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Prepared By:
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Index
Topic Definition of Air pollution Sources of air pollution Health hazards of air pollution Table of main air pollutant References Page 1 2-11 12-25 26-27 28
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Air Pollution
Other planets have sunlight, but the Earth is the only planet we know that has air and water. Without air and water, the Earth would be unable to sustain life. A diverse community of plant and animal life has thrived on this planet for millions of years, sustained by the sun and supported by the soil, water and air. Air is the ocean we breathe. Every day, the average person inhales about 20,000 liters of air. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
Historical explanation
In the days before the proliferation of large cities and industry, nature's own systems kept the air fairly clean. Wind mixed and dispersed the gases, rain washed the dust and other easily dissolved substances to the ground and plants absorbed carbon dioxide and replaced it with oxygen.
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With increasing urbanisation and industrialisation, humans started to release more wastes into the atmosphere than nature could cope with. Since then, more pollution has been added to the air by industrial, commercial and domestic sources. As these sources are usually found in major cities, the gases that are produced are usually concentrated in the air around them. The adverse effects of air pollution were graphically illustrated in London in 1952 when, in just a few days, an estimated 4000 people died from effects of fine particle pollution. It is when these concentrated gases exceed safe limits that we have a pollution problem. Nature can no longer manage air pollution without our help.
Industrial Sources
The figures used describing the respective production of pollutants by each sector is taken from "Air pollution in Europe" (EEA, 1997). Data relates to the year 1994 and to 28 countries in Europe.
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Power Generation
Sitting fossil fuel power stations in mainly rural areas and distributing the pollution produced more evenly via tall chimneys has resulted in improved urban air quality, though they still remain a major source of pollution, mainly sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Better dispersion of pollutants emitted by tall chimneys leads to better dilution in the air and thus lowers local concentrations of pollutants. This has however led to pollution being dispersed more widely and to transboundary air pollution. Stricter operating practices and the use of modern abatement techniques have resulted in a considerable reduction in the amount of pollutants emitted from power stations; high concentrations do however occur in many eastern European countries, particularly from older power stations and from the use of high sulphur lignite or brown coal. Exceptional concentrations may also occur on a very local basis if a plume of smoke from, for example, an industrial chimney falls to the ground due to local atmospheric conditions. The countries of the European Union and those which are a party to the UNECE Convention on the Long Range Transport of Air Pollution, Second Sulphur Protocol, are committed to major reductions in sulphur dioxide emissions. Power generation is, however, likely to remain an important source of pollution for some time to come, particularly as some countries are reconsidering their programmes of nuclear power generation.
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Although fossil fuel power plants are the major source of industrial air pollution in many countries, all industry and many businesses, large and small, can be significant local sources of a wide range of air pollutants. The use of both regulatory and planning controls will help to minimize their effect on local air quality. All waste has the potential to affect the environment adversely by contaminating the air, soil or water. Poorly managed waste disposal sites (landfill or incineration) can also pose a danger to public health, through all these routes. Landfill and incineration are the two most common methods of waste disposal. If not properly managed landfill sites can cause a number of problems; these include the production of potentially explosive levels of methane gas (65%), dangerous levels of carbon dioxide (35%), plus trace concentrations of a range of organic gases and vapors. Landfill sites also have the potential to cause major odor when badly managed. Uncontrolled or poorly managed burning of waste (incineration) can result in the production of poisonous chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, dioxins, furans and heavy metals. Hydrochloric acid contributes locally to acid rain and is given off by the burning of plastics. If organic matter and plastics are burnt at low temperatures, dioxins and furans may be emitted. Modern, properly operated incinerators produce fumes which respect the strictest existing legislation.
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Road Transport
Air pollution from motor vehicles has, in many countries, replaced coal smoke as the major cause for concern; and the continuing growth in vehicle use means that efforts to reduce emissions from individual vehicles are in danger of being overtaken by increases in the volume of traffic. In much of eastern Europe the continued use of rather old cars, which are unable to meet modern pollution control requirements, means that efforts to control pollution from this source are going to be increasingly difficult.
