a plane that are a fixed distance r away from a given point called the center. The distance r is the radius of a circle.

Page 43 of 102

Mathematics

The two basic laws of circles are:

6.3.1 PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE

A radius always bisects a cord. They are perpendicular to each other.

If any point on the circumference of the circle is connected to the diameter, it forms a right triangle.

If a radius is drawn and then a tangent is drawn from that point. Then the radius and tangent line will be perpendicular to each other.

Page 44 of 102

Mathematics

6.3.2 EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

The standard equation of a circle is:

This will always give us a circle centered around the origin (0,0). If we want a circle with a center at (h,k) we use the following formula.

However you can not graph either of these equations with a calculator. You will need to split it into two equations, but the graph will not be perfect, because x is undefined when x = 0 and when (x h)2 = r2: . Here is how would look graphed: and

6.3.3 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT AND CIRCULAR SECTORS

A section of a circle is known as a sector. One side of the sector is the radius. The portion of the circumference that is included in the sector is known as an arc.

Page 45 of 102

Mathematics

6.3.4 ANGULAR DEGREE

A circle has 360 degrees. Each degree can have 60 minutes (designated as ' ) and 60 seconds (designated as " ). Since we can not convert minutes or seconds into radians directly we need to convert the minutes and seconds into a decimal number. Here is the formula: Convert Y' Z" into degrees.

For a practical example, convert

18' 38" into degrees.

6.3.5 ANGULAR RADIAN

A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of its circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle. Since we know that that the formula for the circumference of a circle is C = 2r we can determine that there are 2 radians in a circle. We abbreviate radians as rad.

6.3.6 CONVERSION BETWEEN DEGREES AND RADIANS

Mathematics requires us to use radians for most angular measurements. Therefore we need to know how to convert from degrees to radians Since we know that there are these equations: degrees or 2 radians in a circle. We can determine

Page 46 of 102

Mathematics

So we can write these general formulae.

Here is an example convert

into radians

Convert

into degrees.

6.3.7 ARC LENGTH

In most cases it is very difficult to measure the length of an arc with a ruler. Therefore we need to use a formula in order to determine the length of the arc. The formula that we use is: in symbols this is need to be in radians Here is an example, determine the length of the arc created by a sector with a 6cm radius and an angle of . . Note:

The first thing we need to do is convert from degrees to radians.

Now we can calculate the length of the arc.

Page 47 of 102

Mathematics

6.3.8 AREA OF A SECTOR

The area of a sector can be found using this formula:

Note: need to be in radians. Calculate the area of a sector with a 3cm radius and an angle of 2.

Page 48 of 102

Mathematics

7.

DIFFERENTIATION :
7.1 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Finding the gradient (or slope) of a straight line is simple. For a line y = mx + c, the gradient is m. But how do you find the gradient of a curve at a particular point, and what is meant by the gradient of a curve? Suppose we want to find the tangent line to y = x2 at the point (2,4). The tangent line has the same gradient as one particular point on a curve does and travels in the same direction as that point. Immediately this question poses a problem. How are we supposed to find the gradient of a line when only one point can be known? One way is to can calculate the gradient of a secant line, using points closer and closer together to approximate the gradient of the curve. We get: x 3 2.75 2.5 2.25 y 5 4.75 4.5 4.25

2.005 4.01 As you can see the gradient is approaching 4. This process is known as finding the limit of an equation. The definition of a limit is:

We can say that the limit of f(x) as it approaches the point a is L. a can be any point on a graph. We take points closer and closer to a so we can approximate the value of L, but we can never determine the actual value of L. Luckily for us we have the derivative, which can accurately and quickly determine any rate of change.

7.2 THE DERIVATIVE

The derivative is a way of determining the rate of change of a function. A function is differentiable at a point a only if the limit exists at that point. A function will be differentiable on an interval only if every point in that interval is differentiable. If a function is differentiable on an interval the function will be continuous on that interval. There are three cases in which the limit will not exist at a point and therefore the function will not be differentiable:

Page 49 of 102

Mathematics

There is a corner or kink in the graph. There is a discontinuity in the graph. There is a vertical tangent.

The notation for derivative is

7.3 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

1. Derivative of a constant function:

2. The Power Rule:

3. The Constant Multiple Rule: If c is a constant and f(x) is a differentiable function:

4. The Sum Rule:

5. The Difference Rule:

7.4 GRADIENT OF A LINE

If we want to find the gradient at the point a you will need to find the derivative of the function. Then we input the point a into the derivative. The resultant will give us the gradient at the point a. For example:

A bathtub is filling at a speed given by bathtub filling after 6 seconds?

how fast is the

Page 50 of 102

Mathematics

First we find the derivative:

Then we substitute 6

So the bathtub would be filling at the rate of 35 liter per second after 6 seconds.

7.4.1 TANGENT LINES

We can also use derivatives to determine the equation of a tangent line. We use the derivative to find the gradient of the tangent line then we use the PointGradient form to write the equation of the tangent line. Example: What is the equation of the tangent line for the curve y = x2 + 3x 16 at the point x = -4? First we need to find the derivative of the equation.

Then we need to solve for the given x value.

