Pre Final

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Investigation about the thermal comfort of textiles with focus on the reproducibility of the measurement
Final work of the master course of study To get the academic degree Master of Science
By
Asif Mangat
From
Monchengladbach This topic was elected from the Thermal comfort and done at the Faculty of Textile and clothing technology of the Hochschule Niederrhein in Monchengladbach
First Examiner: Prof. Dr. Ing. Math. Yordan Kyosev Second Examiner: Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Lutz Vossebein
Summer Semester, 2012
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is sincerely devoted to my unequalled family; my dear father, my dear mother, sister and brother. In last two years of my life. I owed so much to them for their extraordinary support, affection, confidence and encouragement. If I am so lucky today as delivering my master thesis in Germany where I wanted to study so much for a long time and already sacrificed a lot for the sake of this degree, this would be definitely a consequence of their endless trust on me. I would also express my gratitude to my research supervisors Prof. Dr. Ing. Math. Yordan Kyosev, Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Lutz Vossebein, Miss priscilla.reiners for their source ideas supports, patience, advices and guidance in lean concept where I had not have deep knowledge before at all. I especially would like to say my thanks to TUL University Liberec; they allowed me to use their laboratory for testing without hesitations. They have granted me a precious assistance to me in exploring to find out the most encountered challenges of technical terms with regarding Thermal comfort. I would like to say individual thanks to my dear friend Usman ameer for his special concern in my thesis adventure and also all in Germany life period, we absolutely achieved it together! Beyond I am a great deal of grateful for my brother Asim Mangat and my life Ahmed , Dawood , Sajwal for their unbelievable supports , whether I fell down owing to difficulties of living abroad alone , whether I was lost in extreme terminology of lean philosophy , you never left me . These people are above beyond than friends , moreover they became the name of totally new life for me into which I was born two years before by taking step to Germany . And last , my sweetheart , my friend , my mentor , my hero ,My father PhD Dr. Mushtaq Mangat you should also sign this master degree , since half is yours . What I learnt significantly here during two alone , dissuasive years is ; believe it , want it be aware that it is already there and of course never give up ....
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Table of Contents
Contents
Table of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ 6 List of symbols....................................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 1: Thermal comfort ........................................................................................................................ 9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6.1 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 9 Clothing Comfort: ..................................................................................................................... 9 Wearer Comfort ..................................................................................................................... 10 Thermo-physiological Comfort ........................................................................................... 11 Skin Sensational Comfort .................................................................................................... 11 Factors analysing thermal comfort ........................................................................................ 11 Thermal resistance and thermal comfort .............................................................................. 11 Thermal comfort natural phenomenon ................................................................................. 13 Effecting of poor thermal comfort on human body ........................................................... 14 Synthetic fibbers factors effecting comfort ........................................................................... 14 Fabric structure and thermal resistance ................................................................................ 14 Clothing fibbers ...................................................................................................................... 16 History of Clothing .................................................................................................................. 17
Emergence and development of thermal comfort ............................................................................. 17 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 Relation of human body with thermal balance .................................................................... 17 Parameters effecting Thermal Comfort ................................................................................. 18 Total thermal resistance of wet fabric .................................................................................. 19 Efficiency of Human Organism ............................................................................................... 20 Types of comfort for fabric .................................................................................................... 21 Heat loss factors in the Human body..................................................................................... 21
Conduction .......................................................................................................................................... 22 Convection .......................................................................................................................................... 23 Radiation ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Evaporations ....................................................................................................................................... 24 1.17 Geographical Factors effecting clothing comfort .................................................................. 25
HS Niederrhein 4 1.18 1.19 Air Permeability ...................................................................................................................... 26 Factors affecting comfort ....................................................................................................... 27
Temperature of the environment ....................................................................................................... 27 Activity ................................................................................................................................................ 28 Clothing comfort a objective phenomenon....................................................................................... 29 1.20 Nature usual factors affecting comfort ................................................................................. 30
Age ...................................................................................................................................................... 30 Types of activities................................................................................................................................ 31 Fibre Types .......................................................................................................................................... 31 1.20.1 1.20.2 1.20.3 1.21 Construction of Cotton Fibre .............................................................................................. 32 Polyester ............................................................................................................................. 33 Wool .................................................................................................................................... 35 Atmospheric Variables affecting Clothing Comfort .............................................................. 37
Pressure .............................................................................................................................................. 38 Thermal balance.................................................................................................................................. 38 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 2 Factors effecting human comfort internal and external ....................................................... 39 Comfort a function of heat and moisture transfer ............................................................... 40 Human Body and Thermal Transfer ....................................................................................... 42 Clothing and heat transfer ..................................................................................................... 44
Chapter: Machine Introduction ......................................................................................................... 47 2.1 Machine requirements. .......................................................................................................... 47
Practical Work .................................................................................................................................... 47 2.2 Introduction of Permetest Machine ...................................................................................... 47
Time constant ..................................................................................................................................... 48 High sensitivity .................................................................................................................................... 48 Computer screen................................................................................................................................. 49 2.3 3 Construction of Permetest Machine ...................................................................................... 49
Chapter: Testing & practical work ..................................................................................................... 52 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Practical Analysis .................................................................................................................... 52 Fabric Specs ............................................................................................................................ 52 Conversion of gram per square meter into grams / pounds ................................................ 53 Experimental work ................................................................................................................. 53
HS Niederrhein 5 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4 3.7.5 3.7.6 3.7.7 3.8 3.8.1 3.9 3.10 3.10.1 3.10.2 3.10.3 3.11 3.12 4 Calculation of thermal resistance ....................................................................................... 54 Testing on Permetest Machine ........................................................................................... 55 Relative water vapour permeability (Range from 1.5 % - 100%). Resistance..................... 55 Sample 2 .............................................................................................................................. 56 Sample 3 .............................................................................................................................. 57 Sample 4 .............................................................................................................................. 57 Absolute water vapour permeability Test............................................................................. 58 Sample 1 .............................................................................................................................. 58 Sample 2 .............................................................................................................................. 59 Sample 3 .............................................................................................................................. 60 Sample 4 .............................................................................................................................. 61 Thermal Resistance Test. ....................................................................................................... 62 Pre-requirements of measuring thermal resistance. .......................................................... 62 Single layer method ............................................................................................................ 62 Methods to Measure Thin Fabrics Thermal resistance. ........................................................ 65 Single Layer Method ........................................................................................................... 65 Double layer Method .......................................................................................................... 66 Triple layer Method ............................................................................................................ 67 Episodic Method ................................................................................................................. 70 Standard deviation .............................................................................................................. 71 Standard Deviation Calculation........................................................................................... 72 Coefficient of variation ....................................................................................................... 76 Comparison on Sample wise according to days .................................................................... 80 Explanation ......................................................................................................................... 80 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 82 Mirror plate Testing ............................................................................................................... 82 Working of this Model ........................................................................................................ 83 Testing and observation of vacuum testing ........................................................................ 83 Drawback of this method .................................................................................................... 85 Visiting the TUl lab ................................................................................................................. 85 Reproducibility Of the measurements. ................................................................................. 86
Chapter: Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 88
HS Niederrhein 6 5 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 93
Table of Figures Figure 1: The growth in consumption if synthetic________________________________ 10 Figure 2 Efficiency of Human Organism ______________________________________ 20 Figure 3 Conduction Heat flow ______________________________________________ 22 Figure 4 Convection Cycle ________________________________________________ 23 Figure 5 Radiation heat flow _______________________________________________ 24 Figure 6 Evaporation system in Human body ___________________________________ 25 Figure 7 Cycle of enviornent heat ___________________________________________ 28 Figure 8 Activity Cycle ___________________________________________________ 29 Figure 9 structure of Cotton Fiber ____________________________________________ 32 Figure 10 Molecular structure of Cotton ______________________________________ 33 Figure 11 Structure of polyester fibers ________________________________________ 34 Figure 12 Wool structure __________________________________________________ 36 Figure 13 Heat Balance ___________________________________________________ 39 Figure 14 Energy consumptions _____________________________________________ 43 Figure 15 ay, A., Atav, R., and Duran, K.,, Effects of Warp-Weft Density Variation and Fabric Porosity of the Cotton Fabrics on their Colour in Reactive Dyeing. FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe, 2007. 15(1 (60)): p. 91-94. _Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 16 Heat Transfer system ______________________________________________ 46 Figure 17 GSm of Samples _________________________________________________ 53
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Figure 18Water vapor Test s1 ______________________________________________ 55 Figure 19Water vapor Test s2 ______________________________________________ 56 Figure 20 Water vapor Test s3 _____________________________________________ 57 Figure 21 Water Vapour Test s4 _____________________________________________ 58 Figure 22Absolute Water vapor Test s1 ______________________________________ 59 Figure 23 Absolute Water vapor Test s2 _____________________________________ 60 Figure 24Absolute Water vapor Test s3 ______________________________________ 60 Figure 25 Water Vapor Test s4 ______________________________________________ 61 Figure 26 Thermal Resistance Day 1__________________________________________ 71 Figure 27 Thermal resistance Day 2 __________________________________________ 78 Figure 28 Thermal Resistance Day 3__________________________________________ 79 Figure 29 Thermal Resistance Day 4__________________________________________ 79 Figure 30 Comparison of Samples s5 ________________________________________ 80 Figure 31 Comparison of Samples s6 ________________________________________ 81 Figure 32 Comparison of Samples s7 ________________________________________ 81 Figure 33 Kyossev Hypothesis ______________________________________________ 82 Figure 34 TUl Lab ________________________________________________________ 86
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List of symbols Symbol W R S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 TUl CV Hs D1 D2 D3 D4 Description Watt [J s-1] Thermal resistance [m2K W-1] sample 1 sample 2 sample 3 sample 4 sample 5 sample 6 sample 7 Technical university of Liberec coefficient of variance Standard Deviation Hochschule Niederrhein day 1 day2 day 3 day 4
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Chapter 1: Thermal comfort 1.1 Introduction Clothing is one of the fundamental needs of human being. It serves the various and different purposes, and people normally pick and choose clothing according to their wish, need and desires. The fact is that aesthetic sense or particular demand is the basic element found in this choice. As we know that there are many prerequisites of human being in the clothing comfort the physiological comfort is required in all the all situations and considered to be a threshold in choosing the clothing. The questions comes many time in mind are you comfortable evoke a spectrum of different answers depending upon the whether you are talking to psychologist, physiologist, sociologist, banker, etc. In this symposium we will only discuss about this factor in the field of clothing. Thermal comfort which concern the heat and moisture transport properties of clothing and the way that clothing helps to maintain the heat balance of the body during various levels of activity. Skin is also so much sensitive to the heat and moisture, and when wearing skin sensational wear comforts the mechanical contact of the fabric with the skin, its softness and pliability in movement and its lack of prickle, irritation and cling when dampi The fact is this that clothing is hard to explicate owing to a complex and interdependent amalgamation of physical, psychological and sensorial perception and highly depends on subjective evaluation of individual. 1.2 Clothing Comfort: Since in late 1950s there has been enormous growth in the use of synthetic fibres ii while consumption of cotton and wool remains the same. However the consumptions of the of synthetic fibres is expected to continue to grow at a healthy rate about 5 % for the foreseeable future iii
i ii
Physical testing of Textile B.P saville Comfort Finishing of synthetic fabrics Bruce M.Latta 07026 Daily news record 1975
iii
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Here is the graph which will explain the amount of money spend up synthetic and natural fibres
Development In fibers
14 Billions of pouds used 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1960 1970 1980 cotton and wool Syntheticss
Figure 1: The growth in consumption if syntheticiv The increase of synthetic fibres for wearing apparel in the past two decades has been a mixed blessing for the consumer and manufacturers. The use of synthetic fibres has increased styling and versatility improved the ease of care of garments, and permitted the production of apparels with extended useful lifetimes. But on the other hands the same fabrics have the problems which were not severe with natural fibres. 1.3 Wearer Comfort There are many words that describe the comfort of clothes: absorbent, sticky, tight, knotted, closing, comfortable, compelling, elastic, itchy, flexible etc. Fabric comfort leads to the cool and calmness of body. If the cloth is itchy and harsh then the comfort of the fabric will be zero. The two possible ways to distinguish two aspects of wear comfort of fabric are:
iv
Fibres 1960-1980 (Daily News Record 1975; Textile Organ 1975).
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a) b)
Thermo-physiological Comfort Skin Sensational Comfort
1.3.1
Thermo-physiological Comfort It concerns with the heat and moisture transport properties of fabric and the way that the fabric helps to maintain the heat balance of the body during various levels of activity.
1.3.2
Skin Sensational Comfort It deals with the mechanical contact of the fabric with the skin, its softness and pliability in movement and its lack of prickle, irritation and clings (damp or dry).
1.4
Factors analysing thermal comfort The primary need of man to dress has changed as time passed because different fibers are used and yarn, fabrics and finishing have completely changed. Today comfort is considered as a fundamental part when a textile product is valued. In some cases it is analyzed following an analysis technique called HPA (Human Perception Analysis). This analysis is based on some main elements: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Warmth Absorbing capacity and humidity General comfort Cloth convenience Skin perception Weight Softness
1.5
Thermal resistance and thermal comfort Heat balance between human body and environment is one basic factor in thermo physiological comfort. We adjust thermal resistance with the help of clothing. In cold environment, we put on heavy clothing to increase the resistance and in summer we take
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light clothing to decrease the thermal resistance so that we body come under normal temperature. Skin temperature is around 33 C, in case hot conditions skin temperature increases, which creates discomfort and in cold environment skin temperature decreases which become the reason of discomfort. Heat transfers from hot to cold body in all dimensions. In case of fabric, it is presumed that all heat moves in one direction due to small thickness of fabric as compared to its width and length. Fabric works as an insulating material and can be considered a second skin. Thermal insulation power of the fabric depends upon the type of fiber used and structure of fabric manufacturing. In case of ordinary fabric like denim, only 30% area of denim fabric is filled with polymers and the rest is composed of air. Air has thermal conductivity 10 to 15 times less than polymers and offers high resistance. In such case, heat flow is stopped by air but when this air is replaced with water, thermal resistance of the whole fabric reduces drastically. Fabric has a certain structure and a finite thickness (height) and when its gaps are filled with water completely, it means that height of water column is equal to fabric thickness. However, in case when fabric has partial water, then the gaps are filled with water and air. There is no any accurate information about the length of water column and length of air column is available. Another problem attached with moisture is amount of water inside the fiber and water on the surface of fibers. Moreover, there is a change in the volume of the fabric due to swelling of fiber. There is an obvious change in the volume of hydroscopic fibers and this leads towards the increase of volume and holding capacity of the fiber as well as decrease the gaps between warp and weft. Hesv has discussed in depth the effect of moisture on thermal resistance and concludes that porosity of the fabric plays significant role in thermal resistance. He adds that
v
Hes, L., Heat, Moisture and Air Transfer Properties of Selected Woven Fabrics in Wet State.
Journal of Fiber Bioengineering & Informatics 2008: p. 968-976..