The air pollutants produced as a result of the use of motor vehicles present a two-stage problem: primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants produced by petrol-powered vehicles include carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, benzene, particulate matter and lead. Much of
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the lead emitted by vehicles burning leaded petrol emerges as particles. Diesel engines burn fuel in excess of air and so produce little carbon monoxide but, instead large quantities of carbon dioxide, (see table). Secondary pollutants produced as a result of the use of petrolengined vehicles include nitrogen dioxide and ozone. In those countries which have required the removal of lead from petrol, concentrations of lead in air from this source have been reduced to a level at which they are no longer a problem. Leadfree petrol has also made the use of "catalytic converters" possible. Catalysts substantially reduce emissions of hydrocarbons, NOx and carbon monoxide; they do however increase emissions of carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, and have no effect on emissions of particles. Since 1993 all new petrol-engined cars in the European Union have to be fitted with catalytic converters. Prior to the introduction of cars fitted with catalytic converters, diesel-powered vehicles were considered "cleaner" than petrol-powered cars. EU legislation requires that they meet the same limits for hydrocarbons, NOx and CO as petrol-driven cars. Diesel fuel contains no lead but is a considerable source of particulate matter, PAHs and SO2. The introduction of lower sulphur diesel fuels throughout the EU will reduce emissions from this source (see table). In many countries, there has been a policy of progressively tightening emission standards for cars and lorries in line with EU directives and UNECE standards. However, much more will need to be done to ensure that reductions in vehicle emissions are not offset by the rapid increase in vehicle ownership and use. This is an area in which action by local authorities can make a significant impact on local air quality and indeed benefit the local community in terms both of their health and of local amenities. Each local authority will need to consider how it can best tackle the problem, bearing in mind the resources available and other priorities for cutting pollution. Improved public transport, "park and ride" schemes, traffic restrictions, planning guidelines and encouragement to cycle and walk are some of the measures that local authorities can take. Requiring vehicle owners (and businesses) to maintain their vehicles regularly will ensure that fuel is burnt
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efficiently and economically, and will therefore be less polluting; and fuel consumption is more efficient at lower speeds (60 - 90 km/h).
Emission factor Regulated pollutants: Carbon monoxide, g/km Hydrocarbons, g/km NOX, g/km Particulates, mg/km Unregulated pollutants: Carbon dioxide, kg/km Formaldehyde, mg/km Acetaldehyde, mg/km Sum, particle-bound PAH (> 3 aromatic rings) mg/km
Average emission factors of different fuels Environmental third Environmental first class diesel class diesel 3.3 1.3 13.2 510 1.9 0.72 9.7 200
Ethanol
1.2 70 19
1.1 29 20
1.2 18 72
220
39
6.0
All emission factors from emission tests performed using the Braunschweig transient bus cycle. (From: Westerholm, R. and Wijk, A., "Vehicle exhausts", Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Report 4528, Stockholm, 1996).
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Domestic Sources
Before about 1960, the domestic use of coal was the major source of particles. Concentrations of airborne particles in many European cities frequently exceeded 1000 g/m3 and annual average concentrations of several hundred g/m3 were commonplace. Today, annual average concentrations in most European cities have fallen to less than 30 g/m3. In eastern Europe much higher concentrations still occur as, to a lesser extent, they do in southern European cities such as Athens. Brown coal (lignite) is a key source of particles in many parts of eastern Europe. Coal varies in composition and calorific value from mine to mine. Lignite is probably the poorest quality in terms of calorific value and generates most pollutants when used for domestic heating. Lignite contains 67% carbon (compared with the 95% in anthracite) and burns easily, though inefficiently, on an open fire. Special devices with carefully controlled air supplies are needed to burn anthracite but combustion is efficient and far less black smoke is produced. Conversion of open fires to stoves suitable for burning anthracite (or other smokeless fuel) should be considered by any local authority where coal smoke is a problem. The greater efficiency of controlled anthracite burning leads to a saving in overall fuel costs, though an initial investment in the necessary equipment must be made. Conversion to stoves which ensure complete combustion are also a possibility as are district heating schemes, using combined heat and power plants. The greater use of renewable energy (wind, solar, tidal, wave, etc.) and enhanced energy efficiency measures in homes and offices also helps improve air quality. Other important domestic sources of air pollution are:
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gas and paraffin heaters, stoves and cookers produce carbon monoxide. If ventilation is inadequate or appliances poorly maintained, CO may accumulate in dangerous concentrations. Nitrogen dioxide is also generated and concentrations in kitchens will usually exceed those outdoors when cookers are in use. Ventilators can help reduce this pollution;
bonfires, garden incinerators and barbecues can be a significant local smoke and odour nuisance. Burning garden waste produces smoke, especially if it is damp and smouldering rather than dry and blazing. The smoke contains CO and other noxious and irritating compounds. Problems may be caused for asthmatics, bronchitis sufferers or those with heart conditions. Even if the immediate health risk is small, bonfires add to the general background level of air pollution.
