DevelopingIndependentLearning intheEarlyYears

DavidWhitebread,HollyAnderson,PennyColtman, CharlottePage,DeborahPinoPasternak&SanjanaMehta

FacultyofEducation,UniversityofCambridge

DevelopingIndependentLearningintheEarlyYears
Abstract
This paper describes a research project currently running in Cambridgeshire FoundationStagesettingsexploringthedevelopmentofindependentlearning in young children. In the first year the project has explored the work of 16 practitionersworkingwith35yearoldchildren,usingarangeofmethodologies including questionnaires, interviews andreflective dialogues (based onvideo recordings of particular classroom episodes), reflective journals and child assessment checklists. The development of the range of abilities involved in becoming a selfregulating, independent learner has been conceptualised in terms of research and theory relating to the development of 'metacognitive' abilitiesanddispositions. Itisarguedthat,whilethedevelopmentofindependentlearningisgenerally acceptedasanimportanteducationalaim,currenttrendsinPrimaryeducation whichhaveencouragedamoreteacherdirectedapproach,arenothelpful.The paper advances a model of independent learning which is based on developmentalpsychologicalresearch,andpresentsinterimfindingsfromthe project which suggest that even our youngest children are capable of considerable independence in their learning. While particular pedagogical techniques and approaches need to be developed, many of these are well established and researched, and can be shown to be effective in fostering independentlearningabilitieswithinthePrimaryschoolcontext.

Introduction Theaimofagoodteachershould,ofcourse,betomakethemselvesredundant.Ifwe aretoproperlyeducateothers,wemustenablethemtobecomeindependent learners.Thereiscurrentlywidespreadinterestinfosteringindependentlearning amongyoungchildren,asattestedbyanumberofrecentpublications(Featherstone &Bayley,2001;Williams,2003)and,particularlywithintheEarlyYearsphaseof education,bythecurrententhusiasmforsuchapproachesasReggioEmiliaand HighScope,bothofwhichemphasisechildrensautonomyandownershipoftheir learning,togetherwiththevalueofmakingtheprocessesoflearningexplicittothe child.Thispaperseekstorespondtothisinterestintwoways.Firstly,byexamining thepsychologicalandeducationalresearchliteratureforworkwhichmightinform ourunderstandingaboutthenatureofindependentlearning.Andsecondly,by reportingontheinterimfindingsofatwoyearresearchprojectexploringthe developmentofindependentlearningcapabilitiesinchildrenaged35years. TheEducationPolicyContext Recentinitiatives,circularsandcurriculumdocumentsfromvariousgovernment

agencieshavegivenprominencetotheideaofindependentlearning.Theyhavealso offeredarangeofsuggestionsastowhatitmightinvolve.IntherecentsetofQTS StandardsentitledQualifyingtoTeach(DfEE/TTA,2002),forexample,teacher traineesarerequiredunderStandardS3.3.3'Deliveringeffectivelessons'to'make learningobjectivescleartopupils'and'promoteactiveandindependentlearning thatenablespupilstothinkforthemselves,andtoplanandmanagetheirown learning'. TheOFSTEDHandbookfortheGuidanceontheInspectionofNurseryandPrimary Schools(1995),however,offersaratherdifferentslant: 'Pupilsshould: showinitiativeandbewillingtotakeresponsibility showinterestintheirworkandbeabletosustainconcentrationand developtheircapacityforpersonalstudy haveanabilitytoselectanduserelevantresources andthatthereshouldbe opportunitiesforpupilstotakeonresponsibility,demonstrate initiative....' Atthelevelofcurriculum,intheCurriculumGuidancefortheFoundationStage (DfEE/QCA,2000),whichestablishedthenewcurriculumforchildrenbetween35 yearsofage,oneofthestated'Principlesforearlyyearseducation'(p.3)isthatthere shouldbe'opportunitiesforchildrentoengageinactivitiesplannedbyadultsand alsothosethattheyplanandinitiatethemselves'.AgainwithinthePersonaland SocialandEmotionalDevelopmentareaoflearning,practitionersareenjoinedto giveparticularattentionto: 'ensuringthatthereistimeandspaceforchildrentofocusonactivitiesand experiencesanddeveloptheirowninterests planningexperiencesthathelpchildrendevelopautonomyandthedisposition tolearn planningforthedevelopmentofindependenceskills...' (p.28) Itisclearfromtheseandothergovernmentalpolicystatementsthatthereis currentlyastrongcommitmenttotheareaofindependentlearning.However,there isalsoaneedforcleardefinition.Itisalsoapparentthat,whilethereisaclear interestinandcommitmenttofosteringindependentlearningfromgovernmental agencies,educationpolicymakersandteachers,transformingtheseintentionsand aspirationsintoeverydayclassroompracticewithinschoolshasprovedproblematic. Thereappeartobeproblemsatthelevelofpolicyandatthelevelofclassroom practice.Tobeginwith,whiletheGovernmentandthevariouseducationalpolicy