Then we find the y value corresponding to x value

Then we use the point-gradient equation to find the equation. so the equation of the tangent line is y = -5x - 32

7.4.2 NORMAL LINES

A Normal line is the line perpendicular to the Tangent Line. Therefore when we determine the normal line, the procedure is very similar to determining the equation of the tangent line. Example: What is the equation of the normal line for the curve y = x2 + 3x 16 at the point (-4, 8)?

Page 51 of 102

Mathematics

First we need to find the derivative of the equation.

Then we need to solve for the given x value. 2(-4) +3 = -5 Then we use the perpendicular line form to find the equation of the gradient.

so

so the gradient is

which is

Then we find the y value corresponding to x value y = (-4)2 + 3 (-4) -16 = -12 Then we use the point-gradient equation to find the equation.

so the equation of the normal line is y = .2x - 11.2

7.5 HIGHER DERIVATIVES

The second derivative is exactly what it sounds like - it is the derivative (differential) of the derivative. The third derivative is the derivative of that, and so on. The notation for the second derivative is, assuming we are talking in terms of y with respect to x:

And subsequent derivatives simply have larger numbers in the superscript. The reason behind this notation is that it supposedly prevents some confusion when describing a differentiation expression involving indices.

7.6 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES TO GRAPHS

Derivatives also help us in graphing functions, by locating minimum, maximum, and inflection points. They can also determine the interval in which a function is concave up and concave down. These terms are defined below. Concave Down - The graph is below the tangent lines. Example x2.
Page 52 of 102

Mathematics

Concave Up - The graph is above the tangent lines. Example x2. Inflection Point - The point when a function changes from concave up to concave down or vice versa. Example x3 at x = 0. Maximum Point - The highest point on an interval. Before the point the gradient will be increasing and after the point the gradient will be decreasing. This function will be concave down on the interval. Minimum Point - The lowest point on an interval. Before the point the gradient will be decreasing, after that point the gradient will be increasing. The function will be concave up on the interval. Stationary Point - A point where f'(c) = 0

7.6.1 RULES OF STATIONARY POINTS

If and , then c is a local maximum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave down on the interval. If and , then c is a local minimum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave up on the interval. If and point of f(x). and , then c is a local inflection

7.6.2 LOCATING AND EVALUATING STATIONARY POINTS

The First Derivative Test This method is used mostly for finding intervals on which the function increases or decreases. In many cases this method takes longer than the next method. 1. Find the first derivative. 2. Find all stationary points. 3. Evaluate a number before and after the stationary point, make sure the number is not greater or less than the next stationary point. If the resultant is negative the function is decreasing on the interval. If the resultant is positive the function is increasing on the interval. Then draw a line to show on which intervals the function is increasing or decreasing. 4. Determine if the point is a minimum, maximum or inflection point. 5. Write out the interval's. Interval x < lowest point f increasing or decreasing on ( , lowest stationary

Page 53 of 102

Mathematics

point) lowest point lowest point < x < next point next point next point < x < n point n point n point < x < Example Find the interval on which x3 + 6x2 + 9x is increasing and decreasing. First we find the first derivative. f /(x) = 3x2 + 12x +9 Now we find all the stationary points. Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (lowest stationary point, next point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing / decreasing on (next point, n point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (n point, )

Now we draw a number line, with the stationary points. ______-3______-1______ Now we evaluate points. I chose -4, -2, and 0. ___f'(-4)=9___-3___f'(-2)=-3___-1___f'(0)=9___ Before -3 the gradient is positive and after -3 the gradient is negative, so -3 is a maximum point. Before -1 the gradient is negative and after -3 the gradient is positive, so -1 is a minimum point. Now we can write out the intervals. Interval x < -3 x = -3 -3 < x < -1 f(x) increasing on (Maximum Point decreasing on (-3, -1) , -3)

Page 54 of 102

Mathematics

x = -1 -1 < x <

Minimum Point increasing (-1, )

The Second Derivative Test This method is used to make a complete evaluation of the function. 1. 2. 3. 4. Find the first derivative. Find all stationary points. Find the second derivative. Evaluate the stationary points. If necessary find and evaluate the third derivative. 5. Write out the interval's. Interval x < lowest point lowest point lowest point < x < next point next point next point < x < n point n point n point < x < Example Find the interval on which x3 + 6x2 + 9x is increasing and decreasing. Also find the local extrema. First we find the first derivative. f increasing or decreasing on ( point) , lowest stationary

Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (lowest stationary point, next point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing / decreasing on (next point, n point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (n point, )

f /(x) = 3x2 + 12x +9

Now we find all the stationary points.

Page 55 of 102

Mathematics

Now we find the second derivative.

Now we evaluate the stationary points. and f // (-3) = -6 and f // (-1) = 6

Now we can write out the intervals. Interval x < -3 x = -3 -3 < x < -1 x = -1 -1 < x < f(x) increasing on ( Maximum Point decreasing on (-3, -1) Minimum Point increasing (-1, ) , -3)

Page 56 of 102

Mathematics

8.

SEQUENCES AND SERIES:

8.1 DEFINITIONS

A sequence is simply a list of numbers in a particular order. We call these numbers the terms of the sequence. For instance, 2,4,6,8 are the first four terms in the sequence of even positive integers. When we take the sum of the terms in a sequence, we get a series. For example, 2+4+6+8+... is a series. We denote the terms in a sequence by Tn where n is the number of the term in question. For example, we have T1 = 2, T2 = 4, T3 = 6, and so on, in the sequence described above. A definition is a rule that tells us how to compute each term in a sequence. For example, a rule for the sequence above is Tn = 2n. A relation describes how each term is related to other terms. For instance, a relation for the above sequence is Tn + 1 = Tn + 2.