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structure of fabric is more important for higher thermal resistance than polymers. Observation of Hes has been confirmed by having a variation in the values of thermal resistance under two different pressures. It shows that more compressible structure has higher thermal resistance.
1.6
Thermal comfort natural phenomenon

cold or heat stress
Light discomfort
comfort
Figure 2 :Comfort cycle of occurring As its clear from the above figure that, how initially a man feels comforts level. In the beginning state he is comfortable but suddenly the comfort level starts changing in his body affected by the internal and external factors. The main factor which affects him is the body contact with the outer temperature and its starts variation from natural temperature to the outer temperature. In the last stage he is being attacked by the swear weather which is either too options swear weather or cold weather. In swear cold weather he feel discomfort able with the outer temperature by wearing heavy fabrics. the same case happened with the swear hot weather , if wearing some lighter fabrics and its not
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compatible with the temperature of outside then might it can effect in the way of swetting . 1.6.1 Effecting of poor thermal comfort on human body Decrease mental performance Decrease physical performance Heat strokes Heart diseases Dehydrationvi
1.7 1.8
Synthetic fibbers factors effecting comfort Static pilling Snagging Soil oil redeposit ion Retention of oily soils Harshness Slickness Coolness in winter Excessive warmth in summer vii Fabric structure and thermal resistance Fabric surface area can be divided into five categories:
1. Free length of warp (cotton) 2. Free length of weft (synthetic yarn) 3. Intersection of warp and weft
vi vii
Thermal basic concept Erik Johannson Comfort finishing of synthetic fabrics Bruce M. Latta 07026
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4. Pores filled by air 5. Pores filled by moisture
Thermal resistance of all above five areas is different with one another because of chemical and physical structure, porosity of the fabric, arrangement of warp and weft. Moreover, there is a big difference in yarn package density of warp and weft. In addition, precise calculation of the all-different areas is quite difficult, due to the various loopholes, mainly, yarn structure, its shape etc. zdil et al viiihave studied the impact of yarn and fiber fineness and other parameters on thermal properties and found a significant correlation. Keeping all in view it is apparent that there will be many changes in thermal parameters due to changes in fabric construction.
Hes et al ixconducted a study to measure effect of moisture on some smart underwear knitted garments. This study concludes that a blend of hydrophobic and hydrophilic fibers presents advantageous clothing comfort under wet conditions. It is mainly due to the superficial attachment of moisture. Hes et al. further point out those shirts made of 100% cotton, retain more water, lose its thermal resistance, and become a reason of cool effect. This study provides a guideline about the flow of heat through a fabric having asymmetric kinds of warp and weft. Sadikoglu x has studied role of hygroscopic material to keep human skin dry-hand and found a strong correlation. This study is using different fiber compositions and trying to
viii
zdil, N., Marmaral, A., and Kretzschmar, S.D., Effect of yarn properties on thermal comfort
of knitted fabrics. International Journal of Thermal Science, 2007. 46(12): p. 1318-1322