Agriculture
Agricultural practices can also be a significant source of nuisance, contributing both to local levels of air pollution and causing odour problems. The main sources of pollution are the burning of agricultural waste, or of crops in the field and large intensive livestock units. Depending on soil type and fertilisation, the nitrogen in the dung and urine of grazing cattle contributes 20-40% of nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural land; methane is also emitted by cattle and other ruminants; nitrous oxide and methane are of course both greenhouse gases.
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These are the major sources of air pollution. Now if we want to look over the chemical components that pollute air, the list are given below.
These are the main air pollutants and their sources: Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5)
The principal source of particulate matter in main cities is road traffic emissions, particularly from diesel vehicles. It is also emitted from industrial combustion plants and public power generation, commercial and residential combustion, and some non-combustion processes (e.g. quarrying). Natural sources include volcanoes and dust storms, but these produce only a small percentage of fine particulate matter. Levels are highest in urban areas as it is a traffic-related pollutant. Particulate matter is categorized according to its size in micrometers. PM10 refers to particles fewer than 10 micrometers, sometimes called the 'coarse fraction'. PM2.5 refers to particles fewer than 2.5 micrometers, sometimes called the 'fine fraction'. PM2.5 is thought to be more damaging to human health than PM10.
Ozone (O3)
Ground level ozone is a secondary pollutant; it is formed through a chemical reaction of volatile organic compounds and nitrogen dioxide in the presence of sunlight, so levels are higher in the summer. The highest levels tend to be found in rural areas downwind of urban or industrial areas.
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Lead (Pb)
As much of the airborne emission of lead originates from road traffic, concentrations are decreasing with most cars running on unleaded and lead replacement petrol. Other sources of lead pollutants include waste incineration and metal processing. The largest industrial use is manufacturing batteries.
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Toxic Organic Micro-Pollutants (TOMPs) PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons), PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans
Produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels, road transport and industrial plant are the largest source. Open burning is a major source in the UK and comparatively large amounts are released on
Human Respiratory System Human Cardiovascular System Heart and Lung Diseases Pyramid of Health Effects
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The human respiratory system can be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the following rigid structures: Nasal cavities: Filter the air we breathe and provide a sense of smell. Pharynx: Acts in the respiratory and the digestive system. Larynx: Link between the pharynx and the trachea. Generates the voice with the presence of vocal folds. Trachea: The trachea is the bond with the lower respiratory tract. This is a flexible structure allowing the air to go down to the lungs. In addition to gas exchange, the lungs and the other parts of the respiratory system have important jobs to do related to breathing. These include:
Bringing all air to the proper body temperature. Moisturizing the inhaled air for necessary humidity. Protecting the body from harmful substances by coughing, sneezing, filtering or swallowing them, or by alerting the body through the sense of smell.
Defending the lungs with cilia (tiny hair-like structure), mucus and macrophages, which act to remove harmful substances deposited in the respiratory system.
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The respiratory system is sensitive to air pollution. The cardiovascular system can be affected as well.
