1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics

1.1 Understanding Physics
explain what physics is
recognize the physics in everyday objects and natural phenomena

1. A phenomenon is an occurrence that can be perceived by our senses.
2. In physics, we study natural phenomena, such as the eruption of volcano, rain fall, formation of
rainbow and the properties of matter, such as length, temperature, volume
3. There are many fields of study in physics, including force, motion, heat, light, waves, electricity,
electromagnetism, electronics and nuclear physics.

1.2 Understanding Base Quantities and Derived Quantities
explain what base quantities and derived quantities are
list base quantities and their units
list some derived quantities and their units.
express quantities using prefixes.
express quantities using scientific notation
express derived quantities as well as their units in terms of base quantities and base units.
solve problems involving conversion of units

1. A physical quantity is a physical characteristic that can be measured.
2. Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be defined in terms of other base quantities.
There are five base quantities: length, mass, time, current and temperature.

Physical Quantity Base S.I. Unit
Base Quantity Quantity Symbol S.I. Unit Unit symbol
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric Current I ampere A
Temperature T kelvin K
Table 1
Notes for teachers:
Symbol is a short form of a quantity. Example: A boy by the name Ahmad is called as Mad; a girl by the
name Mary Jane is called MJ; a pet by the name cute-cute is called cc.

Unit is similar to the penjodoh bilangan in the Bahasa Melayu. For person, we say seorang or dua
orang; but for a pet like hamsters, we say seekor or dua ekor.

The unit ampere and kelvin are the names of scientists we use to remind us of their contributions to the
respective fields. However, when we write the unit fully, we write all in small letters, example: 1.2 ampere,
5.0 kelvin; when we write shortly, we write the first alphabet of the name in capital letter, example: 1.2 A, 5.0
K

3. Derived quantities are physical quantities consisting of combinations of base quantities., by
multiplication, division, or both operations.

4. Derived quantities as well as their units are expressed in terms of base quantities and base S.I.
units as follows:







2
Notes for teachers:
Example: Given that velocity =
time
nt displaceme
. Express the unit for speed in base units.
Solution:
SI unit for velocity =
for time unit SI
nt displaceme for unit SI

=
s
m

= ms
-1
(read as metre per second)

Given that l : length, m : mass, t : time, I : electric current, T : temperature.
Derived quantities
(symbol)
Expressed in base quantities Derived units
Area
(A)
A = l x l


Unit A = m x m
=
2
m
(read as square metre)
Volume
(V)
V = l x l x l


Unit V = m x m x m
=
3
m
(read as cubic metre)
Density
( )
=
V
m



Unit =
3
m
kg

=
3
m kg
(read as kilogram per cubic metre)
Speed
(v)
v =
t
l



Unit v =
s
m

=
1
s m
(read as metre per second)
Work or Energy
(W or E)
W = F- s
F = force
s = displacement


Unit W = kg
2
s m x m
= kg
2 2
s m
= N m
= J
(read as joule)
Power
(P)
P =
t
E
t
W
=



Unit P =
s
J

=
1
s J
= W
(read as watt)
Velocity
(v)
v =
t
l



Unit v =
s
m

=
1
s m
(read as metre per second)
Acceleration
(a)
a =
t
u - v

u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
t = time taken
Unit a =
s
ms
1

=
2
s m
(read as metre per second per second)
3
Force
(F)
F = ma
m = mass
a = acceleration


Unit F = kg x
2
s m
= kg
2
s m
= N
(read as newton)
Impulse
(Ft)
Ft = change of momentum
= mv mu
m = mass
u = initial velocity
v = final velocity

Unit Ft = kg x
1
s m
= kg
1
s m
= N s
(read as newton second)
Momentum
(p)
p = mv
m = mass
v = velocity


Unit p = kg x
1
ms
= kg
1
s m
= N s
(read as newton second)
Pressure
(P)
P =
A
F

F = force
A = area

Unit P =
2
m
N

=
2
m N
= Pa
(read as pascal)
Specific heat
capacity
(c)
c =
u m
Q

Q = heat energy
m = mass
u = change in temperature



Unit c =
C kg
J
o

=
1 0 1
C kg J
=
kgK
J

=
1 1
K kg J
(read as joule per kilogram per kelvin)
Frequency
(f)
f =
T
1

T = period of swing; unit:
second (s)


Unit f =
s
1

=
1
s
= Hz
(read as hertz)
Electrical charges
(Q)
Q = It
I = electric current
t = time
Unit Q = A s
= C
(read as coulomb)
Resistance
(R)
R =
I
V

V = voltage; unit: volt (V)
I = electric current

Unit R =
A
V

=
1
A V
= O
(read as ohm)
Table 2








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5. Prefixes are used to express some physical quantities that are either very big or very small.