ix
Hes, L., Offermann, P., and Dvorakova, I. , The effect of underwear on thermal contact feeling
x
caused by dressing up and wearing of garments, Sadikoglu, T.G., Effect on Comfort Properties of Using Superabsorbent Fibres in Nonwoven
Interlinings. FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe July / September, 2005. 13(3 (51)): p. 5457.
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find out the correlation. Li et al. xihave studied the fiber hygroscopic behavior and perceptions of dampness. They found that in above saturation level, drying speed of wool and polyester is same and difference occurs below the saturation points. It means that fiber having higher saturation point will become dry later as compared to fibers having low saturation point. This is the key factor that PP which has low saturation point and becomes dry soon and keeps its thermal conductivity low since there is less water in it as compared to other cotton and PET. Yoshihiroa et al. xiiis another example which clarifies that there is a definite difference in thermal conductivity of fabrics having different structures. Study depicts that direction of measurement (transverse or longitudinal and in direction of thickness) also changes the value of heat flow. It reinforces the observation that direction of material also plays a critical role in heat flow property of fabric. 1.9 Clothing fibbers The natural fibres which used in excessive are cotton and wool and they both are natural and they are good for body comfort. Cotton is having less crystalline region and it can absorb more water than any other fibres. Due to its crystalline region is used for wearing in all sports activity or events where there are excessive body movements. But when we talk about synthetic fibres we have such problems here like High tenacity Hydrophobicity Sometime a question came in to mind that are you comfortable it evokes spectrum of different answers depending on whether we are talking to psychologist, physiologist
xi
Y. Li, A., Plante, A. M., Holcombe,
B. V., Fiber Hygroscopicity and Perceptions of
Dampness Part II: Physical Mechanisms. Textile Res. J. , 1995. 65(6): p. 316-324.
xii
Yoshihiroa, Y., Hiroakia, Y., and Hajimeb, M.,, Effective Thermal Conductivity of Plain Weave
Fabric and its Composite Material Made from High Strength Fibers. Journal of Textile Engineering, 2008. 54(4): p. 111 - 119
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sociologist, banker etc. but here we will discuss comfort only in field of clothing . We will discuss that how the thermal properties of clothing change with changes in the wearers activity level. There is another aspect of the feel of clothing its contact with the skin, irritations, and slickness. In the beginning we will discuss the factors which are playing a part in the thermal comfort arena like Air temperature it is normally measured by thermometer, then comes the Thermal radiation xiii which is normally measured by the radiation that is exchanged between skin and surface and the ambient radiant surround. 1.10 History of Clothing Emergence and development of thermal comfort In 1940-1950 this period may be considered as a birth period of clothing and comfort science. During this time, clothing comfort was taken as a separate discipline and labs were set up, and people start talking about their favourite topic on those days. Clothing comfort is a state of mind when it is at its lowest stress level. Comfort is defined as the absence of perceived pain- and discomfort All above definitions support that thermal and moisture management is the basis of overall comfort. As the scale ends up, this dependency becomes more significant. Some people who have an extra capacity can easily fiddle with the changed environment but harmony is a fundamental requirement for comfort in all aspects physical, psychological, sensorial, environmental, and economic or so. 1.11 Relation of human body with thermal balance Human body induces heat and it is the reason why some authors call human body a thermal engine. A normal person produces 75 Watts per meter to breathe one liter of oxygen per minute. This oxygen is used to form CO2. At the same time, one liter of oxygen generates 300 W. Here efficiency of the human body is 75/300= 25%. It is significant low efficiency. Based on this consideration, it is ended that human body does not work like a thermal engine, works a like a fuel cell, where, chemical energy is
xiii
Thermal balance and protection Ralph F. Goldman PhD 01760
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converted into work. Human body works on a very small range of temperature. To keep it under the brackets, body releases heat through conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. Convection and the evaporations are the main ways for the removal of heat from human body. It is primarily due to the consistent interaction between the human body and the environment On the other hand, people claim that human body is a thermal engine, which produces heat to carry out different functions. Food is a major source of energy and liveliness. There are many other ways to generate heat, as running can enlarge the body metabolism, which adds to the eternal and skin temperature. Because of direct and indirect interaction of skin and environment, both surfaces have different temperature, and this temperature gradient provides a base to transfer heat. The concept of comfort can easily be presumed from the following statement, which is quite comprehensive: 1.12 Parameters effecting Thermal Comfort The human body tries to maintain a uniform temperature of about the 37 Celsius. The factual value varies from little bit from person to person but the temperature of any person is maintained in slender limits. In mostly climates the body temperature is above that of external environment so that there has to be an internal source of heat in order to maintain the difference in temperature. The heat which is required from body normally it comes from the metabolism which is important in burning of calories to provide power to the muscles and other internal function.xiv But one thing has to be kept in mind that thermal balance in the body has to be maintained if there is no thermal balance in the human body then there might get problem of discomfort in the body. There is another point of view that if the heat received from external sources must be matched by the loss from body of an equivalent amount of heat. If heat gain and heat loss are not in a balance then the body temperature will either rise or fallxvwill give serious threat to life.
xiv xv
Air temperature Physical Testing of textiles BP Saville Physical Testing of Textile BP saville
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Exchange of radiation Air movement Humidity Activity Clothing
1.13 Total thermal resistance of wet fabric Fabric is composed of: 1. Polymers, 2. Air 3. Moisture (inside the fiber ) It is important to note that water in fabric is mainly due to absorbent nature of fiber. All have different thermal conductivity and different thermal resistance. To quantify the total thermal resistance of different materials in fabric, one has to follow method used in electricity to sum up the resistances. According to this method, resistances are in series are just added and if these are parallel, then their reciprocal is added.
R1
R3
R4
R2
Resistance in series and parallel
Above Figure depicts arrangement of resistance. R1 and R2 are in series and R3 and R4 are in parallel. It has an analogy with electric resistance. Total resistance in both cases will be as follows:
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Resistance in series:
Rt R1 R2
Resistance in parallel:
1 1 1 Rt R1 R2
1.14 Efficiency of Human Organism The efficiency of human organism is such that the energy taken in a food only 15-30 % is converted into useful work with the remaining 70-80 % of the energy being wasted as heat.
Activity Sleeping Resting Walking 1.6km/h (1mph) Cycling 16km/h (10mph) Hard physical work Running 8km/h (5mph) Sprinting Figure 3 : Efficiency of Human Organismxvi
xvi
Energy cost (watts ) 70 90 140-175 420-545 445-545 700-770 1400-1500
orris JV Performance standards for active wear text Ins Ind 1980 243-245
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Its clear from above chart that level of physical activity is needed to maintain body temperature will result in excess of heat energy which must be dissipated , if its not then the body temperature will rise . A lower level of physical activity will lead to a fall in body temperature if the available heat us not conserved by increase insulation. After this we came to the point that human body gained so much heat energy due to several physical activities and if that heat is not discharged it might make some problems for the human body. Now we should discuss some of the factors from where a body can lose the heat. 1.15 Types of comfort for fabric i. ii. iii. Stiffness Stretch and Recovery Sensorial Comfort(Handle and Drape)
1.16 Heat loss factors in the Human body The way the heat loss is divided between the mechanisms depends upon the external environment. The requirements for heat balance vary with climate; in hot climates the problem is heat dissipation whereas in cold climates it is one of heat preservation. Fabric has a large role in the maintenance of heat balance as it modifies the heat loss from the skin surface and at the same time has the secondary effect of altering the moisture loss from the skin. However, no one clothing system is suitable for all occasions: a clothing system that is suitable for one climate is usually completely unsuitable for another. There are four mechanisms that describe the heat dissipation to the atmosphere in order to maintain its thermal balance. Conduction Convection Radiation
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Evaporation xvii
Here is need to explain the mechanism of heat loss system in body
Conduction It is the transfer of energy through matter from particle to particle. It is the transfer and distribution of heat energy from atom to atom within a substance. It happens when the material is in contact with another substance. The rate will be calculated when the difference will be taken between the temperature and their thermal conductivities. For example, a spoon in a cup of hot soup becomes warmer because the heat from the soup is conducted along the spoon. Conduction is most effective in solids-but it can happen in fluids In this process heat loss is accomplished through direct contact with another substance. The rate of exchange is determined by temperature between two substances and by their thermal conductivities. Example The body loses heat in this manner when sunken in cold water
Figure 4 : Conduction Heat flowxviii