8.2

SIGMA () NOTATION

As you might have suspected, describing a series with the help of some of its terms isn't always a good idea --- if too few terms are used, the series can be ambiguous to your reader; on the other hand, you risk insulting your reader by writing out too many terms! To express a series succinctly, we use the sigma () notation instead.

In general, a series may be written as , which means "sum of all terms beginning with f(k0) up to and including f(N)". Hence,

As an example, the series 2+4+6+8+... may be written as

8.3

RECOGNIZING SIMPLE PROGRESSIONS

A progression is just another word for a sequence. In this module, you are expected to be well-acquainted with two very common types of progressions --the arithmetic progression and the geometric progression.

Page 57 of 102

Mathematics

Briefly, an arithmetic progression or AP is a sequence in which each successive term is the sum of the previous term and a fixed value. An example of an AP is 1,4,7,10,..., where the difference between successive terms is 3. A geometric progression or GP is a sequence in which each successive term is the product of the previous term and a fixed value. An example of a GP is 2,4,8,16,32,..., where each term is twice the value of the previous term.

8.4

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP)

An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence that can be written in the following way: , where a,d are constants. The first term T1 in the AP is denoted by a, and the common difference between subsequent terms is denoted by d. Thus, the series 1,4,7,10,..., is an arithmetic progression with a = 1 and d = 3.

8.4.1 RULES
The common difference d can be calculated by d = Tn Tn 2,3,4,.... The nth term is given by Tn = a + (n 1)d. The sum of the first n terms of an AP (with T1 as its first term and Tn as its last term) is given by .
1,

where n =

In fact, more generally, the sum of n consecutive terms in an AP is given by .

8.4.2 EXAMPLE
What is the sum of the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, ..., 100? The given sequence can be expressed as an AP with T1 = a = 2, and d = 2. We want the sum of the first 50 terms of the AP:

Page 58 of 102

Mathematics

8.5

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP)

A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence that can be written in the following way: , where a, r are constants. The first term T1 in the GP is denoted by a, and the common ratio between subsequent terms is denoted by r.

8.5.1 RULES

The common ratio r can be calculated by The nth term is given by Tn = arn 1.

, where n = 2,3,4,....

The sum of the first n terms of an GP is given by Proof of this is given by:

Sn rSn = a arn Sn(1 r) = a(1 rn)

8.5.2 SUM OF AN INFINITE GEOMETRIC SERIES

We say that the geometric series is convergent if the sum to infinity | r | < 1. Hence, if | r | < 1, then approaches some limit. This occurs when

Page 59 of 102

Mathematics

8.6

BINOMIAL EXPRESSIONS

A binomial is a polynomial with two parts in the form (a + b), such as (x + 1). When a binomial is raised to a power, you could simplify it by multiplying out the brackets several times. The expanded polynomial is called a binomial expansion, and all binomial expansions follow a pattern that can be used to expand binomials quicker than multiplying out several brackets. For now, we will only look at binomial expressions which are raised to positive integers.

8.6.1 EXPANSIONS OF (X + 1)
Here are the expansions of x + 1 raised to different powers. (x + 1)1 = (x + 1) = (x + 1)3 = (x + 1)4 =
2

1x + 1 1x + 2x + 1 1x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 1x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1

2

(x + 1)5 = 1x5 + 5x4 + 10x3 + 10x2 + 5x + 1 If you look at the coefficient of each term, you may notice a pattern. These numbers are called binomial coefficients and are found by adding the two numbers above it.

8.6.2 PASCAL'S TRIANGLE

Binomial coefficients are more commonly known as Pascal's triangle, named after Blaise Pascal. The first 10 lines of Pascal's triangle are: (1) 1 1 1 1 4 3 2 3 1 1 1

6 4 1 1 5 10 10 5 1 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45

1 10

Since each number is found by adding the two numbers above it, it is possible to find a few lines of the triangle to help you expand binomials. For binomials

Page 60 of 102

Mathematics

raised to powers greater than 10, you should use the binomial coefficient formula.

8.6.3 BINOMIAL COEFFICIENT FORMULA

When a binomial is raised to a large power, it may be too time consuming to find the binomial coefficients by writing out Pascal's triangle. Fortunately, there is a formula that can find any line of Pascal's triangle. If n is the power of the expansion, and r is the number of the term in a single row, the binomial coefficient formula is:

The ! means factorial and multiplies n by every integer less than itself, down to 1. So .

To find the binomial coefficients, you use the formula with the required value of n, and r = 0, r = 1, r = 2, and so on, until r = n. Most scientific calculators will have two buttons that will be useful in this process, one is the factorial button, usually labeled n! and the other will actually

find and is often labeled nCr or . (The C stands for "choose" or "combination" which is based on the formula's use in probability.) You should be aware that Pascal's triangle is symmetrical, so once a coefficient is repeated, you can write down the rest of the coefficients with ease.