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There also may be indirect actions secondary to changes in other organ systems, especially the central and autonomic nervous systems and selective actions of the endocrine system. Some
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cytokins released from other inflamed organs may also produce adverse cardiovascular effects, such as reducing the mechanical performance and metabolic efficiency of the heart and blood vessels. Many chemical substances may cause the formation of reactive oxygen. This oxidative metabolism is considered to be critical to the preservation of cardiovascular function. For example, oxygen free radicals oxidize low-density lipoproteins, and this reaction is thought to be involved in the formation of the atherosclerotic plaques. Oxidized low-density lipoproteins can injure blood vessel cells and increase adherence and the migration of inflammatory cells to the injured area. The production of oxygen free radicals in heart tissues have been associated with arrhythmias, and heart cell death.
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Lung Infections
and are very common. Symptoms may include cough, fever, chills and shortness of breath.
Asthma attack - is an increasingly common chronic disease among children and adults.
It causes shortness of breath, coughing or wheezing or whistling in the chest. Asthma attacks can be triggered by a variety of factors including exercise, infection, pollen, allergies and stress. It can also be triggered by a sensitivity to non-allergic types of pollutants present in the air such as smog.
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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) - is also known as chronic obstructive lung disease and encompasses two major disorders: emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which the walls and elasticity of the alveoli are damaged. Chronic bronchitis is characterized by inflammation of the cells lining the inside of bronchi, which increases the risk of infection and obstructs airflow in and out of the lung. Smoking is responsible for approximately 80% of COPD cases while other forms of air pollution may also influence the development of these diseases. Symptoms include cough, production of mucous and shortness of breath. It is important to note that no cure exists for people suffering from COPD although healthy lifestyle and appropriate medication can help.
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Lung Cancer - is the most common cause of death due to cancer in women and men. Cigarette smoke contains various carcinogens and is responsible for most cases of this often fatal disease. The symptoms of lung cancer begin silently and then progress to chronic cough, wheezing and chest pain. Air pollution has been linked somewhat weakly to lung cancer. Coronary Artery Disease - refers to the narrowing or blocking of the arteries or blood vessels that supply blood to the heart. This disease includes angina and heart attack which share similar symptoms of pain or pressure in the chest. Unlike angina, the symptoms caused by heart attack do not subside with rest and may cause permanent damage to the heart. Smoking, lack of exercise, excess weight, high cholesterol levels in the blood, family history and high blood pressure are some of the factors that may contribute to this disease. Heart Failure - is a condition in which the heart is unable to cope with its work load of pumping blood to the lungs and the rest of the body. The most common cause is severe coronary artery disease. The main symptoms are shortness of breath and swelling of the ankles and feet. Heart-Rhythm Problems - are irregular or abnormal rhythms of the heart beat. In some cases heart-rhythm problems are caused by coroneary artery disease. Symptoms of heart-rhythm problems influttering in the chest (palpitation) and feeling light-headed. Some heart-rhythm problems are life-threatening and need emergency treatment.
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Air pollution can affect both the respiratory and cardiac systems. The health effects of air pollution can be seen as a pyramid, with the mildest but not common effects at the bottom of the pyramid, and the least common but more severe at the top of the pyramid. The pyramid demonstrates that as severity decreases the number of people affected increases.