xvii xviii
Physical Testing of Textile BP Saville http://www.aos.wisc.edu/~aalopez/aos101/wk5/heatrans.jpg
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Convection Convection is the flow of heat through a bulk, macroscopic movement of matter from a hot region to a cool region. It happens when heat is transferred by moving a fluid. Heat leaves the coffee cup as the currents of steam and air rise. The body loses the heat when submerged in water. In this type of process in which heat is transferred by a moving fluid normally liquid or gas. Air in contact with the body is heated by conduction and is then carried away from the body by convection.
Figure 5 : Convection Cycle xix Radiation The third and last form of heat transfer is that of radiation. This is the process in which heat transferred by the electromagnetic waves. Sunlight is a form of radiation that is radiated through space to our planet without the aid of fluids or solids. The waves can pass through air without imparting much heat to it. Black is both the best absorber and radiator of heat because the most of the energy will be
xix
http://www.weatherquestions.com/What_is_convection.htm
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reflected. Fabric brings the comfort for the body by reducing the temperature between the body and fabric. This is the process of heat transfer by way of electromagnetic waves. The waves can pass through air without imparting much heat to it, but when it strikes the object there energy is largely transformed in to heat. Radiation can largely be ignored as a mechanism if losing heat as it is very dependent on the temperature of an object. In the field of Clothing it acts to reduce radiation loss by reducing the temperature differences between the body and its immediate surroundings as the clothing effectively becomes the immediate surroundings.
Figure 6 : Radiation heat flow xx Evaporations Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from its liquid form to its vapor form and thus transferred from land and water masses to the atmosphere. This process requires large amount of energy. One calorie will raise the temperature of one gram of
xx
http://www.channelnewsasia.com/photosgallery/gallery_20110313101217.htm
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water to one degree Celsius. Sweating is not effective as it involve the conversion of liquid to vapor that removes the heat. Normally in this matter changing of liquid water into vapor requires large amount of heat energy. One calorie will raise the temperature of one gram of water on degree Celsius xxi if we talk about in reference of clothing, water is evaporated in both fabric and skin then the energy required is removed from skin, thus its cooling. Evaporation is always a cooling process, The following diagram will show the mechanism how heat energy is transformed from body to atmosphere.
Figure 7 : Evaporation system in Human bodyxxii
1.17 Geographical Factors effecting clothing comfort Clothing has a large part to play in the maintenance of heat balance as it modifies the heat loss from skin surface and at a same time has the secondary effect of altering the moisture loss from skin. However, no one clothing system is suitable for all occasions. Normally
xxi xxii
Physical Testing of Textiles BP Saville http://www.xyktf.com/en_ktf.asp
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one clothing system is suitable for one climate and normally unsuitable for other climates. If we travel Europe Africa America Asia They have different clothing systems according to their region climatic changes. It also depends upon their metabolism of health and their activities. Then comes some jeans differentiation which also affects the comfort levels. In clothing comfort if we are talking about heat transfer flow in body there is another factor which is also very important while wearing a cloth is the factor of Air Permeability this factors plays a pivotal role in the clothing factor. 1.18 Air Permeability The air permeability of a fabric is a measure of how well it allows the passage of air through it. The ease or otherwise of passage of air is of importance for a number of fabric end uses such as Industrial filters Tents Sailcloths Parachutes Raincoat Materials Shirting Down proof fabrics Air bags But before we discuss in detail here is an effect of moisture on insulation values
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1.19 Factors affecting comfort 1- Temperature of the environment. 2- The relative humidity 3- Characteristics of clothing material. 4- Activity 5- Air velocity 6- Radiant temperature. xxiii Temperature of the environment In field of clothing temperature of the environments plays a pivotal role in the comfort level of your wearing. If we are wearing a lighter fabric and the temperature of the body doesnt match with the temperature of outside then there will be a problem for comforting ones body. Especially these things happened in early summer arrivals normally the 32 oF xxiv , when we wear the heavier fabric to avoid the cold normally it interact with the inner temperature of the body which causes level of discomfort in the body .
xxiii xxiv
Thermo comfort Prof Alan hedge , Cornell University STP - Standard Temperature and Pressure
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Figure 8 : Cycle of environment heat xxv As it is clear from the above image that normal air temperature which can maintain the comfort level up to level of 20 o c. Activity In this type of factor activity level is also the major aspect from where it affects the comfort level of body. If a person is sportsman or athlete he has to wear the lighter fabric because of the fact, when his body is in moving position and naturally his body will be wet. To dry that wetness if he is wearing a heavier fabric then it might take long time to evaporate the wetness from the clothing which he is wearing.
xxv
http://masonryheat.blogspot.de/
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Figure 9 : Activity Cycle xxvi As its clear from this picture above that there are various factors which are attacking a person when he is in continuous motion. The main source is the sun light which is raising the inner temperature and outer temperature of the body as well. Clothing comfort a objective phenomenon Comfort is a property or characteristic of clothing that is not so easy to quantify due to various complexities attached with it. For example, the heats-transfer laws, rule thermal transfer equations, comfort cannot be judged purely because heat transfer between human body and environment is a complex phenomenon. People have their own dynamics, which are quite diverse and cannot act in a uniform way. All the people do not react in the same way and their strength of reaction is also different therefore they consider clothing comfort as a subjective feeling, and it is somewhat difficult to define all factors and their contribution level which can affect this feeling. However, up to a certain extent one can predict the response of a human being by conducting diverse tests, particularly, related to heat and moisture transfer, surface friction, bending rigidity, etc.
xxvi
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1926084&show=html
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There is another aspect that the cutting role , designing and fitting cannot be put aside as of the fact that that human body is a combination of unlike shapes and there is a big diversification among young women , men and young people , kids and some geological aspects people living in the other parts of the globe . 1.20 Nature usual factors affecting comfort Factors effect wearer Mental and economic position Types of activities Clothing structure & chemical nature of fibres Yarn types Fabric structure Mechanical Properties Thermal properties of fabrics Clothing design Fitting External condition Wind speed Temperature Moistures Fibre types Age Experience Level of health
Brief Explanation of the above factors affecting the Comfort level Age As it is clear by the rule of nature that human activity effect by its age factors, as the human is having a good health or he maintain a balance life his level of activity is much higher. Like working, walking, running many other factors. In this era he has to maintain the comfort level of his body and his clothing. If he is wearing lighter or heavier fabrics he can maintain up to some level through his activities.
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Types of activities As it is assumed that activity level is different for different persons. If some is working on his working method there are different types of activities he can do in job. His job nature is like he has to move here and there, or might be has to sit all the day. In these types of working environment he has to maintain not only the comfort level but also he has to maintain the clothing comfort. He has to be picky and selective in clothing, for an extent what types of fabric can maintain the comfort level when he is doing a work. When a person sits for more than longer time and he is not moving his whole body, then naturally there is a arise in thermal level of the body. The rise in the thermal level of the body temperature the human starts feeling discomfort. It mismatch the thermal level of the clothing is he wearing. If the human is wearing warm clothing he can never be in relaxed position for longer period of time. Fibre Types As far as I understand till now about thermal comfort level. This selection of fibres in making the clothing plays an elemental role in maintaining the comfort levels of human body. There are many natural fibres. Cotton Polyester Wool Acrylic Aramid Acetate Silk Nylon Lyocell Bamboo Jute
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Cashmire wool All this above fibres are responsible for maintaining the comfort level in human body. Above fibres is the mixture of both synthetic and natural fibres. If we discus about cotton and wool these fibres have the most highly ratio of water absorbency in the nature.
1.20.1 Construction of Cotton Fibre Cotton is pure cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose is a carbohydrate in nature. If we see the natural structure of cellulosic fibers we see that the molecule is a long chain of glucose (sugar) molecules. If you look at the structure of a cellulose molecule you can see the OH groups that are on the outer edge. These negatively charged groups attract water molecules and make cellulose and cotton absorbs water well. Cotton can absorb about 25 times its weight in water. Chemists refer to substances like cotton as hydrophilic, which means that they attract water molecules.
Figure 10 : structure of Cotton Fibrexxvii
xxvii
Figure 2 Nishiyama, Yoshiharu; Langan, Paul; Chanzy, Henri (2002). "Crystal Structure and
Hydrogen-Bonding System in Cellulose I from Synchrotron X-ray and Neutron Fiber Diffraction". J. Am. Chem. Soc 124 (31): 907482.
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There is another aspect that majority manufacturer who is associated with clothing industry they prefer the cotton as their primary element in constructing the fabric. The cotton has less crystalline region then all other natural fibre if compare the structure of cotton and polyester the structure of cotton is less crystalline in nature. Thats why due to its weak crystalline structure cotton has the most water absorbing nature amongst the natural fibers. That why athlete or the person who have high ratio of actitivity level they prefer to wear made up of cotton. The reason behind this is that when in wearing the cotton product evaporation level is high which takes all the wetness when they are doing something. This way they can maintain their comfort level.
Figure 11: Molecular structure of Cotton xxviii
After discussing the cotton fibre there is also need to discuss the two most influential fibres Polyester and Wool which has great impact in maintaining the comfort level of human. 1.20.2 Polyester Polyester is a category of polymers group attached with ester group. Polyester is highly hydrophobic in nature and its the one of the strongest natural fibre. Normally manufacturer blends it with cotton with some little ratio just to maintain the physical condition of fabrics.
xxviii
http://www.worldofmolecules.com/materials/cotton.htm
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Mostly people used such types of ratio Here are some ratios taken from different experience in the field of garments and production history. Weight (Gsm ) 220 Ratio 20/80 20 % polyester , 80 % cotton 230 30/70 30 % polyester , 70 % cotton 260 40/60 40 % polyester, 60% cotton
Mainly polyester is used to give some stability in the physical shape of the fabric. If we make pure cotton knit then there is some chance of elongation and shrinkage. But if we blend it with some highly tensile fabrics it can maintain the shrinkage and elongation state of the fabrics.
Figure 12 : Structure of polyester fibres xxix
xxix
POLYESTER FIBERS Updated: April, 2004- Raghavendra R. Hegde, Atul Dahiya, M. G.
Kamath(Ramaiah Kotra and Xiao Gao)

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The above picture is showing the crystalline region of the polyester, which shows that this fabric has so much strong structure in nature that it, can never be attacked by the water molecule to enter in it. It is highly water repellent in nature but the problem with polyester in wearing. It cant give you comfort when wearing 100 % polyester because of the reason that this fibre is highly water repellent in nature and it cannot allowed any water molecule to come neat to it . Whenever if a person is wearing a fabric made of 100 % pol, his comfort level is surely affected by this type of fabric construction. It is just used to make fabric stability when blended with some natural fibre Cotton/Polyester or Wool / Polyester. 1.20.3 Wool This is also a major fibre which plays an important role in comforting level of clothing. Like in the clothing field it is used in making Hand gloves, home apparels, dusting, cycling wear etc. Anyone who thinks wool is anything but comfortable when used in clothing is still obviously living in the Middle Ages. You will be surprised at the quality of wool clothing that is now available in the market. Far from their original impression of being too bulky, scratchy and uncomfortable, they are actually highly recommended, especially to active people who indulge in sports and other activities
Type of Activity: You have to identify the type of activity you will be doing in order to know the particular clothing you will need. Going cycling? Youll probably look for jerseys. If you are going camping during winter, you would need layers. If youre running or hiking during summer, youll need lighter clothes; thicker if it is a winter activity.
Type of Wool: Identify the type of wool used, particularly if it is mixed in with other materials, including rayon, nylon or silk. Merino wool, as mentioned earlier, is one of the most popular choices for wool fibers because of its qualities of providing just enough warmth, breathability, durability and stretch while being resistant to water, moisture and odor, among other things.
Durability and Warmth: Warmth is the main reason why wool has been used since the beginning. Make sure the clothing you choose provides just the right amount of warmth
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for the activity you are going to do. Since you would be using this wool clothing in highimpact activities, they should be durable enough to withstand prolonged and frequent usage.
Stretch: It is important that the wool clothing have some stretch, especially since you will wear them while doing a strenuous activity. It should be able to accommodate every movement you make.
Other Considerations: You may also want to check if you have allergies to wool or woolen fabrics. If you do, you can choose clothing that has only a certain percentage of wool. If you also tend to sweat a lot in warm clothing, choose wool clothing that is not too warm but will provide enough protection nonetheless.xxx Wool structure
Figure 13: Wool structure xxxi
xxx xxxi
http://outdoorgearmadness.com/how-to-choose-wool-clothing-for-outdoor-use/ http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2010/dt/c0dt00263a
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As it also clear from the above structure of the wool that it has too much weak structure that its molecule will be effected by the water molecule and they can easily make their bonds with the molecules of wool . We have discussed too much about the natural fibers which are important ingredients in making the clothing comfort factors but we have to keep in mind that all these fibers are natural, there is no blending of chemical in its making exceptional the urea or chemical in its producing. But as far as synthetic fibers they are now ideal in use, everybody can bend that fibers of their own desires. The increasing trend in making the stylish and quick manufacturing time. Manufacturers are happy on shifting from natural fibers to synthetic fibers. This has also caused some problem in human body like Pilling Harshness Allergies Snagging Swear weather Sensitive
1.21 Atmospheric Variables affecting Clothing Comfort It is to be noticed that one of the major outcomes relating to the field of human comfort it the environment is the pointing of the fact that comfort depends on various atmospheric variables. Which are describe following Pressure Thermal balance Moisture transport Freedom of movement
There is slightly need to elaborate these above factors which are influence on the outer picture of the body which interact with the human body.
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Pressure Pressure affects temperature, but heat is something different altogether. Heat is thermal energy transfer from a hotter body to a colder one, so pressure doesn't have anything to do with that. Otherwise, increasing pressure increases the temperature. This is because you're smashing the molecules/atoms closer together, so they bump into each other more often, so they are higher energy. Temperature is a measure of this average kinetic energy, so giving anything energy means increasing its temperature. Exerting a (positive) pressure on something is one way to give it energy.
Thermal balance The required heat comes from the bodys metabolism i.e.; burning of calories to provide power to muscles; however the body must be kept in thermal balance: the metabolic heat generated together with the heat received from external sources must be matched by the loss from the body of an equivalent amount of hat. If the heat gain and the heat loss are not balanced then the body temperature will either rise or fall, leading to serious threat to life. The efficiency of the human organism is such that of the energy taken in as food only 15-30% is converted into useful work with the remaining 70-85% of the energy being wasted as heat. Thermal balance is the key factors which contain all the basics elements of human comfort. If we are moving in summer outside we have to maintain the thermal balance up to such a point where it will not exceed the natural temperature of human body.
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Figure 14 : Heat Balance xxxii
As I have learnt so much about the factors that are effecting the comfortless of human being. Different factors which are attacking internally and externally. It make me to get my brain for brain storming and it cames out with one diagram which is as follow. 1.22 Factors effecting human comfort internal and external
Wearer Factors
Metabolism of person
Clothing structure
Yarn structure fabric structure fitting and design
External condition
Moisture
Age
wind speed
Level of health types of activities
xxxii
http://www.greenstructureplanning.eu/COSTC11/images/Picture%25206002.gif
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1.23 Comfort a function of heat and moisture transfer Thermo physiological comfort is the process that explicates the changes occurring in a human body due to the alterations in temperature. It is a known fact that human body is a thermal engine and produces heat, and it has a strong link with environmental temperature. Moreover, there is a constant change in the environment and a human body it keeps its own mechanism that takes necessary actions when there is a change in skin temperature due to any variation in ambient temperature. During this activity, balance in thermal is required because our body tends to be at a steady state with an environment by keeping a thermal balance. Metabolism produces extra heat due to any activity transferred to the environment primarily through a convection, radiation or small portion through conduction. If these mediums become insufficient then evaporation is the last method to perform its duties. Thermal engine of human body functions on many factors, which are generally related to the physiology of a human body and its working conditions. Intensity of thermal generation is different in a child and an old man. Beside, human body produces less quantity of heat while it is in the rest position as compared to a running position. There are also many other factors, like, type and quantity of food, health conditions, age, etc. Heat production is a regular function of the human body because it keeps the whole body active, in a constant function. How heat is produced? It depends upon many factors, like level of activities, age, food taken, etc. There is a need to dissipate the extra heat produced by the body. If this extra heat is not removed from the body, it would create discomfort for the human beings. There are two main ways to dissipate this extra heat, first through the skin and the next through a respiratory system. In respiration, we take moisture and heat from lungs. The discussion about this process is out of the scope of this article. The second method where heat transfers through the skin is the domain where we need to argue in detail. Our body has its own thermal regulation system. Heidornxxxiii provides detailed information about it. This report reveals two sets of heat sensors that are present in the
xxxiii
Militky, J., Prediction of Textile Fabrics Thermal Conductivity, in Thermal Manikins and Modelling, J. Fan, Editor. 2006.
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human body. The first sensor indicates the outflow of heat from a human body; it lies close to the surface of skin and is concentrated in the fingertips, nose and bends of elbow. The second sensor works in case when the body temperature is low as compared to environment and body gains heat. It exists deeper in the skin and is concentrated in the chest, upper lip, chin, nose and forehead. The core function of both sensors is to send signals to brain, which takes action to respond to the effect of heat transformation from the body to the environment or vice versa. Thermal regulator of the human body is called hypothalamus. It is a gland that lies at the base of brain, just above the pituitary set very close to 98.60 F (370 C) and keeps monitoring of the body temperature through blood temperature and blood circulation is the main source of thermal distribution throughout the body. After sensing any change in blood temperature, hypothalamus reacts accordingly and initiates a physiological response to increase or decrease the temperature of the body. During this entire movement, the body temperature goes very close to the set temperature 98.60 F (370 C) and at this human body has the best comfort level. Any drastic change in blood temperature, low or high causes uncomforting because of the heat transfer phenomenon. When it is cold weather, body loses its heat and to have shelter from this heat we use clothing and in hot summer, we wear lightweight and porous clothes so that our body heat may reduce and help in heat loss through convection, radiation, conduction and evaporation. All such efforts are focused to satisfy soft needs of a wearer and to develop a thermal balance. Human body generates heat that is removed from the body in many ways. Sweating and evaporation of sweating is one major phenomenon. The Study of Havenith et al proves that there is significant discrepancy between the weight loss and the heat loss through evaporation. Error is more than 30%, which cannot be ignoredxxxiv.
xxxiv
Wendl, M.C. (2005) Fundamentals Of Heat Transfer Theory and Applications. Department
of Mechanical Engineering and School of Medicine Washington University