makinginstitutionshaverepeatedlyassertedtheircommitmenttofostering independentlearning,ithasbeenarguedthat,insomerespects,currenteducational policies,includingrecentinitiatives,areconfusedintheirimpactonthe developmentofchildren'sindependentlearning.ThefocusoftheNational Curriculum,forexample,hasbeenclaimedtobeoncontentandthebodyof knowledgechildrenneedratherthanonmoregenericlearningandthinkingskills. Tosomeextentthishasbeenrecognisedinthemostrecentincarnationofthe NationalCurriculum(DfEE/QCA,1999)withtheintroductionofKeySkills, including'Improvingownlearningperformance'and'ThinkingSkills'.The introductionofveryfocusedliteracyandnumeracystrategieswithinPrimary schoolshavealsobeenclaimed,atleastintheirinitialimpact,tohaveconstrained opportunitiesforthedevelopmentofindividuallearningstylesandindependent linesofenquiry.Thepressuresoftargetsettingandthepublicationofleaguetables ofSATsperformance,whererathernarrowlydefinedaspectsofchildren'slearning aregivenanoverweaningsignificance,alsodonotseemconducivetothespiritof promotingindependence.Inrelationtofosteringchildren'sabilitiestolearnand thinkforthemselves,thereisclearlyaneedforwhathasbeentermed'joinedup thinking'intheareaofeducationalpolicy. TheContextoftheEducationalSetting Atthelevelofeverydayclassroomrealities,however,therearealsoproblematic issuesinrelationtoindependentlearning.Theneedtomaintainanorderly classroom,combinedwiththepressuresoftimeandresources,andteachers' perceptionsofexternalexpectationsfromHeadteachers,parentsandgovernment agencies,canoftenmitigateagainstthesupportofchildren'sindependence. Galton(1989),basedontheextensiveclassroomobservationswhichformedthe basisoftheORACLEstudies,isonlyoneofanumberofeducationalresearchers whohavehighlightedtheambiguityofclassroomdemandsinthisarea.Whilemany teachersavowedlyseektoencouragechildrentobeindependentintheirwork,to thinkoftheirownideas,tousetheirinitiative,theclassroomethostheyactually generatemakesthiskindofbehaviourveryhighrisk. EvidencefromastudyacrosstheFoundationStageandKeyStage1conductedby oneofthepresentauthors(Hendy&Whitebread,2000)verymuchsupportedthis view.TheEarlyYearsteachersinterviewedsharedacommitmenttoencouraging greaterindependenceinlearningamongyoungchildren,butheldawidespectrum ofviewsabouttheessentialkeyelementswithinit,andoftheirroleinfosteringthe necessaryskillsanddispositions.Therewasadominantconcern,nevertheless,with theorganisationalelementofchildren'sindependence,asopposedtoanyconcern

withcognitiveoremotional.Theapproachofmanyoftheteacherscouldbe characterisedasaconcernforchildrentodevelopasindependentpupils,ratherthan asindependentlearners.Perhapsmostsignificantly,however,wasthefindingthat thechildrenappearedtobecomemore,ratherthanless,dependentontheirteachers duringtheirfirstfewyearsinschool.Nurseryagedchildren,forexample,were consistentlymorelikelythantheolderchildreninthestudytosuggesttheywould trytoresolveproblemsthemselves.Olderchildrenweremoreinclinedtoinvolve adults.Theseresultswerealsoparallelledbytheviewsoftheteachers.Whereas75% ofYr1/2teachersthoughtthatadultswerethemainsourceofhelpintheclassroom, Nurseryteachershadacounterviewandweremorelikelytocitechildren'sselfhelp asamajorstrategy. Nevertheless,Galton(1989)hasarguedthatthesituationisnotunresolvable. Tensioninrelationtoindependencearises,heclaims,whenteachersexpectthe childrentonegotiateinrelationtotheirlearning,butarenotwillingtoallowany negotiationinrelationtocontrol.Hecitesexamplesofteacherswhohave successfullyopeneduptherulesofclassroombehaviourtoshareddecisionmaking, withaconsequentsenseofownershipamongthechildrenfortheclassroomethos, andamuchhigherlevelofindependentthinkingandworkingbecomingapparent. Italsoseemsevidentfromallthisforegoingevidencethat,ifearlyyears practitionersaretosuccessfullyfosterindependentlearningintheirsettings,aclear understandingneedstobedevelopedoftheskillsanddispositionsinvolvedin independentlearning,andofthepedagogicalpracticeswhicharemostlikelyto fosterthese.Thenextsectionofthispaperwill,therefore,reviewtherelevant researchliteraturefromdevelopmentalpsychologybeforeweproceedtolookat researchexploringeducationalpracticeswhichmightbehelpfulinthisarea.

PsychologicalApproachestoIndependentLearning Withincognitivedevelopmentalpsychologyoverthelast30yearsorsotherehas beenaveryconsiderablebodyofresearchevidencerelatedtothedevelopmentof childrenasindependentlearners.Withinthepsychologicalliteraturethishasbeen variouslycharacterisedaslearninghowtolearn(Nisbet&Shucksmith,1986), reflection(Yussen,1985)selfregulation(Schunk&Zimmerman,1994)and metacognition(Metcalfe&Shimamura,1994),allofwhichareconcernedwith childrensdevelopingselfawarenessandcontroloftheirownmentalprocessing. Whathasemergedisabodyofresearchandtheorywhichsuggeststhatitisthis aspectofdevelopmentwhichiscruciallyresponsibleforindividualdifferencesin childrensdevelopmentaslearners.Certainly,itiswellestablishedthat

