IMAGE MATCHING Measuring conjugate points in two or more images is one of the most common tasks in photogrammetry and

a part of procedures like relative and absolute orientations of stereopairs, aerotriangulation, or DTM generation. Image matching is referred as the process of automatic finding corresponding entities in several images and corresponding problems. They are three methods of image matching; area based matching, feature based matching and relational based matching. The table below gives an overview of three basic methods of image matching that have been developed and are used in photogrammetry and computer vision.

AREA BASED METHODS Grey values are the matching entities in area based matching. As matching one pixel brings an ambiguity problem, grey values of several neighbouring pixels are therefore used. In photogrammetry, cross-correlation and least squares matching are the mostly used techniques for area based matching. Processes in Area Based Matching: iAn image patch cut from one image, so called template, is searched in the second image. The template consists of m x n pixels, mostly m=n. iiThe position of the template is referred to the central pixel that (reason of m and n are odd numbers). iiiThe template is compared with patches of the same size in the second image. An approximate position of a corresponding point in the second image can usually be derived (e.g. when approximations of orientation parameters of two overlapping images are known). ivThe comparison is restricted to an area called a search area or window. A value of a similarity measure is calculated at each position of the template within the search area.

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Depending on the character of the similarity measure, a corresponding point to the centre of the template is assumed to be in the position where maximal or minimal value of the similarity measure is obtained.

Least squares matching Purpose of adoption: Correlation coefficient is not an ideal measure of similarity between two image patches due to their geometric and radiometric differences and this method allows more than cross-correlation like matching in the subpixel range including estimating its accuracy, weighting the observations and blunder detection has started. Concepts: Minimizing differences in grey values between the template and search image patches in an adjustment process where geometric and radiometric corrections of one of matching windows are determined. Got an attribute adaptive because it gives a possibility of automatic changing the number of parameters and weighting observations depending on their importance and numerical stability of the solution Condition for successful in this process: To find an approximate position of the search area relatively accurate, e.g. within a few pixels. Correlation matching The normalised cross-correlation coefficient r is one of common similarity measures used in photogrammetry.

The normalized correlation coefficient has values within the range 1 r 1. Values close to 0 indicate no similarity and the value of 1 is obtained when the positive and the negative of an image are matched. Thus, in the image matching process positive values close to 1 are demanded. A template moves pixel by pixel over the search window and a correlation coefficient is calculated in each position. The position where the correlation coefficient reaches its highest value is selected as a position of the best match/fit.

Principles: Based on finding maximum of correlation coefficient r. The graph in the middle shows values of the correlation coefficient calculated in 13 x 13 positions of the template within the search area. The correlation coefficient reaches its maximum 0.79 at the position row=30 and column=32.

FEATURE BASED METHODS Based on matching extracted features as points, edges, or regions. Advantage as compared to area based: When measuring conjugate points in the image, the human operator detects and concentrates on abrupt changes in grey values (the image function) that often correspond to physical boundaries in object space rather than grey

values themselves. When considering the human visual system as superior to automated systems, feature based methods are in better agreement with this system than area based methods. Steps in feature based matching procedures iiiSelecting distinct features (points, edges) in the images separately Building up a preliminary list of candidate pairs of corresponding features based on a chosen similarity measure iiiPrinciples: Most attention is paid to interest points (the procedure of finding interest points in each of matched images are by calculating characteristic parameters for each window in the image or its selection and make a comparison for the values of these parameters with given thresholds) and their combination with area based methods. This is an approach applied in most of professional photogrammetric software packages for an automatic measurement of tie points and derivation of elevation models. Deriving a final list of feature pairs consistent with an object model

RELATIONAL MATCHING Definition: An elegant rotation and scale invariant solution which can also determine the overlap between the images. Problems: Relational matching is still a subject of intensive research, and it is difficult and time consuming to define, extract and match structures suitable for imagery with different image content. Solutions to the problems: Rotation and scale differences should be eliminated or at least measured during the image acquisition phase, and image overlap should be determined prior to matching. Example of relational based matching processes: iiiIn scanned map, large-scale colour images were registered. The images were pre-processed using standard image processing routines (classification followed by binarization, edge detection and line following), the maps were digitized manually.

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Subsequently, a relational description of the image and map content was set up.

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The correct match was found using tree search methods. The method was tested with roads, rivers, and land parcels and yielded promising results. The third dimension was not considered in the approach.