8.6.4 EXPANDING BINOMIALS

Now that you know how to find the coefficients in a binomial expansion, you can easily expand any binomial that is raised to a positive integer by following these simple steps: For a binomial in the form (a + b)n, 1. Write down a in descending powers, from n to 0 2. Write down b in ascending powers, from 0 to n, making sure that you place the terms so that the powers add up to n

Page 61 of 102

Mathematics

3. Add the binomial coefficients to each term, either from line n in Pascal's triangle (ignoring the 1 at the top), or by using the binomial coefficient formula. You then simplify where necessary. For example, for the expansion of (x + 2)4: x in descending powers: x4 + x3 + x2 + x1 + x0 2 in ascending powers: 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 Grouping everything together we now have: x420 + x321 + x222 + x123 + x024 The fourth line of Pascal's triangle is: 1 4 6 4 1

Adding in the binomial coefficients: 1x420 + 4x321 + 6x222 + 4x123 + 1x024 Finally simplifying will now give us: x4 + 8x3 + 24x2 + 32x1 + 16 This process is summarized in the equation known as the binomial theorem:

In case you are not familiar with sigma notion this means:

Several simplifications can be made but they aren't worth memorising as you will pick them up automatically:

Page 62 of 102

Mathematics

9.

LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS:

9.1 OPERATIONS WITH EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

An exponential function is a function where a constant base (b) is raised to a variable.

9.1.1 MULTIPLICATION
Firstly, is which is . So when you multiply a base by the same base you add the variables. To clarify, here is an example with numbers:

1 2

2 4

4 16

8 64

8 64

9.1.2 DIVISION

Secondly is (also base you subtract the variables.

). So when a base is divided by the same

Here is an example with numbers:

9.1.3 BASE RAISED TO TWO POWERS

Thirdly is which is . So when a base with a variable is raises to an variable you multiply the variables. Here is another example with numbers: (when x = 1) .

9.1.4 MULTIPLE BASES

Fourthly when with numbers: it is the same as . Here is an example

. There is a similar situation with division: . So when you multiple or divide two different bases

Page 63 of 102

Mathematics

raised to the same variable you can multiply or divide them first and then raise them to the variable.

9.1.5 FRACTIONAL EXPONENTS

The last case is when x is presented as a fraction, you can make a square root function, for example becomes . However it is customary to only use

the positive root and so is defined as . Another similar case is when the fraction has a constant (designated as c) other than 1 in the numerator, for example so .

9.1.6 THE LAWS OF EXPONENTS

The rules that have been suggested above are known as the laws of exponents and can be written as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. where c is a constant

9.1.7 SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

In order to solve an exponential equation you need to make sure that all the bases are the same. Then you can remove the base and solve for the variable. Here is an example: Solve for x. Now we convert 16 to a base 2 raised to a number.

Page 64 of 102

Mathematics

Now we can remove the base. So we have:

Finally solve for x,

9.2

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

In mathematics you can find the inverse of an exponential function by switching x and y around: becomes . The problem arises on how to find the value of y. The logarithmic function solved this problem. All conversions of logarithmic function into an exponential function follow the same pattern: becomes . If a log is given without a written b then b=10. . There are 2 cases where the .

Also with logarithmic functions, b > 0 and log is equal to x: and

9.2.1 LAWS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

When X and Y are postive.

Page 65 of 102

Mathematics

9.2.2 CHANGE OF BASE

When x and b are positive real numbers and are not equal to 1. Then you can write example: as . This works for the natural log as well. Here is an

now check

Page 66 of 102

Mathematics

10. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

10.1 THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF AN ANGLE
Using the following diagram we will define the 3 basic trigonometric functions. A good way to memorize them is to use the acronym SOHCAHTOA. When you use a calculator to obtain the value of an angle make sure that it is the proper mode. The inverse function is used to find the angle for a value. It should be in radian mode if the angle is in radians and degree mode if the angle is in degrees.

Function

Inverse Function

Page 67 of 102

Mathematics

Function Written Cosine

Defined

Inverse Function Written

Equivalent to

Sine

Tangent

Page 68 of 102

Mathematics

10.2 GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

10.3 THE CAST MODEL

The Cast Model is used to show in which quadrant a trigonometric function will be positive. A sine function is positive in quadrant 1 and 2. A tan function is positive in quadrant 1 and 3. A cosine function is positive in quadrant 1 and 4. A good way to remember this is by the saying All Students Take Calculus.

10.4 IMPORTANT TRIGONOMETRIC VALUES

You need to have these values memorized.

Page 69 of 102

Mathematics

10.5 THE LAW OF COSINES

For any triangle ABC with angle measurement , , and sides of length a,b,c.

Example: What is the value of C when A = 4 cm, B = 8 cm, and is equal to .

10.6 THE LAW OF SINES

For any triangle ABC with angle measurement , , and sides of length a,b,c.

Example If Angle a is of side A?

, Angle b is

and Side b is 3cm, what is the length

Page 70 of 102

Mathematics

10.7 AREA OF A TRIANGLE

In a triangle ABC, the area of the triangle is one-half the two non-opposite sides and the included angle.

Example: What is the area of triangle when A = 4 cm, B = 8 cm, and is equal to .

Heron's Formula

where What is the area of triangle when A = 4 cm, B = 8 cm, and C = 10.