metacognitivedeficitsarecommonamongchildrenwithSpecialEducationalNeeds (Sugden,1989). MuchofthisresearchhasstemmedfromtheworkandideasofJohnFlavell(1979) whoseinterestintheareaoriginatedintheseminalstudyofFlavell,Beechand Chinsky(1966).Withinthisstudyyoungchildrenundertheageof7yearswere foundtobecapableofcarryingoutataughtmemorystrategy,butincapableof producingthatstrategyforusespontaneously(orindependently!).Thisledto FlavellsdevelopmentofamodelofmetamemoryandAnnBrowns(1987)model ofmetacognitionwhichconsistedofthreerelatedelements: metacognitiveexperience:theonlinemonitoringorselfawarenessofmental processing,andreflectionsuponit metacognitiveknowledge:theknowledgewhichisgraduallyaccumulated aboutonesownmentalprocessing,tasksandcognitivestrategiesfor dealingwithtasks selfregulation:themetacognitivecontrolofmentalprocessing,sothat strategiesaredevelopedandusedappropriatelyinrelationtotasks. Therehavebeentwosignificantlaterdevelopmentsinthisareaofresearch.First, therehasbeenabroadeningofnotionsofselfregulationtoincludeemotional,social andmotivationalaspects.Theclearrelationshipbetweencognitveandmotivational aspectsofmetacognitionwererecognizedearlyinWeinertandKluwes(1987) editedcollectionentitledMetacognition,MotivationandUnderstanding.Anumber ofchaptershere,forexample,focusedonthemetacognitiveaspectsofattributionsof successandfailure.Inthisgeneralcomingtogetherofdifferentresearchtraditions, thecognitivepsychologistshavetakenoverthenotionofselfregulationfrom motivationalresearch,andtheoriesofemotionaldevelopmenthavegraduallytaken onboardtheideasaboutincreasingselfawarenessandselfknowledgefromthe workonmetacognition,culminating,amongstotherthings,intheemergenceofthe modelofemotionalintelligence(Goleman,1995).Understandingsemergingfrom neurosciencealsosupportamodelwhichintegratesemotionalandcognitiveaspects ofselfregulation.Thedevelopmentofmetacognitive,selfregulatoryexecutive functionsappearstoberelatedtodevelopmentsinthefrontallobes(Barkley,1997) Second,therehasbeentherecognitionofmetacognitiveprocessesinveryyoung children.Intheearlyworkonmetacognition,somewritersarguedthatitisalate developingcapability.However,thisveryquicklybecameanuntenableposition, oncetheemphasisswitchedfrommetacognitiveknowledgetometacognitive experience.Flavell(1977)recognizedveryearlythatthedevelopmentofthese processeswasoneofthereallycentralandsignificantcognitivedevelopmental

hallmarksoftheearlychildhoodperiod(p.64)Inarecentandverycomprehensive overview,Bronson(2000)demonstratesthatthedevelopmentofmetacognitiveand selfregulatoryprocessesisfundamentaltothewholerangeofyoungchildrens psychologicalgrowth.Shelistsworkwithchildrenconcernedwiththedevelopment oftheregulationofarousal,ofemotionalresponses,ofadaptivecontrolofbehaviour infamiliarsettings,ofproblemsolvingandofmotivationalpatterns.Shegoesonto describeindetailextensiveresearchwhichhasexploredtheemotional,prosocial, cognitiveandmotivationaldevelopmentsinselfregulationthroughoutthedifferent phasesofearlychildhood.Themodelofindependentlearningusedanddeveloped withinthestudyof35yearoldsreportedinthelatterpartofthepresentpaperis largelybasedonBronsonsanalysisofworkinthisarea. ThePedagogyofSelfRegulation Explanationsoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofselfregulation,andtheroleof parentsandeducatorswithinthis,haveoftenbeencastwithinaVygotskian framework(eg:Schunk&Zimmerman,1994)andagooddealofresearchhas exploredthewaysinwhichadults'scaffold'children'slearningandmodelthe processesoflearningforthechild.Collins,SeelyBrown&Newman(1989)provided anextensivereviewofapproacheswhichtheytermed'cognitiveapprenticeship' modelsofteachingandlearningwhereby,usingvarioustechniques,adultshelpto maketheprocessesoflearningexplicittochildren. Severalotherusefulpedagogicaltechniquesderivingfromthisbroadtraditionhave beeninvestigatedanddeveloped.Theseinclude: cooperativegroupwork(FormanandCazden,1985):arangeof techniquesinvolvingchildrenincollaborativeactiviteswhichobligethemto articulatetheirownunderstandings,evaluatetheirownperformanceandbe reflectiveabouttheirownlearning. reciprocalteaching(Palincsar&Brown,1984):astructuredprocedure whichinvolvesteachersmodelingtheteachingofaparticulartasktochildren whoarethenaskedtoteachtheactivitytotheirpeers selfexplanations(Siegler,2002):aninstructionalpracticewhichrequires childrentogivehowandwhyexplanationsabout,forexample,scientific phenomenaortheeventsinastory,andthenaskschildrentogive explanationsoftheirownandanadultsreasoning selfassessment(BlackandWiliam,1998)arangeofpedagogicalideas involvingchildrensselfassessmentoftheirownlearning,including,for example,childrenmakingtheirownchoicesaboutthelevelofdifficultyof taskstobeundertaken,andselectingtheirbestworkforreflectiveportfolios debriefing(Leat&Lin,2003):arangeoftechniquesforreflectinguponan

activityorpieceoflearningincludingencouragingpupilstoaskquestions, makingpupilsexplainthemselvesandcommunicatingthepurposeof lessons. TheotherimportantideainthisarearelatestoGaltons(1989)analysisofthe significanceofgivingchildrenanincreasedroleindecisionmakinginthe classroom,thusgivingthemresponsibilityforandownershipoftheirownlearning. WithintheUK,Brookers(1996)analysisofherworkwithaReceptionclassovera yearprovidesanexcellentexampleofthiskindofwork.Shebegan,beforethestart oftheschoolyearandduringthefirstterm,byinterviewingthechildrenona numberofoccasions,askingthem,amongstotherthings,whydochildrengoto school?,whatareyougoodat?,whatdoyoulikedoingbest?,andhowdoyou thinkyoulearnthings?Inthespringtermshemovedontodevelopthehabitof selfassessment,trainingherselftowithholdtheusualexcessivepraisebestowedon childrenofthisageandinsteadaskingthemhowdoyouthinkyougotonthem? Attheendofthesecondtermsheaskedthechildrenwhatwouldyouliketolearn nextterm,aftertheholidays?andthisbeganafinalphaseduringwhich,bya processofconstantdiscussionandnegotiation,thechildrengraduallyacquired moreandmoreownershipofthecurriculumandproceduresoftheclassroom.At eachstagethechildrenwerecarefullylistenedtoandtheiranswerssystematically recorded.Progressively,astheyearwenton,theirviewsinfluencedthecontentand organizationoftheirschoolday.Brookersaccountisfullofevidenceofthe childrensenthusiasticresponsestoeachoftheseinitiatives,totheirworkinthe classroomandthequalityofwhattheyachieved. NancyPerryandcolleagueshavebeenengagedinsimilarworkwithyoungchildren fromkindergartentograde3inBritishColumbia(Perry,VandeKamp,Mercer& Nordby,2002).Herworkquiteexplicitlychallengestheviewsofearliertheorists thatsuchyoungchildrenarenotcapableofthecomplexmetacognitiveprocessesin volvedinselfregulatedlearning.Theyhaveengagedinextensiveobservationsin classroomsandinterviewswithteachersandhaveprovidedevidencethatofyoung childrenplanning,monitoring,problemsolvingandevaluatingtheirlearning mostlyinrelationtoreadingandwritingtasks.Thepedagogicalelementswhich emergedasbeingmosteffectiveinpromotingselfregulatedlearninginthese classroomsinvolvedtheteachersinofferingchoicestothechildren,inoffering opportunitiesforthechildrentocontrolthelevelofchallengeintasksand opportunitiesforchildrentoevaluatetheirownworkandthatofothers.However, whatPerrysdetailedanalysisoftheclassroomdiscoursesofteacherswhowere highlyeffectiveinthisarearevealsisacomplexandhighlyskilledsetofpractices wherebyallkindsofinstrumentalsupportswereprovidedtoenablethechildrento