Prefix Symbol Value
Tera T
12
10
Giga G
9
10
Mega M
6
10
kilo k
3
10
desi d
1
10

centi c
2
10

mili m
3
10

mikro

6
10

nano n
9
10

piko p
12
10

Table 3

6. Standard form or scientific notation:
A x 10
n
where 1s A < 10, n is an integer (integer positive or negative).

Ku Physical Quantity Value Standard form or
Scientific notation
Mass of earth 6 020 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg
kg
24
10 02 . 6

Diameter of an oil
molecule
0. 000 000 000 74 m
m
10
10 4 . 7


Speed or light in the
vacuum
299 792 458 m s
-1

1 8
10 0 . 3

s m
Radius of earth 6 370 000 m
m
6
10 37 . 6

Mass of hydrogen
atom
0. 000 021 kg
kg
5
10 1 . 2


Time of a day 86 400 s
s
4
10 64 . 8

Temperature of the
centre of the earth
6 000 000 K
K
6
10 0 . 6

Size of a flu virus 0.000 000 2 m
m
7
10 0 . 2



Table 4












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1.3 Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities
define scalar and vector quantities
give examples of scalar and vector quantities.


1. Scalar quantities are quantities that have magnitude but no direction.
2. Vector quantities are quantities that have both magnitude and direction.

Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
work Acceleration
Area Force
Length Momentum
Table 1.3.1
3.
Distance(s) Displacement(s)
- Total length of the path
traveled
- Distance between two
points measured along a
specific direction
- Scalar quantity - Vector quantity


Speed Velocity
- Rate of change of
distance
- Rate of change of
displacement
- Speed =
time
ce dis tan
- Velocity =
time
nt displaceme

- Scalar quantity - Vector quantity























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4. Annie the ant is traveling down the road to buy an umbrella for these rainy days. She
walks from her nest, A to B, B to C in 10 minutes time as shown in the picture below:
(a) What is the distance she traveled?
(b) What is her displacement from A?
(c) What is her speed?
(d) What is her velocity?


Solution:

(a) Distance traveled = AB + BC
= 3 m + 4m
= 7 m

(b) Displacement of the object from A = 5 m towards the direction of AC
tan u = =
4
3
0.75
u = 36.9
o

The displacement of the ant is 5 m in the direction of S 36.9
o
E from A.
(c) Speed =
1
012 . 0
60 10
7

=

s m
(d) Velocity =
1
0083 . 0
60 10
5

=

s m towards the direction of AC.

A
B
C
4 m
3 m
Annie the ant U
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1.4 Measuring Instruments
Measure physical quantities using appropriate instruments
Explain accuracy and consistency
Explain sensitivity
Explain types of experimental error
Use appropriate techniques to reduce errors
Accuracy, Consistency and Sensitivity in measurement & Errors
Definitions:
1. Consistency in measurements refers to how little deviation there is among the measurements made
when a quantity is measured several times.
2. Accuracy of a measurement is how close the measurement made is to the actual value of the quantity.
3. Sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect a small change in the quantity to be measured in a
short period of time.
4. The diagram shows the result for four shooters A, B, C and D in a tournament. Every shooter shot five
times.

The table shows the conclusion:







Table 1
Figure 1
5. Error is uncertainty caused by measuring instrument or the observer or the physical factors of the
surroundings.
6. Two main types of errors : systematic error and random error.

Systematic Error Random Error
Caused by:
i. Error in instruments
ii. Error in calibration

Caused by:
i. Surroundings factors, such as
temperature and wind
ii. Carelessness of the observer
Example
i. Zero error
Example
i. Parallax error
ii. Error in counting
Cannot be reduced or overcome Can be reduced
Way of correction
i. Take the error into account

Ways of correction
i. Take several readings and
calculate the average value.
Table 2








Shooter Consistency Accuracy
A High Low
B Low High
C High High
D Low Low
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Parallax errors
Definition:
A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument because the observers eyes and pointer are not in
line / perpendicular to the plane of the scale.

Concept & Explanation:
1. Figure 2, 3 and 4 show the correct positioning of the observers eyes to avoid parallax errors.


2. How to avoid parallax error?

(a) position of eyes must be in line/ perpendicular / 90
o
with the scale of the reading to be
taken.

(b) When taking reading from an ammeter, we must make sure that the eyes are exactly in
front of the pointer, so that the reflection of the pointer in the mirror is right behind the
pointer. In other words, the reflection of the pointer on the mirror could not be seen by the
observer, then it is free from parallax error.

