Page 71 of 102

Mathematics

10.8 PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITY

Proof: We use the Pythagorean theory:

Now we divide by c2:

We get:

We can write this as:

To visualize this, imagine sine and cosine drawing out a circle with radius 'c'. Any point on this circle will therefore have coordinates . As its centre is the origin, by Pythagoras' theory, we can say that the length of the radius squared (c2) is equal to the sum of the squares of the x and y coordinates. Dividing through by the radius squared, c2, gives the identity.

10.9 TANGENT IDENTITY

Proof:

Then we can divide both the numerator and the denominator by c

Page 72 of 102

Mathematics

We can write this as:

Page 73 of 102

Mathematics

11.

INTEGRATION:

Integration is the process of anti-differention. Earlier we saw that differentiating a function gives the gradient (or rate of change) of that function. Integrating a function, on the other hand, gives the area underneath the curve of that function.

11.1 BASIC INTEGRATION 11.1.1 Notation

The integral sign is . This symbol was chosen by Leibniz because it looks like an elongated S and an integral is a limit of sums. The f(x) is known as the integrand. The dx means that we integrate with respect to x.

11.1.2 INTEGRATION RULES

The reason that we add a + C when we compute the integral is because the derivative of a constant is zero, therefore we have an unknown constant when we compute the integral.

11.1.3 EXAMPLES

Page 74 of 102

Mathematics

11.1.4 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

This is the most important rule in calculus it establishes that differentiation and integration are inverse processes. Here is the theorem: Let f be continuous on [a,b].

1. If 2.

then , F is the antiderivative of f such that F'=f

The first rule states that if we integrate a function and then we differentiate the resultant then we will arrive at the same function. The second part says that we can find a definite integral by subtracting the value of f at the endpoints.

11.2

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

The first part of the Fundamental theorem of calculus establishes that if we differentiate a function and then integrate a function we get a indefinite integral. When we evaluate an indefinite integral the resultant will be a function. For an indefinite integral we use the appropriate rule to get the general antiderivative. If a point on the graph is given we solve for C, to get the complete antiderivative.

11.2.1 EXAMPLE
The rate of a function is given by the equation 4x3 + 3x2 4x + 2, the point (0, -7) is on the curve. Find the equation of the curve. 1. We need to find the general indefinite integral of 4x3 + 3x2 4x + 2.

2. Now we substitute the point (0, -7) into the general antiderivative to get the value of C.

C=7

Page 75 of 102

Mathematics

3. Now we can write the complete antiderivative.

11.3 DEFINITE INTEGRALS

The definite integral is used to find the area underneath of a curve. The second part of the fundamental theorem of calculus allows to evaluate these integrals, the resultant will be a number. The Definite Integral is denoted as . In the definite integral a is the lower limit and b is the upper limit together they are known as the limits of integration. When we evaluate a definite integral we don't write the +c because they will always cancel out and are liable to cause confusion. When we write this means that we have found the indefinite integral and are going to find the definite integral from b to a.

11.3.1 RULES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

1. 2. 3.

, F is the antiderivative of f such that F'=f

4. Area between a curve and the x-axis is 5. Area between a curve and the y-axis is

11.3.2 AREA OF A REGION BOUNDED BY A CURVE

When we evaluate area underneath curve we need to make sure that the interval over which we are finding the area is not in part or in full below the xaxis. In order to determine this fact we need to find x-intercepts of the function. Then we see if a x-intercept is in the interval. If so we need to determine which part of the interval is below the x-axis. If the whole interval is below the x-axis

we take the absolute value of the area .If only part of the interval is under the x-axis we need to break up the integration function into positive and negative parts. For the negative parts we need take the absolute value of the

Page 76 of 102

Mathematics

area. For example: If we need to find the area of and on the interval's a,a1 and b1,b the curve is above the x-axis and on the interval a1,b1 the curve is below the x-axis, we would break the integral into these parts:

. If you are unable to evaluate the definite integral you will need to use a numerical method to estimate the area.

11.3.3 EXAMPLE

Evaluate

1. First we need to find the x-intercepts. In this case they will be at 0 and 2. 2. Then we determine where x is positive or negative on the interval. 0__f(1)=-5__2__f(3)=9. 3. Now we break the integral into parts.

. 4. Now we evaluate the two definite integrals.

+ . + = 9.25

5. The area under the curve of x3 6x between 0 and 3 is 9.25.

11.4 AREAS INVOLVING TWO CURVES 11.4.1 AREA BOUNDED BY TWO CURVES
In order to calculate the area bounded by two curves we need to:

Page 77 of 102

Mathematics

1. Find the places where the 2 curves intercept. . The lower point of intersection will become the lower limit and the upper point of intersection will become the upper limit of integration. 2. Decide whether to integrate with respect to x or y. This is easy to do in most cases, see if the function is more easily integrated as y = f(x) or x = f(y). 3. Determine which curve is above the other curve. 4. Subtract the top curve from the bottom

curve 5. Evaluate the definite integral

11.4.2 EXAMPLE
Find the area bounded by y = x2 + 3x 3 and y = x. 1.

2. We will integrate with respect to x because the equation is in the form f(x). 3. We now have to determine which line is above the other. For this we just test a point. I will use f(x) = 0 and y = 3 and y = 0. So y = x will be above y = x2 + 3x 3. 4. Now we write out the integral.