developindependentlearningskillsanddispositions.Theuseofcooperativeways ofworking,togetherwithanevaluativestylethatwasnonthreateningandmastery orientated,weretwosignificantelementsinthesesupportstructures. TheCambridgeshireIndependentLearning(CINDLE)intheFoundationStage project Theremainderofthispaperpresentsinterimfindingsfromtheendofthefirstyear ofa2yearprojectinspiredbythepsychologicalandeducationalresearchreviewed above.TheCINDLEprojectisfundedbytheCambridgeshireCareandEducation Partnershipandisaimedatexploringthedevelopmentofindependentlearningin NurseryandReceptionclassrooms.Theprojectaimsto: developamodelofthedevelopmentofchildrensindependentlearningand designanaudit/assessmenttoolforindependentlearninginthisagerange identifythekindsofexperiencesandinterventionsthatseemtobemost effectiveinencouragingchildrensindependentlearningabilities devisepracticalclassroomactivitiesandteachingstrategiesthathavea demonstrableimpactonthedevelopmentofchildrensindependence Methodology Inthefirstyeartheprojectexploredtheworkof16teachers/educatorsworkingwith childreninthe35agerange.Thequalitiesoftheircurrentpracticewhichencourage independentlearningwereobserved,recordedandanalysed.Theywerealso involvedindevelopingarangeofinnovativepractices,mostlyderivedfromthe previousliterature,whichweresimilarlyrecorded.Theprojectusedarangeof methodologiesincludingquestionnaires,observations,interviewsandreflective dialogues(basedonvideorecordingsofparticularclassroomepisodes),reflective journalsandchildassessmentchecklists. ChildAssessmentChecklists Theseconsistedof35statementsdrawnfromtheliteraturerelatingtoprevious studiesofthedevelopmentofchildren'sselfregulationandmetacognition(eg Bronson,2000;Brooker,1996;Featherstone&Bayley,2001;Schunk& Zimmerman,1994;Winne&Perry,2000).Theyweregiventoeachpractitioner,who wasaskedtoselectsixchildrenintheirclass(2highindependence,2intermediate and2low)andtoassesstheirindependentlearningusingthechecklist.Foreach statement,theteacherhadtoassesswhetherthiswastrueofthechildalways, usually,sometimesornever.Atthestartofthesecondandthirdtermsintheschool yearthesewererevisitedandnewassessmentsmade,inordertomeasurethe

developmentofthechildren'sindependentlearningbehaviour.Fromthe16 practitionersinvolvedinYear1oftheproject,thisresultedindatafor96children recordedonthreeoccasionsi.e.atotalof288assessmentsforeachofthestatements. Aswillbereportedlaterinthepaper,analysisofthisdata,andtheclassroom observations,enabledtheproductionofa22itemchecklistwhichhighlightsthekey elementsofindependentlearninginthisagegroup.Thisnewchecklist,theChecklist ofIndependentLearningDevelopment35(CHILD35),willbeusedandcontinued tobedevelopedinyeartwooftheproject.Itcontainsstatementsundereachofthe fourareasofselfregulationidentifiedbyBronson(2000):emotional,prosocial, cognitive&motivational. WorkingGroupsandIndependentLearningInnovations TheProjectteamwasdividedintofourworkinggroupsconsistingoffivemembers: twonurserypractitioners,tworeceptionpractitionersandamemberoftheFaculty ofEducation.Thegroupswerechosentoreflectamixofsettings.Thesegroupswere thefocusfordiscussionaboutideasconcerningindependentlearning,current practicethatencouragesselfregulationandfactorsthatconstrainthisaspectof children'sdevelopment. Thegroupsalsochoseanactivityorinnovationthattheycoulddevelopintheirown settingstoencouragesomeaspectofindependentlearning.Innovationswere suggestedbytheresearchteamagainbasedonthepreviousresearchofpedagogical practicesfosteringselfregulationinyoungchildrenreviewedabove.The pedagogicalinnovationsexploredbyworkinggroupsduringthefirstyearincluded: developingmathematicallanguagethroughroleplayanduseofpuppets developingthehomecorner developingachilddirectedtableorarea developingwritingthroughroleplayareas(eg:PostOffice,SchoolOffice) promotingReciprocalLearning ReciprocalLearninginrelationtoMathematicalLanguage PeerTutoring CollaborativeGroupWork

Thedevelopmentofthesepedagogicalinnovations,andthechildren'sresponsesto

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them,wererecordedasfollows:

AQuestionnairewasdistributedatthebeginningoftheyeartogather

backgroundinformationaboutthesettingsandtoquestionpractitioners initialthoughtsaboutwhatencouragesandconstrainsindependentlearning inrelationtotheirsetting,classandthemselves.Thepractitionerscompleted thissecondpartofthequestionnaireagaintowardstheendoftheyear,so thatchangesintheirthinkinginrelationtoopportunitiesandconstraintsin relationtoindependentlearningcanbeassessed.