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Heidorn xxxv further describes that in case when there is hot climate, body starts sweating. This sweat starts evaporating, which needs heat to convert this mass into gases. Human body surface provides this heat and consequently, there is a cool feeling on the surface of the skin. 1.24 Human Body and Thermal Transfer Humans are bipedal while animals are quadruped. Due to this reason, it has 40% less expose to radiation the human head is at height and experiences cool and wind blowing more than other parts of body. Human skin has four layers and the inner parts are bones, muscle, fat and finally skin. More than 80% heat is produced in muscles, there is an invariable occurrence of heat production, and its consumption as it is very rare that heat production should be equal to heat consumption. The brain regulates heat production and consumption. Skin quality, thermal receptors, radiation, evaporation, sweat glands, shivering process, metabolism rate, and experience affect this regulation. Heat produced by digesting food as the result of activities that are carried out through the body with the help of sanguine vessel. In case of cold feeling, Vasoconstriction occurs which narrows down the blood vessels so that there is not much supply of blood to far parts of the body? Nevertheless, in case of increase in body temperature vasodilator takes place and it increases the blood flow in far parts of the body. Hypothalamus is a part of brain that controls the nerve system and certain metabolic process. It is situated below the thalamus and above the brain system. It commands the body temperature, hunger and thirst. There are two ways to remove heat from the body. One is heat transfer through convection, radiation and the second is energy consumed in making sweat evaporation (mass transfer). In this case, sensible heat is used in latent heat. Both processes are adapted at the same time, and they continue until the temperature gradient becomes zero or negligible or not enough to work as the main source of heat and mass transfer. In case when the human body is directly in touch with the environment, main heat transfer takes place through convection and radiation. Heat transfer through conduction is
xxxv
Militky, J., Prediction of Textile Fabrics Thermal Conductivity, in Thermal Manikins and
Modelling, J. Fan, Editor. 2006

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moderately less since direct contact of the human body with any other substance is quite low. It may be through feet if these are directly in touch with the floor.
A body heat production and consumption Figure 15 : Energy consumptions xxxvi
Human body has a sultry nature and needs an average 37 C for proper function. Variation of 2 C can affect function of different body organs and for a naked person 29
xxxvi
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page)
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C ambient temperature can provide a better comfort. It also depends upon many factors related to person and other factors like, air velocity, humidity. Human body is working like a thermal engine, and it has a closed circuit. Heat is produced by its metabolic system, heat, and mass transfer system Endeavour to reach at equilibrium, which is an inherent demand of any system where there is an existence of difference of temperature and difference of mass concentration. There are two major ways of transfer heat and moisture from a body; respiratory system (airways and lung surface) and transfer through the skin. It is all to achieve and maintain human body isothermalxxxvii. It shows that any change in the human body is a function of the heat and mass transfer process. 1.25 Clothing and heat transfer Above discussion provides a valid argument for outer layer of clothing that cannot affect the evaporation process. The humidity level is the main reason of slow evaporation, since the drop in humidity is the main driving force. A fabric that can transfer moisture from inner side, means from the skin surface can contribute in an evaporation process. Satsumoto et al xxxviii investigated the comfort of underwear by applying asymmetric materials and their combination. He concluded that moisture absorbency has a critical role in the provision of comfort. Balance in the heat is necessary as comfort depends upon it and if better control of temperature is required then we have to take help of an evaporation of sweat. Evaporation is an endothermic process that keeps the temperature low to provide comfort to the body. The hypothesis of this whole phenomenon is based on the moisture absorbency and evaporation capabilities of the fibers. This study
xxxvii
Hes, L., Araujo, M. D., and Djulay, V. V. , Effect of Mutual Bonding of Textile Layers on
Thermal Insulation and Thermal Contact Properties of Fabric Assemblies. Textile Research Journal, 1996. 66( 4): p. 245-250
xxxviii
Hes, L., Araujo, M. D., and Djulay, V. V. , Effect of Mutual Bonding of Textile Layers on Thermal Insulation and Thermal Contact Properties of Fabric Assemblies. Textile Research Journal, 1996. 66( 4): p. 245-250.
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reinforced the idea that thermal comfort of the human body is based on the heat transfer, but it is quite complex as contrasted to the process where there is no dampness.
Papkovxxxix sums up the discussion and concludes that comfort depends upon the moisture transfer from skin to the environment. This transfer depends upon the wetting power of the fibers used, porosity (inter-fiber capillary) of the yarns, and determination of fabric bulkiness and capacity of reversible deformation of fabric. This can be achieved through a comprehensive consideration of all factors, and it is possible to achieve the required target by using the different combination of fibers, testing different fabric formations, application of various surfaces treating chemicals and making a suitable design which should moisture transfer. One should not ignore various disadvantages of using synthetic fibers; one is the production of static charges, which can commence uncomforting of a human being. Below figure is worth seeing description of the relationship between vapor pressure and temperature.
xxxix
Schacher, L., Adolphe, D., and Drean, J.-Y., Comparison between thermal insulation and thermal properties of classical and microfibres polyester fabrics. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology 2000. 12(2): p. 84-95.
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Figure 16 Heat Transfer system
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Chapter: Machine Introduction
2.1
Machine requirements. This machine was put in an air tight cabin with in a lab so that the temperature will not affect by the surroundings. That was the reasons why the results were there so much near to the reality and accurate and coherence in the nature. Practical Work In this chapter there will be discussion about the methodology and will discuss briefly about the method how to find the thermal resistance of fabrics. There are numbers of ways to find the thermal resistance of the fabrics. In this scenario thermal resistance will be measured with the help of machine name Permetest
2.2
Introduction of Permetest Machine This machine was made by a Prof Hes from check republic. The main aim of making this machine is to avoid long waiting time to find the resistance of fabrics. This machine is quite reliable in finding the
Water resistance Water vapor resistance This machine is very much small in size and easy to handle and move and its results quite near to the original results. This machine is used to measuring or determination of water vapor and thermal resistance or permeability of fabrics, nonwoven and home textile material.
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This machine has some extra features which make it more easily to use and handle Easy to operate Easy to handle Easy to move Less time consumption Less error in calculation No too much pre-requisite needs Main features of Permetest
Time constant The time given by the application of a special heat flow sensor, whose thermal inertia is similar to that of human skin, therefore the full response while measuring the water vapor permeability (resistance) of synthetic fabrics is achieved within 2- 3 minutes, for dry thermal resistance the measurement is completed even within 1 minute (For the simulated human skin temperature 35oC)xl It has the capacity to measure the sample less than 12*12 cm, and measured the dia of 80mm. It can easily operated in every conditions you can use it in factory and as well as in laboratory. Normally windows 97 are compatible for this use.
High sensitivity
Its a new concept of measurement, which enables to distinguish even very small changes of water amount absorbed in the fabric during unsteady state of diffusion and to record
xl
Permetest manual by HES
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e.g. the heat of absorption and the effects of the fabrics composition and structure, resulting in very good measurement repeatability, with CV often under 3%.xli
Computer screen The result normally shown in the computer screen and it has its own extra software from where you can see the result digitally. The instrument provides all kinds of measurements very similar to the ISO Standard 11092, and the results are evaluated by the identical procedure as required in the ISO 11092. The differences in relation to this standard depend in smaller sample, application the 20-22oC isothermal laboratory temperature instead of 35oC (at the water-vapor resistance measurements) and by the application of the laboratory (environmental) watervapor concentration (humidity) of the parallel air flow 45 - 60%, instead of the air humidity level of 40%. The heat flow levels used for calculation of water vapor resistance or permeability are displayed on digital indicator + external PC and (if required) recorded by means of any sensitive line recorder (nor the PC nor the recorder are included in the standard delivery). The correlation coefficient of measurements related to the ISO Standard SKIN MODEL exceeds 0.9.xlii 2.3 Construction of Permetest Machine Air control It is attached to the suction side of the fan and covered by the highly reflective metallic window which is removable and it is located in the electronic box. Measuring head in suspension, whose surface is made of porous metallic water distributing layer. The porous surface is covered by removable semi-permeable layer with the medium durability.xliii
xli xlii
Permetest manual by HES Permetest manual by HES Permetest manual by HES
xliii
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Dosing inject a special type of liquid is used approx of 10 ml which is used in surface to supplying in the measuring head where all the procedure has to be performed normally it is used in the water vapor resistance and permeability of fabrics to be measured .
Box of electronic which contains the transformer, power supply part, intelligent digital temperature controller OMRON, amplifier, A/D converter and 2 additional fuses. The box of electronic can be opened by removing 4 screws on the bottom of the box. xliv
Output voltage digital indicator. The display shows the level of heat flow [W/m2] passing through the sample in mV (after multiplication). The amplification level is adjustable.
Intelligent digital temperature gradient controller OMRON. The red scale shows the real temperature gradient between the measuring head and the room (channel) air temperature, the green scale indicates the preset temperature gradient. The preset temperature can be changed by the up and down knobs. The controller programming (e. g. the time of periodical switching on and off of the heating input) is described in the enclosed controller leaflet.
A zero switch which in position I make a short circuit in the amplifier entrance and in position 0 enables the measurement.
A button of the electric zero adjustment. If the zero short-circuit switch is on (I), then the zero on the indicator should be adjusted.
A button of the amplification level (sensitivity) adjustment. Optimum level of sensitivity is given when the digital indicator of the instrument without sample shows 95105. This level of sensitive is used when the instrument measures (roughly) the relative water vapor permeability. Then, after insertion of a sample, after approx. 2-5 minutes the instrument shows directly the mentioned relative water vapor permeability in %. When measuring the w after vapor resistance, the knob must be kept at any, but constant position, for which the sensitivity constants C and K (see later) are specific. These
xliv
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constants should be used for similar room temperature ( 2oC) and humidity (10%) as the air parameters in the calibrating regime. If necessary, a linear chart recorder with sensitivity at least 2 mV/full width of paper can be used in connection with the instrument. The recorder is delivered on special demand only. The analogue output of the instrument is located in the rear panel xlv
xlv
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3 3.1
Chapter: Testing & practical work Practical Analysis The procedure of doing this practical work, for this purpose collection of different types of fabrics samples has been collected which varies with their Gsm and type of there structure. The purpose is to see what exactly happened with the thermal comfort of the different fabric in one machine. As this machine is favorable for heavy fabrics but not ideal for thinner fabrics. The fabrics having less Gsm the reading on this machine vary every time if we test one fabric again and again. The measurable action taken place to see what measures can be done to get the similar readings.
3.2
Fabric Specs Code S1 Sample Weight(g/m) 200 Construction 65 % cotton , 35% li S2 225 99% cotton , 1 % li S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 270 340 340 110 228 100 % cotton 100 % cotton 100% cotton 100% cotton 100% cotton
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Weight of swatches g/m