Page 78 of 102

Mathematics

5. Finally we evaluate the definite integral.

11.4.3 AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES

When we calculate the area between two curves the procedure is very similar as to when we calculate the area bounded by two curves. In the problem the limits of integration will be given. The major difference is that in some cases we need to split the integral up. 1. Find the places where the 2 curves intercept. . 2. If the two graphs intercept at a point within the limit of integration, we will need to split the integral into parts. We will use the points of interception as break points. 3. Decide whether to integrate with respect to x or y. This is easy to do in most cases, see if the function is more easily integrated as y = f(x) or x = f(y). 4. Determine which curve is above the other curve. If the integral has been split up do this on every interval. 5. Subtract the top curve from the bottom

curve. add up the parts. 6. Evaluate the definite integral(s).

. If the integral has been split up we

11.4.4 EXAMPLE
Find the area between y = x2 + 3x 3 and y = x between x = -4 and x = 4. 1.

Page 79 of 102

Mathematics

2. Since the graph have points of interception on the interval we need to split the integral into parts. The parts will be (-4, -3), (-3, 1), and (1,4) 3. We will integrate with respect to x because the equation is in the form f(x). 4. We now have to determine which line is above the other on each interval. For this we just test a point on each interval. For the line y = x __f(-4)=-4__f(-2)=-2___f(3)=3__. For the curve y = x2 + 3x 3 __f(-4)=-1__f(-2)=-5___f(3)=15__. Now we will know that on the interval (-4, -3) y = x2 + 3x 3 is above y = x, (-3, 1) y = x is above y = x2 + 3x 3, and (1,4) y = x2 + 3x 3 is above y = x. 5. Now we write out the integral.

6. Now we evaluate the definite integrals.

+ + +

Page 80 of 102

Mathematics

11.5 ESTIMATING AREA UNDERNEATH A CURVE

It becomes necessary to estimate the area underneath a curve when a function is very difficult or impossible to integrate or when we obtain our curve from a set of values.

11.5.1 TRAPEZIUM RULE

The Trapezium Rule estimates the area under a curve between limits by turning the curve into a set of trapeziums (or strips) and each strip is made out of two ordinates, so there is always one more ordinates than there are strips. The formula is:

Where:

n is the number of strips.

11.5.2 EXAMPLE

Use the Trapezium Rule to evaluate Firstly, we work out h.

using 4 strips.

Now we start setting up the Trapezium Rule.

Solving for the f(n) we get:

Page 81 of 102

Mathematics

However if we find the precise value it will be

11.5.3 MIDPOINT RULE

The Midpoint Rule is more accurate than the Trapezium Rule. It works by finding the mid-points of rectangles drawn to the curve. The Midpoint Rule is:

Where:

n is the number of strips.

and

11.5.4 EXAMPLE

Use the Midpoint Rule to evaluate Firstly, we work out h.

using 4 strips.

Now we begin to set up the Midpoint Rule.

Page 82 of 102

Mathematics

Now we need to solve f(n)

As you can see the resultant from the midpoint rule is closer to the true value than the trapezium rule.

11.6

INTEGRALS TO INFINITY
or is lower limit going to

An integral that has either it upper limit going to

is an improper integral and cannot be computed directly instead we need to find the limit of the function. The improper integrals and

is convergent if the limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist. The rules to calculate a integral going to infinity are:

1) If

exist for all number

, then

The limit has to be a finite number.

2) If

exist for all number

, then

The limit has to be a finite number.

Page 83 of 102

Mathematics

3) If

and

are convergent, then

a is any real number.

Page 84 of 102

Mathematics

12

PERMUTATIONS AND PROBABILITY

12.1 PERMUTATIONS
How many ways can we arrange r objects selected from a set of n distinct objects? This question applies to numerous statistical and probabilistic situations. Example .We have a tray with 20 rock samples. How many ways can you select 3 samples from the 20? The first rock can be any of 20, the 2nd will be any of 19, while the 3rd is one of 18. The total ways must therefore be ways. We can write the number of choices as we find , and in general (1) It is convenient to introduce the factorial n! defined as (2)

In addition, we define 0! to equal 1. We can then rewrite (1) as (3)

This quantity is called the number of permutations of r objects selected from a set of n distinct objects. Let us find how many different hands one can be dealt in poker. With n = 52 and r = 5, we find (4)

This assumed that the order in which you received the cards are important.

12.2 COMBINATIONS
Many times, however, we don't care about the exact ordering of the r objects, i.e., abc is the same choice as acb for our purpose. In general, r objects can be arranged in r! Different ways (rPr = r!). Since we are only concerned about which

Page 85 of 102

Mathematics

r objects have been selected and not their order, we can use nPr but must divide the result by r! (5)

The

quantities

are

called

the

binomial

coefficients.