ReflectiveJournalswereusedforpractitionerstoreflectontheirpracticein

relationtoindependentlearning.Theyincludeobservationsheetstorecord childrenworking/playingwiththeinnovationtheyhaveintroduced.There werealsorecordsheetsforpractitionerstoreflectontheinnovationandto recordanychangesanddevelopmentswithit.Practitionersalsouseddigital camerasand,insomecases,videocameras,torecordsignificantpiecesof children'slearningandbehaviour.

PractitionerswereengagedinaprocessofReflectiveDialogue.Thisisa

researchandprofessionaldevelopmenttechniquethatenablesindepth discussionandlearningbetweenpractitionerandresearchpartner(see Moyles,Paterson&Kitson,2003,forareviewofitsdevelopment).Itinvolves thefollowingprocedure: o theresearchervideorecordsexamplesofthepedagogicalinnovationin theclass o thepractitionerwatchesthevideoandselectsparticularsequences withinthevideowhichtheyfeelexemplifiesimportantelementsof children'sselfregulation/independentlearning o theresearcherandpractitionerwatchtheseselectedsequences togetherandtheresearcherengagesthepractitionerinaReflective Dialogue,questioningthepractitionerandrequiringthemtoarticulate whattheyfeelarethespecialelementsofthesequence,whatisthe observableevidenceofindependentlearning,andwhatthe practitionerhaslearntfromexaminingthissequence.

ThedatacollectedwithintheReflectiveJournalsandReflectiveDialogueswas analysedtoproduceacatalogueofIndependentLearningEvents.Foreachevent wererecorded: thepedagogicalcharacteristicsoftheinnovation:

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environmentalprovisionenablingtheactivity pedagogicalintentionoftheactivity thelevel,typeandqualityofinvolvementintheactivityofthe practitionerorotheradult theelementsofindependentlearningwhichwereencouragedor affordedbytheactivity(usingthe22itemsoftheChecklistofIndependent LearningDevelopment35). FromthisanalysisofIndependentLearningEventscataloguedinYear1ofthe project,itwillbepossibletoidentifytypesofpedagogicalpracticeandareasof independentlearningwhichareunderrepresented,andsoenabletheworkofYear 2oftheprojecttofocusintheseareas. Year1ProjectOutcomes&Findings Intheremainderofthepaperwefocusonthetwomostsignificantoutcomesofthe projectinYear1.TheserelatetothedevelopmentoftheChecklistofIndependent LearningDevelopment35andthecatalogueofIndependentLearningEvents. Children'sIndependentLearningInventory(CHILD35) Twokindsofanalysiswerecarriedoutinrelationtothedataobtainedfromthe practitioner'scompletionoftheassessmentchecklist.First,itwasattemptedto establishthatthechecklisteffectivelydiscriminatedbetweenchildrenwhowereless andmoredevelopedintermsoftheirselfregulatorybehaviours. TheboxplotcontainedinFigure1presentstheresultsforthiscomparison.Forthis purposethecategoriesonthechecklistforeachstatementwerescoredasfollows: always=4,usually=3,sometimes=2,never=1.Ontheboxplots,thewhiskers representtheentirerange(excludingoutliers),theboxrepresentsthemiddle50%of casesandthethickblacklinerepresentsthemedian. <INSERTFIGURE1ABOUTHERE> Ascanbeseen,thechecklistprovidedacleardiscriminationbetweenthehigh(H), intermediate(I)andlow(L)independencegroups.Withineachofthegroupsthere wasalsoclearprogressionoverthethreeterms,withthelowindependencegroup apparentlymakingthemostprogress,whichisperhapswhatwouldbepredicted.As therangeofthelowgrouphasalsoclearlyextended,itmaywellbethatsome childreninthisgroup,whowereperhapsratheruncertainonfirstarrivalintheir newclass,havemadeparticularlyrapidprogressastheyhavebecomemoresecure.

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Thehighlevelofselfregulationshownamongstthissampleof35yearoldchildren isalsoworthyofnote.Ascoreof105onthechecklistindicatesthatachildwas,on average,showingtheabilitytousuallyperformindependentlyacrossthewide rangeofbehaviourscoveredbythechecklist.TheresultsinFigure1showthatthe vastmajorityofchildreninthehighandintermediategroups,andeventhetop 25%ofthelowgrouphadachievedthisbythethirdtermintheyear.Thisresult wasalsoborneoutbytheanalysisofIndependentLearningEventsreportedbelow, basedupondirectobservationsofthechildrensperformanceintheireducational settings. Second,theresultsfortheoriginal35statementswereanalysedtoestablishwhich appearedtobemostsignificantforthe35agegrouprepresentedintheproject sampleof96children.Thestatementswererankedaccordingtothreecriterion: thosestatementswhichdiscriminatedmostbetweenhighandlow independencechildren(i.e.averagedifferenceofmeanscoresbetweenthese twogroupoverthethreeassessments) thosestatementsforwhichscoreschangedthemostbetweenthefirst andthirdassessments thosestatementsrankedthemostsignificantbythepractitionersin relationtothechildrenintheirclass Thisprocedureproducedalistof20statementswhichseemedtoaccountforavery highproportionofthevarianceinscores,andweregenerallyrecognisedbythe practitionersassignificant.Theyalsoappearedtofallveryequallyintothefour categoriesofselfregulationidentifiedbyBronson(2000),whichmaybeseenasa validationbothofBronson'smodelandofthe20statementswhichemerged.Two furtherstatementswerealsoaddedundertheCognitiveheadingfollowingthe analysisofIndependentLearningEventsfromtheclassroomobservationsandvideo analysis.Together,these22statementsformedtheChecklistofIndependentLearning Development35.Table1listseachofthesestatementsandprovidesanexampleof anIndependentLearningEventinwhicheachofthesebehavioursispresent. <INSERTTABLE1ABOUTHERE> Duringthe2ndYearoftheprojectthisInventorywillbefurtherusedandtrialedby practitioners,andsubjectedtofurtherstatisticalanalysis,inordertoestablishawell validatedandreliableinstrumentwhichwillbeofusetoEarlyYearspractitioners andresearchersinthisarea. IndependentLearningEvents