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Figure 17 : Weight of Swatches 3.3 Conversion of gram per square meter into grams / pounds Basis Weight (in pounds) x 1406.5 Basis Size (in inches) All of the above weight ages are in gram per square meter; to convert it from grams per square meter to kilogram per square meter following formula is being usedxlvi 1 g/m = 0.001kg
Above all the samples readings were recorded in g/m 3.4 Experimental work First of all the need is to find how to calculate the thermal resistance of fibre, below down is the basic formula for calculating the thermal resistance.
xlvi
http://www.aqua-calc.com/convert/surface-density/gram-per-square-meter
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3.4.1
Calculation of thermal resistance
R or R
h T q
R is thermal resistance [m2KW-1]
h is thickness [m] Is thermal conductivity [Wm-1K-1] T is temperature [K] q Is heat flow [Wm-2] Thermal resistance is the relation between the R=h/ Where h is the thickness of the fabric and is the amount f heat will be conducted from this area. Normally resistance is the opposite of Viscosity which means Resistance to flow. In this scenario this is tackled with human body, that what are the certain parameters which are affecting the thermal resistibility of human body. Unit = m2K/W
This is the main focus of our study as there is no issue in the measuring of water vapor test and water vapor permeability of the fabrics. But when came to field of measuring the thermal resistance of the same fabric then the problem arises.
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3.4.2
Testing on Permetest Machine In the beginning of our practical work, the normal procedure to measure the thermal resistance of fabrics first need to find the water vapour permeability test. After this the study proceeds with measuring the thermal resistance of the fabrics. Below is the first step to measure and analysing the thermal resistance of fabric.
3.4.3
Relative water vapour permeability (Range from 1.5 % - 100%). Resistance
Sample 1 Readings 1 2 3 Result 3.00 % 2.56 % 2.8%
water vapor permeability test s1

54.25%
53.44%
52.56%
Figure 18 : Water vapour Test s1
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As its clear from the above graph, that there is coherency in reading. There is not too much variation in the reading as the grading is about 0.20.
3.4.4
Sample 2
Readings 1 2 3
Result 3.39% 3.76 % 2.8%

54.25%
53.44%
52.56%
Figure 19 : Water vapour Test s2 As this is clear from the above reading that there is also not big variation in the final readings of the water vapour test. These readings were taken in the interval of 4-5 minutes. Which also gives a good result?
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3.4.5
Sample 3
Readings 1 2 3
Result 4.13 % 4.75 % 5.12%

54.25% 53.44%
52.56%
Figure 20 : Water vapour Test s3
3.4.6
Sample 4
Readings 1 2 3
Result 6.86 % 6.82 % 7.35%
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54.25%
53.44%
52.56%
Figure 21 : Water Vapour Test s4 3.5 3.5.1 Absolute water vapour permeability Test. Sample 1 Readings 1 2 3 Result 73.04 % 76.08% 74.24%
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Absolute water vapor test s1

54.25% 53.44%
52.56%
Figure 22 : Absolute Water vapours Test s1
3.5.2
Sample 2
Readings 1 2 3
Result 70.75 % 68.30% 69.07%
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54.25% 53.44% 52.56%
Figure 23: Absolute Water vapours Test s2
3.5.3
Sample 3 Readings 1 2 3 Result 66.15 % 62.66% 60.22%

54.25% 53.44% 52.56%
Figure 24 : Absolute Water vapours Test s3
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3.5.4
Sample 4 Readings 1 2 3 Result 53.44 % 54.25% 52.56%