Example .In how many ways can you pick three tide gauge records from 10 stations? (6)

After picking the r objects, n - r objects are left, so consequently, there are as many ways of selecting n - r objects from n as there are for selecting r objects, i.e., (7)

12.3 PROBABILITY
So far we have studied only what is possible in a given situation. We have listed all possibilities or determined how many possibilities there are. However, to be of use to us we need to be able to judge which of the possibilities are probable and which are improbable. The basic concept of probability can be stated: If there are n possible outcomes or possibilities, and s of these are regarded as favorable (or ``success"), then the probability of a success is given by P = s/n (8)

This classical definition applies only when all possible outcomes are equally likely. Example.What are the probability of drawing an ace from a deck of cards? Answer: . How about getting a 3 or a 4 with a balanced

die? Answer: s = 2 and n = 6, so While equally likely possibilities are found mostly in games of chance, the classical probability concept also applies to random selections. E. g., If 3 of 20 water samples have been contaminated and you select 4 random samples, what are the probability of picking one of the bad samples? Answer: We have 4845 ways of making the selection of our 4 samples. The

Page 86 of 102

Mathematics

number of ``favorable" outcomes is ones] times

[we pick 3 good samples of the 17 good

[we pick one of the three bad samples] = 2040. It then follows

that the probability is . Here we used the rule of multiplicative choices. Obviously, the classical probability concept won't be useful when some outcomes are more likely than others. A better definition would then be The probability of an event is the proportion of the time that events of the same kind will occur in the long run. So, when the Weather Service says that the chance of rain on any day in June is 0.2, it is based on past experiences that on average June had 6 days of rain. Another important probability theorem is the law of large numbers, which states If a situation, trial, or experiment is repeated again and again, the proportion of successes will tend to approach the probability that any one outcome will be a success. which is basically our probability concept in reverse.

12.4 SOME RULES OF PROBABILITY

In statistics, the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space, usually denoted by the letter S. Any subset of S is called an event. An event may contain more than one item. Sample spaces may be finite or infinite. Two events that have no elements in common are said to be mutually exclusive, meaning they cannot both occur at the same time. There are only positive (or zero) probabilities, symbolically written (9) for any event A. Every sample space has probability 1; P(S) = 1 (10)

Where P = 1 means absolute certainty. If two events are mutually exclusive, the probability that one or the other will occur equals the sum of their probabilities (11) Regarding notation, means Union (read as ``OR"), means intersection (``AND"), and ' means complement (``NOT"). We can furthermore state (12) since absolute certainty is the most we can as for. P(A) + P(A') = 1, (13)

Page 87 of 102

Mathematics

since it is certain that an event either will or will not occur.

12.5 PROBABILITIES AND ODDS

If the probability of an event is p, the odds for its occurrence are a : b = p/1-p The inverse relation gives (14)

12.6 ADDITIONAL ADDITION RULES

Figure: Venn diagram for probabilities of finding hydrocarbons.

The addition rules demonstrated above only holds for mutually exclusive events. Let us now consider a more general case. The sketch in Figure is a Venn diagram, a handy graphical way of illustrating the various combinations of possibilities and probabilities. The diagram illustrates the probabilities associated with finding hydrocarbons during a hypothetical exploration campaign. We have from the diagram that (15)

Now, if we used the simple addition rule we would find (16) This value overestimates the probability because finding Oil and finding Gas are not mutually exclusive since we are might find both. We can correct the equation by writing

Page 88 of 102

Mathematics

(17) The general addition rule for probabilities thus becomes (18)

Note that if the events are mutually exclusive then the original rule

and we recover

12.7 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

We must sometimes evaluate the probability of an event given that another event already has occurred. We write the probability that A will occur given that B already has occurred as (19)

In our exploration example, we can find the probability of finding oil given that gas already has been found as (20)

We can now derive a general multiplication rule by multiplying it by P(B) which gives (21)

Which states that the probability of both events A and B occurring is given by the probability of one event multiplied by the probability that the other event will occur given that the first one already has occurred (occurs, or will occur). This is also called the Joint Probability or Bayes Basic Theorem. Now, if the events A and B are independent events, then the probability that A will take place is not influenced whether B has taken place or not, i.e. P(A|B) = P(A). Substituting this expression we obtain (23) (22)

Page 89 of 102

Mathematics

That is, the probability that both A and B will occur equals the product of their probabilities. In general, for n independent events with individual probability pi, the probability that all n events occur is (24) E.g., what are the probability of rolling 3 ones in a row with a die? Answer: With n = 3 and p =1/6, (25) While P(A | B) and P(B|A) may look similar, they can be vastly different. E.g., let A be the event of a death on the Bay Bridge, and B the event of a magnitude 8 earthquake in San Francisco. Then, P(A|B) is the probability of a fatality on the Bay Bridge given that a large earthquake has taken place nearby, while P(B|A) is the probability that we will have a magnitude 8 quake given a death on the bridge. Clearly P(A|B) seems more likely than P(B|A) since we know the former to have happened in the past but can find many other causes of death on the freeway than earthquakes (traffic accidents, heart attacks, gang violence, etc.). We can arrive at a relation between P(B|A) and P(A|B) by equating the two expressions in We obtain or (26)

This is a useful relation since we may sometimes know one conditional probability but are interested in the other. For example, we may know that salt domes often are associated with large curvatures in the gravity field. However, we may be more interested in the converse: Given that large curvatures in the gravity field exist, what is the probability that salt domes will be the cause of the anomalies? If there are more than one event Bi (all mutually exclusive) that are conditionally related to event A, then P(A) is simply the sum of the conditional probabilities of the Bi, i.e. (27)

(28)

Page 90 of 102

Mathematics

Location of fossil find with respect to the two drainage basins from which it probably originated.

This

is

the

general

Bayes

Theorem.