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Alsointhefirstyearoftheprojectwehavecataloguedatotalof322Independent LearningEventseachofwhichdemonstratesaparticularpedagogicalpracticeor children'sactivity,andwhichhasbeenanalysedinrelationtoitspedagogical characteristicsandtheelementsofselfregulationorindependentlearningwhichit affords. TheseIndependentLearningEventshaveprovidedawealthofevidenceoftheability ofchildreninthe35agerangetoselfregulatetheirlearningineachofthe4areasof theCHILD35checklist.Aninitialanalysishassuggestedthat59.6%oftheseEvents havecontainedevidenceofanemotionalaspectofindependentlearning,58.7%some prosocialaspects,67.4%somecognitiveaspectand74.5%amotivationalaspect.The statementsfromtheCHILD35checklistofwhichthereismostevidenceareas follows: Emotional Tacklesnewtasksconfidently Cancontrolattentionandresistdistraction Prosocial Engagesinindependentcooperativeactivitieswithpeers Cognitive Canspeakabouthowtheyhavedonesomethingorwhattheyhavelearnt Canmakereasonedchoicesanddecisions Motivational Initiatesactivities Developsownwaysofcarryingouttasks Foreachofthesestatementsover100instancesarerecordedwithintheEvents collectedduringthefirstyearoftheproject.TheEventshavealsoilluminatedarange ofpedagogicalissuesinrelationtoencouragingindependentlearningand metacognitiveabilitiesinchildreninthisagerange.Thefollowinglistisasmall selectionofsomeofthegeneralpedagogicalpointswhichhaveemerged: Thechildrenlearntagreatdealbywatchingoneanother

Giventheopportunitytomaketheirownchoicesanddecisions,thechildrenwere remarkablyfocusedandorganisedandpursuedtheirownplansandagendaswith persistenceandsometimesoversurprisinglylongperiodsoftime

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 Sometimeswhenanadultbecameinvolvedinanactivitythechildrenweremore inclinedtosaytheycouldntdosomething,butiftheywereworkingwithanother childtheywerelesslikelytoquestiontheirability,andoftenmimickedtheother child,gainingconfidenceintheirabilities Themosteffectiveresponsethepractitionercangivetoachildaskingforhelpis toreferthemtoanotherchildwhohasgreatercompetenceorexpertiseinthe particulararea Sometimesitisbestforadultsnottointerveneinchildrensdisputesand disagreementsincollaborativeplay,butgivethemtimeandspacetoresolveissues themselves Theimportantdistinctionbetweenpraise(whichproducesteacherpleasers)and encouragement(whichgivesinformation/feedbackandsupportsindependence) Childrendifferbetweenthosewhorespondwelltoopenended,childinitiated tasksandthosewholikeasupportivestructureestablishedbyanadult;bothkindsof opportunitiesneedtobeprovided Finally,thefollowingtwoquotationsfrompractitionersinvolvedintheprojectmake veryclearthevaluetheyhavecometoplaceonworkingwiththeirchildreninways whichencourageindependentlearning: Learningisintrinsictolifeandbecauseitisthisimportantchildrenneedtobethe ownersoftheirownlearning;theywontseeitasintrinsictolifeiftheydontown itthemselveseverythingtheydomusthaveapurposewhichmakessenseto them Andtothequestion,whentheprojecthasfinished,doyouthinkyouwillcarryonor stopworkinginthisway?: Ohyes,Icouldnotnow.They(thechildren)wouldabsolutelykillmeifIdidnt! NoIwould,definitely,becauseitsbeensovaluable,anditsbeenreallygoodfor everybody.Itsbeengoodformetoseedifferentsidesofthechildren,andto relinquishsomespaceandcontroltothem.Anditsjusthadreallygoodfeedback fromthemandfromparents,andyouknowthroughout,theyreallfiredupabout it.

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TheFuture Fromtheresultsofthefirstyearoftheproject,itisclearthatthereisconsiderable scopetodeveloptheindependentlearningabilitiesofchildreninthe35agerange. Inthefuturewehopetobeabletoexpandtheprojecttoworkingwitholderchildren throughoutthePrimaryYears.Withtheintroductionofadetailedandcontentheavy NationalCurriculum,andNationalStrategiesforLiteracyandNumeracy,timefor childrentofollowtheirownideas,tomaketheirownchoices,anddevelopasself regulatinglearners,hasbeensharplydiminished.Increasingly,practitionersand policymakersarebeginningtoseetheimportanceofrestoringthisbalance.Wehope tomakeanimportantcontributionbyhelpingpractitionerstodevelopwellfounded, wellresearchedandworkablewaysofdevelopingchildrensabilitiesintheseareas.