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Restricted Activity Days: Days spent in bed, missed from work, and days when activities are partially restricted due to illness Acute Respiratory Symptoms: Respiratory-related symptoms such as chest discomfort, coughing and wheezing
In the following part, I want to show in details with picture that how ozone damages our Lungs How Ozone Damages Lungs
What happens when you breathe air that is contaminated with ozone? Like oxygen, ozone is soluble in the fluids that line the respiratory tract. Therefore some ozone can penetrate into the gas-exchange, or alveolar, region of the deep lung. The following photos show how ozone affects the sensitive tissue in the deep lung. The pictures are from the lungs of rats exposed to ozone in a laboratory under carefully controlled conditions. The human lung is similar --although not identical -- to the rats lung in terms of the types of cells and the overall structure of the alveolar region. Figure 1 shows a magnified view of the structure of the normal gas-exchange region of the lung. It is called the gas-exchange region because oxygen inhaled from the air is transferred to the hemoglobin in blood in small blood vessels located inside the thin walls separating the alveolar air spaces. At the same time, carbon dioxide, produced by normal metabolism and dissolved in the blood, is excreted into the air and expired when you breathe out. The walls of a normal alveolus are very thin. There are only two layers of cells and a thin interstitial matrix separating the air in the alveolar space, or lumen, from the fluid inside the blood vessels. The
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cells that line the healthy alveoli are mostly very broad and very thin, and are called Type I lung cells or Type I pneumocytes. This provides a very large surface area across which gases can be efficiently transported. At the same time, carbon dioxide, produced by normal metabolism and dissolved in the blood, is excreted into the air and expired when you breathe out. The walls of a normal alveolus are very thin. There are only two layers of cells and a thin interstitial matrix separating the air in the alveolar space, or lumen, from the fluid inside the blood vessels. The cells that line the healthy alveoli are mostly very broad and very thin, and are called Type I lung cells or Type I pneumocytes. This provides a very large surface area across which gases can be efficiently transported. Figure 2 shows the effects of breathing 0.2 ppm ozone for 4 hours. In Southern California air pollution levels can approach 0.2 ppm -- a Stage 1 ozone alert -- during the smoggiest summer days. The photo shows evidence of additional cells, called macrophages, and some material that may be fragments of ozone-injured alveolar wall cells inside the alveolar space. Macrophages are immune system cells that respond to the injury of the delicate cells that line the alveolar lumen. These macrophages play important roles in protecting the lungs from inhaled bacteria, fungi and viruses, and are also important in helping to repair lung tissue injury caused by inhaled pollutants. Figure 3 shows more extensive damage following exposure a higher concentration of ozone, 0.6 ppm. The alveolar walls are thicker and there is evidence
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of cells infiltrating within the walls. There are more macrophages in the alveolar spaces and the thin, Type I cells have been damaged and replaced with thicker Type II, almost cube-shaped cells that are more resistant to the toxic effects of ozone. All of these changes occurred within 48 hours after exposure. If exposure continues for more than three days, the evidence of cell injury seems to be reduced, except for the continuing presence of the Type II cells.
A picture of showing how Ambient air pollutants inhaled by pregnant mothers reach the growing Fetus via the umbilical cord.
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The following part shows the list of main air pollutant, their sources and Human health effects at a glance.
Table of main Air Pollutant
The table below gives detailed information about air pollutants, their sources and how they affect us. Pollutant Source
Human Health Effects Internal combustion engines (eg, cars and trucks); Industry (eg, factories); Burning wood; Cigarette smoke; and Bushfires.
Lung Cancer; Heart Disease; Lung Disease; Asthma Attacks; and Other health problems.
Increased hospital admissions for asthma and respiratory problems; Increased mortality.
Ozone (O3)
Formed by various complex chemical reactions involving the exposure of the oxides of nitrogen and some hydro-carbons. Ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog in summer and early autumn.
lining of the lungs; lining of the respiratory tract; and causes eye irritation.
Ozone also damages plants, buildings and other materials. When inhaled Carbon Monoxide enters the bloodstream and disrupts
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Motor vehicle exhaust and burning of materials such as coal, oil and
the supply of oxygen to the bodys tissues. A range of health effects may result depending on the extent of exposure.
Lead (Pb)
Is largely derived from the combustion of lead additives in motor fuels as well as lead smelting. Lead pollution from vehicle emissions is declining due to the introduction of unleaded fuels and reductions in lead levels in leaded fuel. Other atmospheric sources of lead include waste incineration and renovation of old houses (from leaded paint).
Lead retards learning in children and the development of their nervous system; Lead effects almost every organ in the body, whether it is inhaled or ingested. Young children are particularly susceptible;
Most fuel combustion processes result in the release of hydro carbons to the environment. The largest fuel sources are natural gas and petrol. Note that hydrocarbons can enter the environment both as evaporative emissions from vehicle fuel systems, or in exhaust emissions. They are also a component of the smoke from wood fires.
Exposure can cause headaches or nausea, while some compounds may cause cancer. Some may also damage plants.
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References:
1) http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/air/aq4kids/pollution.asp 2)http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/air-quality-andclimate/air-quality/sources/ 3) http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/index-eng.php 4) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution
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