Example .Let us assume that an unknown marine fossil fragment was found in a stream bed in Kansas, and a paleontologist would like to send a student field party out to search for a more complete specimen. Unfortunately, the source of the fragment cannot be identified uniquely since it was found below the junction of two dry stream tributaries. The drainage basin B1 of the larger stream covers 180 km2; the other (B2) only 100 km2. Based on this we might expect that the probabilities that the fragment came from one of the basins are (29)

based solely on the percentage of basin area to total area. However, inspecting a geological map reveals that 35% of the outcropping rocks in the large basin B1 are marine, while almost 80% of the outcrops are marine in basin B2. We can now state two conditional probabilities P(A|B1) = 0.35 Probability of a marine fossil, given it was derived from basin B1. P(A|B2) = 0.80 Probability of a marine fossil, given it was derived from basin B2. With these probabilities and Bayes theorem we can find the conditional probability that the fossil came from basin B1 given that the fossil is marine (30)

Page 91 of 102

Mathematics

Similarly, the probability of the fossil coming from the smaller basin B2 P(B2|A) = 0.56. (31)

It therefore seems somewhat more likely that the smaller basin was the source of the fossil. However, P(B1|A) and P(B2|A) are not very different and depends on the assumptions used to select P(Bi) and P(A|Bi).

Page 92 of 102

Formulae
The Laws of Indices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. The Laws of Surds 1.

2. 3. Polynomials Parabolas If f(x) is in the form a(x + d)2 + e 1. -d is the axis of symmetry 2. e is the maximum or minimum value

Axis of Symmetry = Completing the Square

Formulae

becomes The Quadratic Formula The solutions of the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 are:

The discriminant of the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 is b2 - 4ac Errors 1. 2. 3.

Coordinate Geometry Gradient of a line

Point-Gradient Form The equation of a line passing through the point . Perpendicular lines Lines are perpendicular if Distance between two points and having a slope m is

Mid-point of a line

Page 94 of 102

Formulae

General Circle Formulae

Equation of a Circle Circles and Angles Conversion of Degree Minutes and Seconds to a Decimal

where X is the degree, y is the minutes, and z is the seconds. Arc Length Note: needs to be in radians Area of a Sector

Note: needs to be in radians. Differentiation Differentiation Rules 1. Derivative of a constant function:

2. The Power Rule:

3. The Constant Multiple Rule:

Page 95 of 102

Formulae

4. The Sum Rule:

5. The Difference Rule:

Rules of Stationary Points If and , then c is a local maximum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave down on the interval. If and , then c is a local minimum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave up on the interval. If and point of f(x). Dividing and Factoring Polynomials Remainder Theorem If you have a polynomial f(x) divided by x - c, the remainder is equal to f(c). Note if the equation is x + c then you need to negate c: f(-c). The Factor Theorem A polynomial f(x) has a factor x - c if and only if f(c) = 0. Note if the equation is x + c then you need to negate c: f(-c). Formula for Exponential and Logarithmic Function The Laws of Exponents 1. 2. 3. 4. and , then c is a local inflection

Page 96 of 102

Formulae

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Logarithmic Function The inverse of is which is equivalent to where c is a constant

Change of Base Rule:

can be written as

Laws of Logarithmic Functions When X and Y are postive.

Trigonometry The Trigonometric Ratios of An Angle Function Written Cosine Defined Inverese Function Written Equivalent to

Sine

Tangent

Important Trigonometric Values You need to have these values memorized.

Page 97 of 102

Formulae

The Law of Cosines

The Law of Sines

Area of a Triangle

Heron's Formula

where

Page 98 of 102

Formulae

Trigonometric Identities

Integration Integration Rules The reason that we add a + C when we compute the integral is because the derivative of a constant is zero, therefore we have an unknown constant when we compute the integral.

Rules of Definite Integrals

1. f 2. 3.

, F is the anti derivative of f such that F' =

4. Area between a curve and the x-axis is 5. Area between a curve and the y-axis is

6. Area between curves is

Page 99 of 102

Formulae

Trapezium Rule

Where: Midpoint Rule

n is the number of strips.

Where:

n is the number of strips.

And

Page 100 of 102

Formulae

MCQ,s
1. For perpendicular lines, the product of their slopes (gradients) is . a) 0 b) 1 c) -1 d) 1 There are seconds in a degree. a) 60 b) 100 c) 360 d) 3600 In Herons formula, if a= 2, b= 3, c= 5, s is equal to a) 1 b) 5 c) 10 d) None of above There are . Degrees in radians a) 90 b) 180 c) 360 d) 10 k log X = . a) k log X b) log kX c) 1/k log X d) log X + log k

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. The point when a function changes from concave up to concave down is called a) Zero Point b) Inflection point c) Concave up point d) Vertex 7. 3-3 = . a) 1/81 b) 1/27 c) 81 d) 27 The area of a sector with a 3cm radius and an angle of 2 is . Cm2 a) 28.27

8.

Page 101 of 102

Formulae

9.

10. are

b) 27.28 c) 6 d) 18 If relative error in a calculation is .02, then its percentage error will be a) 2% b) 20 % c) .02% d) 200% If descriminant is less than zero, then the roots of the quadretic equation a) b) c) d) Real Rational Natural complex

Page 102 of 102