References Barkley,R.A.(1997)ADHDandthenatureofselfcontrol.NewYork:GuilfordPress. Black,P.andWiliam,D.(1998)InsidetheBlackBox:raisingstandardsthrough classroomassessment.London:KingsCollegeSchoolofEducation. Bronson,M.B.(2000)SelfRegulationinEarlyChildhood,NewYork:TheGuilford Press Brooker,L.(1996)Whydochildrengotoschool?:consultingchildreninthe Receptionclass,EarlyYears,17,1,1216 Brown,A.L.(1987)Metacognition,executivecontrol,selfregulationandothermore mysteriousmechanisms.InF.E.Weinert&R.H.Kluwe(eds)Metacognition, Motivation&Understanding(pp.65116)Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum Collins,A.,SeelyBrown,J.&Newman,S.E(1989)CognitiveApprenticeship: TeachingthecraftsofReading,WritingandMathematics.InResnick,L.B.(ed) Knowing,Learning&Instruction.LawrenceErlbaum. DfEE/QCA(1999)TheNationalCurriculum.London:DfEE DfEE/QCA(2000)CurriculumGuidancefortheFoundationStage.London:DfEE. DfEE/TTA(2002)QualifyingtoTeach.London:TTA. Featherstone,S.&Bayley,R.(2001)FoundationsofIndependence.Featherstone

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Education FlavellJ.H.(1977)Cognitivedevelopment.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall. Flavell,J.H.(1979)Metacognitionandcognitivemonitoring:anewareaofcognitive developmentalinquiry.AmericanPsychologist,34,90611 Flavell,J.H.,Beach,D.R.andChinsky,J.M.(1966)Spontaneousverbalrehearsalina memorytaskasafunctionofage,ChildDevelopment,37,28399 Forman,E.A.&Cazden,C.B.(1985)ExploringVygotskianperspectivesin education:thecognitivevalueofpeerinteraction.InJ.V.Wertsch(ed)Culture, CommunicationandCognition:VygotskianPerspectives.Cambridge:cambridge UniversityPress. Galton,M.(1989)TeachinginthePrimarySchool.London:DavidFultonPress. Goleman,D.(1995)EmotionalIntelligence.NewYork:BantamBooks. Hendy,L.&Whitebread,D.(2000)Interpretationsofindependentlearninginthe EarlyYears,Internat.J.EarlyYearsEducation,8,3,24552 Leat,D.&Lin,M.(2003)Developingapedagogyofmetacognitionandtransfer: somesignpostsforthegenerationanduseofknowledgeandthecreationof researchpartnerships,BritishEducationalResearchJournal,29,3,383416. Metcalfe,J.&Shimamura,A.P.(eds)(1994)Metacognition:KnowingaboutKnowing. MITPress Moyles,J.,Paterson,F.&Kitson,N.(2003)Itwasn'tasbadasIthought!Learning fromReflectiveDialogues.InMoyles,J.etal(eds)InteractiveTeachinginthe PrimarySchool.Maidenhead,Berks:OpenUniversityPress Nisbet,J.&ShucksmithJ.(1986)LearningStrategies.London:Routledge&KeganPaul OFSTED(1995)GuidanceontheInspectionofNurseryandPrimarySchools.London: HMSO. Palincsar,A.S.&Brown,A.L.(1984)Reciprocalteachingofcomprehension fosteringandcomprehensionmonitoringactivities,Cognition&Instruction1:117

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75. Perry,N.E.,VandeKamp,K.J.O.,Mercer,L.K.&Nordby,C.J.(2002)Investigating TeacherStudentInteractionsThatFosterSelfRegulatedLearning,Educational Psychologist,37,1,515 Schunk,D.H.&Zimmerman,B.J.(1994)SelfRegulationofLearningandPerformance. Hillsdale,N.J:LawrenceErlbaum Siegler,R.S.(2002)Microgeneticstudiesofselfexplanation.InGranott,N.& Parziale,J.(eds)Microdevelopment:transitionprocessesindevelopmentandlearning. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Sugden,D.(1989)SkillgeneralisationandChildrenwithLearningDifficulties,ch.4 inSugden,D.(ed)CognitiveApproachesinSpecialEducation.FalmerPress Tharp,R.G.&Gallimore,R.(1988)Rousingmindstolife.Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress. Weinert,F.E.&Kluwe,R.H.(eds)(1987)Metacognition,Motivationand Understanding.Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum. Williams,J.(2003)PromotingIndependentLearninginthePrimaryClassroom. Buckingham:OpenUniversityPress. Winne,P.H.&Perry,N.E.(2000)Measuringselfregulatedlearning.InP.Pintrich, M.Boekaerts,M.Zeidner(eds)HandbookofSelfregulation,Orlando,FL:Academic Press Yussen,S.R.(ed)(1985)TheGrowthofReflectioninChildren.NewYork:Academic Press

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Figure1 Boxplotoftotalindependentlearningscoresatthebeginningsof Terms1,2&3,bylevelofindependence

160 140 120 100 80 60

56

45 115 123

76

54 153

Term 1
52

40 20
N= 27 27 27 24 24 24

Term 2 Term 3

27

27

27

Level of independence (t eacher assessment)

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Table1

ChecklistofIndependentLearningDevelopment35

Statement

Exemplar Event Warningaboutpaper clips Countingtoa100 Makingbigsums Countingbackwards Countingforever Fixingabike

Description EMOTIONALELEMENTSOFINDEPENDENTLEARNING

Canspeakaboutothers behaviourand consequences Tacklesnewtasks confidently

Threechildrenareplayingintheworkshoparea.Agirlthatappearstobeleadingthegameisexplainingtherestof thegrouphowdangerouspaperclipscanbe,modellingthecorrectwayofusingthem Asequenceofeventsrepresentingaclearprogressioninthewaychildrenspontaneouslysetupandsolve increasinglymorechallengingmathematicaltasksafterbeingprovidedwithenoughcognitivestructuringbythe teacher. Achildhasenteredtheworkshopareaandhasdecidedthatheisgoingtofixthebikethathasbeenplacedaspartof thesetting.Thechildremainsontaskforanextendedperiodoftimeusingdifferenttoolsandcheckingthe outcomesofhisactions. Agroupofchildrenhavedecidedtobuildabridgetogettoacastlebutthebridgekeepsfallingdown.The buildersactivelyseektheadviceofotherchildrenthatstopinfrontoftheconstructiontoseewhatishappening. AgirlhasenteredSantasworkshoparea.Sheislookingforthescrewdrivertomakesometoys.Sheactivelylooks foritandasksfortheotherchildrenshelp.After15minuteswheresheappearstohavebeenengagedinother activities,shefinallyfindsit.Ifoundthescrewdriver! PROSOCIALELEMENTSOFINDEPENDENTLEARNING Agroupofchildrenhavebeenencouragedtocreateagameusingahoopandaball.Thechildrenactivelydiscuss whoisgoingtoholdthehoopandwhoisgoingtothrowtheball.Theyallagreetheyhavetotaketurns.Otherwise itwouldntbefairsaysoneofthechildren.Theytryoutthegamebeforeteachingittotherestoftheclass.