9
Measuring Instruments & Accuracy

Measuring Instruments:








Table 2
(A) Instruments measuring length
1. Metre Rule









Figure 5
2. Vernier Calipers
The same wire is measured by a vernier caliper. The reading is as follows:







Figure 6
3. Micrometer Screw Gauge
The diameter of the wire is measured by a micrometer screw gauge. The reading is as follows:







Figure 7










Physical Quantity Measuring Instrument
Length Metre-rule, vernier caliper, micrometer screw gauge
Current Ammeter
Mass Triple-beam-balance
Temperature Thermometer
Time Mechanical stopwatch, digital stopwatch
Voltage Voltmeter
Ruler A Ruler B
Sensitivity 0.1 cm 0.5 cm
Accuracy 0.1 cm 0.5 cm
Length of wire 4.8 cm 5.0 cm
Sensitivity 0.01 cm
Accuracy 0.01 cm
Length of wire 4.78cm
Sensitivity 0.01 mm
Accuracy 0.01 mm
Diameter of wire 6.5 +0.22
= 6.72 mm

4 5
0
5
10
20
25
0 5
wire

2

3

4

5
1 0

Ruler A

2

3

4

5
0

1
Ruler B
10
Vernier Calipers













Positive zero error Negative zero error







Figure 9
Positive zero error = + 0.08 cm
All measurements taken with this vernier calipers
must be corrected by subtracting 0.08 cm from the
readings.


Figure 10
Negative zero error = - ( 0.1 0.08 ) cm
= - 0.02 cm
All measurements taken with this vernier calipers
must be corrected by subtracting - 0.08 cm, which
is adding 0.08 cm to the readings

Eample
(i) Figure 11 (ii)

Zero error = + 0.04 cm
Vernier calipers reading = 0.4 + 0.01
= 0.41 cm
Corrected reading
= vernier calipers reading zero error
= 0.41 0.04
= 0.37 cm
Example
(i) Figure 12 (ii)

Zero error = -(0.1 0.07) cm
= - 0.03 cm
Vernier calipers reading = 3.6 + 0.02
= 3.62 cm
Corrected reading
= vernier calipers reading zero error
= 3.62 (-0.03)
= 3.62 + 0.03
= 3.65 cm






1) How to read from a vernier calipers?

Figure 8 shows the use of a vernier calipers
to measure the size of the inner diameter of
a beaker.
Inner diameter
= main scale reading + vernier scale reading
= 3.2 + 0.04
= 3.24 cm

Figure 8

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Exercise:
1 Write down the readings shown by the following
(a)




(b)


(c)



(d)




2. (a) The following diagram shows the scale of a vernier callipers when the jaws are closed.





Zero error = + 0.02 cm
(b) The following diagram shows the scale of the same vernier callipers when there are 40
pieces of cardboard between the jaws.













0 5 10
0 1
0 5 10
6 7

0
5 10

7 8

0
5
10

5 6
0 5 10
0 1
Answer: 7.89 cm
Answer: 4.27 cm
Answer: 6.28 cm
Answer: 0.02 cm

Reading shown = 5.64 cm

Corrected reading = 5.64 0.02 = 5.62 cm

0 5
10
4
5
A B
Q P

12
Micrometer Screw Gauge
1) How to read from a micrometer screw gauge?
Figure 13
Figure 13 shows the use of a micrometer screw gauge to measure the size of a spherical object.
Main scale reading = 5.5 mm
Thimble scale reading = 12 x 0.01
= 0.12 mm
Final reading = 5.5 + 0.12
= 5.62 mm



























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2. Positive zero error and negative zero error

Positive zero error Negative zero error

Figure 14
Positive zero error = + 0.04 mm
All measurements taken with this micrometer
screw gauge must be corrected by subtracting
0.04 mm from the readings


Figure 15

Negative zero error = - 0.04 mm
All measurements taken with this micrometer
screw gauge must be corrected by subtracting -
0.04 mm, which is adding 0.04 mm from the
readings
Example

Figure 16
Zero error = + 0.01 mm
micrometer screw gauge reading
= 2.5 + 0.35
= 2.85 mm
Corrected reading
= micrometer screw gauge reading zero error
= 2.85 0.01
= 2.84 mm
Example

Figure 17
Zero error = - 0.03 mm
micrometer screw gauge reading
= 6.0 + 0.08
= 6.08 mm
Corrected reading
= micrometer screw gauge reading zero error
= 6.08 (-0.03)
= 6.08 + 0.03
= 6.11 mm
















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Exercise:
1. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges.
(a) (b)





Answer: 6.5 + 0.28 = 6.78 mm Answer: 17.0 + 0.42 = 17.42 mm

(c) (d)





Answer:4.5 + 0.06 = 4.56 mm Answer: 9.0 + 0.32 = 9.32 mm
2. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.