Cancontrolattentionand resistdistraction Monitorsprogressand seekshelpappropriately Persistsinthefaceof difficulties

Buildingabridge Findingthe screwdriver

Negotiateswhenandhow Planningthegame tocarryouttasks Playinginsmallgroup Canresolvesocial problemswithpeers Isawareoffeelingsof others;helpsandcomforts

Negotiatingnumberof Toomanychildrenareintheworkshoparea.Achildbecomesawareofthesituationandactsasanegotiatortrying children todeterminewhocanstayandwhohastoleave.Heusesdifferentquestionstosolvetheproblem:Whodoesnt wanttobehere?,Whosbeenherethelongest? A girl helps a boy make a card. She doesnt do it for him but has been asked to show him what to do. During the sequence Makingcards she is very helpful and keeps an eye on him. She does not take over, yet seems to take pride in the helping process.

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Engagesinindependent cooperativeactivities withpeers Sharesandtakesturns independently Isawareofownstrengths andweaknesses Canspeakabouthowthey havedone somethingor whattheyhave learnt Canspeakaboutplanned activities Canmakereasoned choicesand decisions Asksquestionsand suggests answers

ThreeLittlePigscrisis

Children are playing Three Little Pigs in the role play area. A crisis has been introduced. The Big Bad Wolf has stopped the electricity getting to the house. The children are exploring using torches and working out what to do. Agroupofgirlsareplayingalotterygame.Theyspontaneouslytaketurnsasking:Whoseturnisit?andreminding eachother:Itsyourturnnow! COGNITIVE ELEMENTS OF INDEPENDENT LEARNING Agirliscountingbeansusingapuppet(Jack).Beingawarethattherearetoomanybeanstocount,shedecidedto putsomeofthebeansawaysoJackcancountthembetter. Twoboyssitsidebysideatthedrawingtableanddiscusshowtodrawafire.Onesaysitisazigzagshapeand drawsanexample,sayingthathismummytoldhimitwaslikethis.Theotherdisputesthisandsaysitgoeslittle andthenverybig,drawingsmalldownwardlinesandlongverticallines.Theytalkabouthowfireisspreadand howtheflamesmove. Twogirlshavedecidedthattheywanttomakeacastleintheplayarea.Beingpromptedbytheteachersquestions theyverbalizewhattheywanttoputinthecastle,thematerialstheyneedandwhattodofirst.

Takingturns

Countingbeanswith Jack Drawingafire

Thecastle

Writingananimalstory Twoboyscollaboratingonastorydecidebetweenthemthattheywantittofeatureaparticularanimalsosend someoneinsearchofapicturetocopy. Skeletons Agroupwereinterestedinskeletons,andtheNurseryNursehelpedthemtodrawaroundoneanotherandcopy picturesfrombookstofillintheirskeletons.Thechildrenfeltthebonesintheirbodiesastheydrew.Theyasked questionsaboutthebonesandinsomecasesonechildansweredanothersquestion.

Usesastrategypreviously Peersupportinwriting Twoboyssupportanotherwithhiswritingwhentheyseehimstruggle.Theycommunicateclearly,using modelled strategiestheyhaveheardfromtheirteacher,andaresensitivetohisfeelings. Useslanguagepreviously heardforown purposes Initiatesactivities Findsownresources withoutadulthelp Developsownwaysof carryingouttasks Writingmessages Twogirlshelpaboywhoalsowantstowrite.Theytrackwhatheisdoingandpointtoanexampleofamessage (writtenbyachild)onthewallanddrawattentiontotheindividualletters,namingthemfortheboy.

MOTIVATIONAL ELEMENTS OF INDEPENDENT LEARNING

Makingcomputers Goldilocksandthe threebears Makingbooks Twochildrendecidetomakeacomputeroutofacardboardbox.Theyworkcollaborativelytogetherandpersist whenthingsdontgowelleg:workingouthowtojointhebox(computerscreen)tothetable. ThechildrenhavedecidedtorecreatethestoryofGoldilocksandthethreebears.Theyhavefoundthreeboxesof differentsizesforthebeds,threebowlsandspoonsforthebearsandapottocooktheporridge. Onechildmadeabookbysellotapingtogetherthreesmallsheetsofcomputerpaper.Shedrewsimpleillustrations andaskedherteachertoscribethestoryforher.Itwasaperfectstory:Thecatwaslost.Theflowerwaslonely.The

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doghadnofriends.Thesuncameoutandcheeredthemallup.Thebookwasreadtotheclassandbyfourweeks laterhalftheclasshadmadebooksusingthesamemethod. Plansowntasks,targets andgoals Enjoyssolvingproblems andchallenges Christmaswrapping Buildingabridge AgroupofchildrenhaveturnedtheplayareaintoSantasworkshop.Theyhavedecidedthattheyaregoingto wrappresents;theyhavefoundresources,andtheyhavenegotiatedtheirroles. Theteacherhassetupaproblem:thechildrenneedtogetatreasurelocatedattheothersideoftheroom,crossinga riverfilledwithcrocodiles.Thechildrendecidetobuildabridgeandtheycooperatetoachievetheirplan.

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