Zero error = - 0.02 mm Zero error = + 0.02 mm

(b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.
























25
30
0 5
40
5
10 15
45
0
0
45
5
0
0
5
0
0
0
5
15
20
30
35
0
5
Zero error = + 0.03 mm
Reading shown = 6.5 + 0.18
= 6.68 mm

Corrected reading = 6.68 (+0.03)
= 6.65 mm
5
10
0
15
(B) Instrument Measuring Current : Ammeter

Ammeter ranged 0.0 A 5.0 A
Sensitivity = 0.1 A
Accuracy = 0.1 A



Figure 18

Doubled ranged ammeter
Upper scale ranged 0.0 A 5.0A;
Sensitivity = 0.1 A ; accuracy = 0.1 A
Lower scale ranged 0.00A 1.00A;
Sensitivity = 0.02A ; accuracy = 0.02A
Reading = 0.30 A




Figure 19





Miliammeter 0 mA 50 mA
Sensitivity = 1 mA
Accuracy = 1 mA
Reading = 15 mA





Figure 20


















16


(C) Instrument Measuring Temperature
Thermometer



Figure 21 Accuracy = 1
o
C

(D) Instrument Measuring Time



Mechanical Stopwatch
Accuracy = 0.2 s; Reading = 8.2 s



































Digital Stopwatch
Accuracy = 0.01s
Reading = 3 minutes 55.62 s

Figure 22: Mechanical stopwatch
Figure 23: Digital stopwatch
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1.5 Scientific Investigation
Identify variables in a given situation
Identify a queation suitable for scientific investigation
Form a hypothesis
Design and carry out a simple experiment to test the hypothesis
Record and present data in a suitable form
Interpret data to draw a conclusion
Write a report of the investigation

Clone of SPM Try Exam of the Perak State year 2003: Paper 3 / Section B/ Question 2

Notes: MV -manipulated variable; RV-responding variable; C- constant






















Two twin brothers, Micheal and Jackson, of the same size, are swinging happily on the swings at a
playground as shown in the figure above.
However, the ropes that is holding the swing where Micheal is sitting is longer than Jacksons. And,
Micheal notices that his swing is swinging slower than his brother, Jackson.
Using this information;
(a) make a suitable inference, [1 mark]
(b) state one appropriate hypothesis that could be investigated, [1 mark]
(c) describe how you would design an experiment to test your hypothesis using a bob, strings and other
apparatus.
In your description, state clearly the following:
(i) aim of the experiment
(ii) variables in the experiment
(iii) list of apparatus and materials
(iv) arrangement of the apparatus
(v) the procedure of the experiment, which includes the method of controlling the manipulated
variable and the method of measuring the responding variable.
(vi) the way you would tabulate the data
(vii) the way you would analyze the data [10 marks]
Keywords to indicate
C is mass
Keywords to indicate
MV is length
Keywords to indicate RV is time of
making a complete swing
Keywords to indicate
the must-use-
apparatus and hinting
on the Pendulum
experiment
18


Answer:
(a) Length of ropes influences time of making a complete swing
(b) When the length of pendulum increases, the period of swing increases.
(c)

Marks
1
st
mark
/
1

Aim

To investigate the relationship between length of pendulum and
period of swing.
2
nd
mark
/
2

MV: length of pendulum, l RV: period of swing, T
3
rd
mark
/
3

C : mass of bob
4
th
mark
/
4

List of apparatus
& materials

metre-rule, stopwatch, bob, string, retort standand clamp,
split cork,

5
th
mark
/
5

Arrangement of
apparatus










6
th
mark
/
6

Method to control
MV

Measure l = 10.0 cm by using a metre-rule.
(Notes: Active or passive sentences are acceptable. Must have a
value + measuring instrument)

7
th
mark
/
7

Method to control
RV

Measure time for 20 swings, t
20
by using a stop-watch.
Calculate period of a swing, T as follows:
20
20
t
T =

8
th
mark
/
8

Repetition

Repeat the experiment with l = 20.0 cm, 30.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 50.0 cm
using the same bob.
9
th
mark
/
9
: Tabulate data
l (cm) T (s)
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
10
th
mark
/
10
: Analyze data
Plot graph T(s) against l (cm)






T (s)
l (cm)