54.25%
53.44%
52.56%
Figure 25 : Water Vapour Test s4 The main focus of this research is to find out the thermal resistance of lighter fabrics, as this machine is suitable for measuring the other two tests Water vapor test Absolute water vapor test The above all the tests which were taken on different samples vary from their weight and structure them shows similarities in the readings. The grading of all the above result shows minor variation this is just because of the not proper requirements filled for the machine.
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In the followings topics thermal resistance is measured by different methods to get an accurate result on this particular machine.
3.6 3.6.1
Thermal Resistance Test. Pre-requirements of measuring thermal resistance. As there is pre-requisite of every experiment like some experiment needs vacuum tight, some experiment need favourable atmospheric condition to measure the testing result. As far as in this case to find thermal resistance of fabric there also need pre condition measurements to find the desired result of fabrics? After measuring the water vapour test and water vapour permeability test the machine need to dry the machine. As the fact is this, if the machine is wet then there is no desired outcome of result. If the machine is wet then there will be some moisture on the machine and when putting the fabric layer on the lid then moisture enters in the fabric. A liquid is entering through nozzle in the machine for measuring the water vapour testing. The water has to be drained before measuring the thermal resistance. Normally machine has to keep on drying for round 12-14 hours to get all the moisture away from the machine. Then after the drying of machine then we are eligible for measuring the thermal resistance.
3.6.2
Single layer method Initially tests were taken to find out the thermal of the same above samples, but some unreal results came like. The sample having a low weight there result is coming in negative which means that these fabrics have no thermal resistance. This is unusual thing but the fact is that every fabric has thermal resistance. This same result happened with S2, S3 as far as S4 the same results appeared which shows some thermal resistance in the fabric.
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Readings 1 2 3
Result -5.16 -9.56 -6.56
Thermal resistance s1
1 2 3
-4.16
-8.46
-7.9
Figure 26 : Thermal resistance of S1 single layer As discussed above that the this machine is not suitable for measuring the resistance of lighter fabric, there would perform another experiment with little heavier fabric this time with S2 Readings 1 2 3 Result -4.16 -8.46 -7.9
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1 2 3
-4.16
-7.9 -8.46
Figure 27 : Thermal resistance of S2 single layer The sample S2 has weight round 225 Gsm; this seems to be considered to be heavy fabric for measuring the resistance. The same results happened as all the results were shown in negative which means naturally this fabric has no resistance. New swatch Initially when the reading is coming in negative then for the next reading new fabric of same structure is being cut to get the desired result. Which effect the time during the machine take for performing the test but not desired outcome result? There is need to compare the results of Test 1 and Test 2 which will show the results
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Comparison of S1 and S2
Sample 2 Sample 1
1 -4.16 -5.16
-6.56 -8.46 -9.56 -7.9
Figure 28 : Comparison of S1 and S2 As its clear from above tests result that this machine is not suitable for finding the thermal resistance of fabrics having lower weight. But to get the proper results of the thinner results there is remedies to take the results. 3.7 Methods to Measure Thin Fabrics Thermal resistance.
1- Single layer method. 2- Double layer method. 3- Triple layer method. 4- Periodic measurements. 5- Mirror plate method 3.7.1 Single Layer Method The concept behind to measure the thermal resistance for lighter fabrics we have done a experiment, in this method we have initially put a single layer on the pan where we used to find the resistance .as initially it seems that might the result co This time by doing this the machine time has increased to measure the temperature but the result was same. The machine again shows the resistance in negative.
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In this method S2 is being choose and the results with single layer was in negative, which test was being tested above with result. 3.7.2 Double layer Method In this method we put the same layer of fabric on base and put the same layer of the same fabric on it, so it can get some thickness. By applying this method there comes naturally some heat in the fabric, thought that this will affect some internal molecules and will get some positive results. The above method again failed and gives the unrealistic values.
As by putting the layers of lighter fabric on base and again put the outer layer of that same lighter fabric , so it can gives some variable readings but the main issue is that the
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heat resistance of the fabrics will be doubled but the result on machine was still in negative .
Reading 1 2 3 Figure 29 : Double Layer Method s2
Result -8.5 -7.5 -2.5
3.7.3
Triple layer Method As far as this method is concern this method again plays the same role as the above methods plays the role. There was not even a single results match the reading. There was no uniformity in the readings... In this method the fabric of same sample is considered but this time it has put with three layers which also give such unpredictable result. Readings 1 2 3 Table -3.7 8.9 -1.4
After taking all the reading need to comparison about the above two method with the help of diagram
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Comparison of layers s2
Single layer double layer triple layer 8.9
1 -5.16 -6.56 -9.56
2 -2.5 -7.5 -8.5
-1.4 -3.7
Figure 30 : Comparison of Layers s2 Here is another sample testing with result of single double and triple layer and the result also shows values in negative. Single layer s3 Readings 1 2 3 Result -4.8 -3.5 -3.8
Double layer s3 Readings 1 2 3 Result -2.3 -7.6 -1.5
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The above all the values still showed the result in negative, as far as machine and fabric concern there seems no compatibility with each other. The result with triple layer is not the different.
Triple layer s3 Readings 1 2 3 Result -3.8 -9.5 -4.5
Comparison of Layer s3
Single layer Double Layer -1.5 double layer -2.3 Triple Layer
single layer -3.8 -3.5 -4.8
Tripple layer -3.8 -4.5
-7.6 -9.5
Figure 31 : Comparison of s3 with layers As seen above that this method is not applicable for finding the result with s2 and s3 with the help of layers method. The study with s3 is more likely to get the realistic value as this fabric is heavier compared with other fabrics and it has more thermal resistance as compared with other fabrics due to its manufacturing structure. Normally it was considered that after doing it on 3 layers fabric might be all of his resistance combined together and may give the desired outcome.
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As far as this method was repeated on taking new swatches from the same sample to avoid the machine wear and tear. 3.7.4 Episodic Method In this method the new samples were taken whose readings already taken by some student before. There was an assumption that works on the same fabrics and will get the results so to get the coherency in the test. In this method it was considered to take sample test daily for 3-4 days and will check what the similarity in the results is. Thermal resistance Readings m2K/W Day 1 s5 s6 s7 5.25 1.3 3.2 1.29 1.38 1.2 2.33 6.01 3.7
Day 2
s5 s6 s7
1.7 -0.33 2.839
5.39 3.44 2.45
5.34 -0.55 3.042
day 3
s5 s6 s7
6.97 2.84 3.67
7.11 -1.3 0.13
7.42 2 0.4
day
s5
7.8
7.5
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s6 s7
-0.41 2
-1.3 5.8
-1 2.5
S5 S6 S7
340 110 228
100% cotton 100% cotton 100% cotton
3.7.5
Standard deviation In statistics theory Standard deviation normally represent by symbol .Normally the function of standard deviation is that how much variation is exist from the average. It can also be measured to see that how much it is variating from the mean values. A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, whereas high standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range of values. The standard deviation of variables, data set or probability distribution they are square of its variance. A useful property of standard deviation is that, unlike variance, it is expressed in the same units as the data. Standard deviation is a statistical value used to determine how spread out the data in a sample is, and how close individual data points are to the mean or average value of the sample. A standard deviation of a data set equal to zero indicates that all values in the set are the same. A larger value implies that the individual data points are farther from the mean value. In a normal distribution of data, also known as a bell curve, the majority of the data in the distribution approximately 68% will fall within plus or minus one standard deviation of the mean. For example, if the standard deviation of a data set is 2, the
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majority of data in the set will fall within 2 more or 2 less than the mean. Roughly 95.5% of normally distributed data is within two standard deviations of the mean, and over 99% are within three. To calculate the standard deviation, statisticians first calculate the mean value of all the data points. The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the total number of data points. Next, the deviation of each data point from the average is calculated by subtracting its value from the mean value. Each data point's deviation is squared, and the individual squared deviations are averaged together. The resulting value is known as the variance. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.xlvii 3.7.6 Standard Deviation Calculation
The standard deviation of Single layer, double layer and triple layer cannot be measured this is just because of the fact that all the values are represented in negative. To find the standard deviation it is necessary to calculate all the values having positive values. The standard deviation of per day is calculated for samples, s6, s7, s8 Standard deviation Formula
xlviii
First need to find the standard deviation per day of Samples D1

xlvii xlviii
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-standard-deviation.htm http://www.mathsrevision.net/gcse/pages.php?page=42
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Samples s5 s6 s7
Reading 1 5.25 1.3 3.2
Reading 2 1.29 1.38 1.2
Reading 3 2.33 6.01 3.7
2.053 2.695 1.322
Standard deviation D2
Samples
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
s5 s6 s7
1.7 -0.33 2.839
5.39 3.44 2.45
5.34 -0.55 3.042
2.11 2.24 0.300
Samples
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
s5 s6 s7
6.97 2.84 3.67
7.11 -1.3 -0.13
7.42 2 0.4
0.21 2.18 2.05
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Samples
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
s5 s6 s7
7.5 -0.41 2
7.5 -1.3 5.8
6 -1 2.5
0.964 0.452 2.064
After measuring the standard deviation, there is need to find the standard deviation of each sample in four days
Thermal resistance s5 Readings m2K/W Day 1 s5 5.25 1.29 2.33
Day 2
s5
1.7
5.39
5.34
day 3
s5
6.97
7.11
7.42
day 4
s5
7.8
7.5
The mean Standard deviation for s5 = 1.338

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Thermal resistance s6 Readings m2K/W Day 1 s6 1.3 1.38 6.01
Day 2
s6
-0.33
3.44
-0.55
day 3
s6
2.84
-1.3
day 4
s6
-0.41
-1.3
-1
The mean standard deviation for s6 =1.895
Thermal resistance s7 Readings . m2K/W Day 1 Day 2 day 3 s7 3.67 -0.13 0.4 s7 2.839 2.45 3.042 s7 3.2 1.2 3.7
day 4 s7 2 5.8 2.5
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The mean standard deviation for s7 =1.436
All the above standard deviation has been calculates with the help of Ms Excel the basic formula is the same. After calculating this there is need to find the variation of coefficient of the above data. 3.7.7 Coefficient of variation In statistics theory the coefficient of variation is a normal measure of probability distribution. It is also know as to classify or the variation coefficient. The absolute vale of coefficient of variation is also knows as relative standard variation. A coefficient of variation (CV) can be calculated and interpreted in two different settings analyzing a single variable Interpreting a model. The standard formulation of the CV, the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, applies in the single variable setting. In the modeling setting, the CV is calculated as the ratio of the root mean squared error (RMSE) to the mean of the dependent variable. In both settings, the CV is often presented as the given ratio multiplied by 100. The CV for a single variable aims to describe the dispersion of the variable in a way that does not depend on the variable's measurement unit. The higher the CV, the greater the dispersion in the variable. The CV for a model aims to describe the model fit in terms of the relative sizes of the squared residuals and outcome values. The lower the CV, the smaller the residuals relative to the predicted value. This is suggestive of a good model fit.xlix A coefficient of variation (CV) can be calculated and interpreted in two different settings: analyzing a single variable and interpreting a model. The standard formulation of the CV, the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, applies in the single variable setting. In the modeling setting, the CV is calculated as the ratio of the root mean squared error (RMSE) to the mean of the dependent variable. In both settings, the CV is often
xlix
http://www.graphpad.com/faq/viewfaq.cfm?faq=1088
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presented as the given ratio multiplied by 100. The CV for a single variable aims to describe the dispersion of the variable in a way that does not depend on the variable's measurement unit. The higher the CV, the greater the dispersion in the variable. The CV for a model aims to describe the model fit in terms of the relative sizes of the squared residuals and outcome values. The lower the CV, the smaller the residuals relative to the predicted value. This is suggestive of a good model fit. The CV for a variable can easily be calculated using the information from a typical variable summary (and sometimes the CV will be returned by default in the variable summary). We demonstrate below how to calculate the CV in Stat.l Formula of CV The coefficient of variation (CV) is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation mean : to the
Coefficient of variation calculation Below followings is the standard deviation for the whole 4 days of s5, s6, s7 Samples Variance (CV) S5 S6 S7 0.964 0.452 2.064 0.836 0.976 0.694
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/mult_pkg/faq/general/coefficient_of_variation.htm
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Thermal resistance Day 1

s5 s6 s7 6.01 5.25 3.2 2.33 1.3 1.29 1.38 1.2 3.7
Readings
Figure 32 : Thermal Resistance D1
Thermal Resistnace Day 2

s5 5.39 s6 s7 5.34
3.44 2.839 1.7 2.45
3.042
-0.33
3 -0.55
Figure 33 : Thermal resistance Day 2
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Thermal Resistance Day 3

s5 6.97 7.11 s6 s7 7.42
3.67 2.84 2 0.4 Readings -1.3 -0.13
Figure 34 : Thermal Resistance Day 3
Thermal Resistance Day 4

s5 s6 s7
7.8
7.5 5.8 6
2.5
-0.41
Readings
-1.3
-1
Figure 35 : Thermal Resistance Day 4
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3.8
Comparison on Sample wise according to days Sample: s5
Sample s5 Day 1 Thermal Resistance

Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 7.42 7.8 7.5 6
6.97 7.11 5.25 5.39 5.34
2.33 1.29
1.7
s5 D1
s5 D2
s5 D3
s5 D4
Figure 36 : Comparison of Samples s5 3.8.1 Explanation From this graph we can see that, there is no uniformity in the same sample for thermal resistance in uniform period of time. On day 1 these reading were taken on interval of 5 min, but there is no coherence in the readings. Same test repeated next day there was a major fluctuation in the readings. By changing the fabric on third day but still there was no satisfactory result.
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Thermal resitance S6
Reading 1 6.01 Reading 2 Reading 3
3.44 1.3 1.38
2.84 2
s6 D1
-0.33 s6 D2-0.55
s6 D3 -1.3
-0.41 s6 D4 -1.3 -1
Figure 37 : Comparison of Samples s6
The same method applied for measuring the thermal resistance of heavy fabrics, in this above results the results shows that there is not even single day uniformity among the result. It is to be noticed above that on D1 the initial readings starts from 1.3 and end up with reading scale 6.01 and on the D4 same fabric same structure and same properties and same condition it starts from -0.41 and ends up with -1 .
Thermal resitance S7
Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 5.8 3.7 2.839 1.2 0.4 s7 D1 s7 D2 -0.13 s7 D3 s7 D4 2.45 3.67 2 2.5
3.2
3.042
Figure 38 : Comparison of Samples s7

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3.9
Conclusion After taking the readings and the results were not enough to compare, because there is no uniformity in the results. The means values of the reading were going beyond the range, which give us an impact that to measure the results on the machine for thinner fabrics is not suitable. As far as the sample s5 is considered we got the uniformity in all the days just because of the reasons that the fabric is heavier and it can justify the readings of machine. In all 4 days we got approximately got the readings of same road. But for the fabrics s6, s7 we dint got the desired readings. Machine showed many times the same result but after reputation the results were gone out of the range
3.10 Mirror plate Testing In this type of experiment figure below explains the procedure of this experiment. A plastic mirror is used to make the air tight vacuum so no air can pass through in it. This step is just taken to give the machine a suitable environment.
Figure 39 : mirror plate Testing

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3.10.1 Working of this Model When applying this method by putting a glass on the main board of the machine so it can be airtight and waited for 5 minutes so it can come up to room temperature, then comes up with the following observations which are as follow. First make the normal setting of the machine Then put the glass on the main side of the machine Then waited for 5-10 minutes for making it near to room temperature Then put the fabric on the tray and gain waited for 5-10 min, because the temperature was again disturbed by the opening of glass. When applying the test it took normally more time than usual time The first result was good and near to the reality
3.10.2 Testing and observation of mirror testing plate
6.5 4.2 2.8
2 -3.5
Figure 40 : mirror plate testing s6
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As it is clear from the above graph this method is suggested by Prof Kysosev by putting mirror on the main sheet of the machine might this method will works. as it looks clear that there was no issue with the reading 1 but the same reading taken for the same fabric after interval of 5 min the resulted reading was out of order or out of range . The reading 3 and 4 shows no similarity in the reading. The grading was at difference of more than 1 point. After this testing of this method for another fabric which has normal values in normal test.
Thermal Resistance of s7
4.5 3.7
1.4
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3 -1.2
Reading 4
Figure 41: mirror plate testing s7 As it is again clear from the above graph that there is no uniformity showing in the above readings. Reading 1 and reading show some match but again in reading 3 just right after the testing of reading 2 the result came which shows no similarity in it.
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3.10.3 Drawback of this method This time machine took a long time First the result was near to original After repetition of this result the test was again in negative which hence proved again that this machine is not suitable for the lighter fabric. 3.11 Visiting the TUl lab Technical university is one of the world most reputed university in the field of technical studies. It is situated in a very small city name Liberec of check republic. Thousands of students works here in field of technical textile .they have giant laboratories for research and development. The main inventor of the apparatus Permetest machine Prof Hess, he also belongs to this university. It was really source of inspirational to meet that person who invented this smart machine for saving the time of mankind. Samples were being tested by sending them to TUl laboratory due to technical issues those readings were not taken properly .then it was again tried to take readings but this time for calculations of the same samples which readings were not coming in Monchengladbach .The fact after visiting the lab the machine was not there due to some conference . The laboratory was fully equipped with instruments and the Permetest test machine was put in cabin made of mirror and wood. The view of the lab is shown below in the figure.
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Figure 42 : TUl Lab
Description of the lab As clear from the above image that the machine has also pre arrangement before the testing starts. It has to be air vacuumed so it wont affect the sensor of the plates which actually determines the results of thermal and air permeability. Comparison of the labs Hs vs. TUl TUl lab is air vacuumed and no air effect the apparatus In Hs the apparatus is put openly near window which effects its sensor They put a holding glass while in measuring in TUl, but here in Hs no specified glass is used for measuring. 3.12 Reproducibility Of the measurements.
There is a natural phenomenon that human body generate heat due to system of its metabolism which maintains the thermal factor of the body with external environment . The factor of being feels cold or hot its not mainly calibrated with body sensor it depends up the temperature of the air .
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After all the measurements and testing of the samples, by focusing on the methods especially designed to measure the thermal resistance of lighter fabrics in continuous form. The reproducibility is impossible because of the fact that the results are not in a constant shape readings. The fabrics have by default thermal resistance which was measured by the manufacturer but unable to find out here on this machine. There readings cannot support them in reproduce in a new shape. Thermal resistance of the tested sample they have their resistance in them but unable to reproduce them by measuring and testing different method unless there should be a significance change in the machine physical environment. the other possibility of measuring the resistance of heavier fabrics by choosing other samples and having a thick layer . Thermal comfort term used by American society of heating refrigerating and air conditioning engineers li . Thermal comfort is defined in various ways as per ASHRAE it is defined as the state of mind in human that express satisfaction with surrounding environment. Thermal comfort is affected by various factors Conduction Convection Radiation Evaporation As all of these points were explained in detail in above chapters .. Thermal comfort makes the body comfortable when a body slightly changing the inner temperature with respect to its surroundings the factor which making it not comfortable is called discomfort factor . This factor a raised of the mixing of high temperature and high humidity with respect to its surroundings .
li
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_comfort
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Chapter: Conclusion Thermal Resistance The main focus area of this project is to find out the factor affecting the thermal resistance of Permetest machine. Thermal resistance is a concept taken from thermal comfort of human body. The ingredients which affect the human thermal factors are
Solar radiation Air movement Humidity Training Exercise As all of the above factors have been explained in detail in previous chapters. Definition Thermal resistance is the property of heat which is used to calculate the temperature variation in on an object which resist flow of heat in that object. As clear from the testing in last chapters that this machine is not suitable for measuring the Thermal resistance of lighter fabric and its reading is not coming smoothly in same spam of period. There were various method applied to find out the thermal resistance of lighter fabrics such that
Normal way method Single layer method Double layer method Triple layer method Episodic method Plate (mirror) method
As all of the method were discussed in detailed with their readings and tried to show the method with the help of graph and comparison.
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Normal Method In normal method the test were taken on the systematic way as per instruction of how to take test in machine. Initially samples were put in the plate for measuring the thermal resistance according to their weight. Samples with lighter weight all of them were given the negative values which shows that these samples have no thermal resistance.
Readings 1 2 3
S1 -5.16 -9.56 -6.56
S2 -4.16 -8.46 -7.9
As its clear that no values are being near to the real value these samples have weight round 200-225 grams per square meter. As shown by above then further measuring methods were being used, which might be able to help to measure the thermal resistance of the lighter fabrics. Layer Methods In this method the experiment were taken on more no of samples and with the help of Single layer Double layer Triple layer The same samples were cut into three layers and readings were taken with single layer, double layer and triple layers. The result and graph explained in detail in above chapters
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S2 measurements with respect to layers Readings 1 2 3 Single layer -5.16 -9.56 -6.56 Double layer -8.5 -7.5 -2.5 Triple layer -3.7 8.9 -1.4
S3 measurements with respect to layers Readings 1 2 3 Single layer -4.8 -2.3 --3.8 Double layer -3.5 -7.6 -9.5 Triple layer -3.8 -1.5 -4.5
After measuring this samples reading again the conclusion was the same and might be the fabrics were not good enough that they have some resistance. This time new method was being tried with having some more weight by method called episodic method. In this method samples were tested on daily basis for 4 days in a week of interval of 1 hour. This time this study was taken on 3 samples which having a weight range of 270-35o grams per square meter. Below following is the data of the measured samples in four consecutive days which will also explain the relation with thermal resistance.
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Episodic method This was a detailed testing method to check the thermal resistance of more fabrics but unfortunately there was not even a single reading giving the accurate results. This method was closely monitored with the daily inspection of machine and readings. A lot of time is being consumed to measure the thermal resistance of different fabrics.
Thermal resistance Readings m2K/W Day 1 s5 s6 s7 5.25 1.3 3.2 1.29 1.38 1.2 2.33 6.01 3.7
Day 2
s5 s6 s7
1.7 -0.33 2.839
5.39 3.44 2.45
5.34 -0.55 3.042
day 3
s5 s6 s7
6.97 2.84 3.67
7.11 -1.3 -0.13
7.42 2 0.4
day 4
s5 s6 s7
7.8 -0.41 2
7.5 -1.3 5.8
6 -1 2.5
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After measuring this method there was another method applied to check the thermal resistance by putting a glass on the machine to test the same samples
Mirror plate Testing This was the final method to measure the thermal resistance of same fabrics by putting the mirror on the machine front and let the machine put for hold for 5-10 min so it get some air tight . This was done just because that no air temperature will affect the machine internally and externally. Initially this method works but it took so much time and in the end the result were also not the same. As far the above machine results there was some problems which can be implemented might it can affect the readings better The machine should be place in special room or room in a room like no air or other factors can affect its sensors. As now this machine is placed open near to window which affects it sensor which is so much sensitive to the air. Which might plays a role not giving a good result There should be a plate made of mirror placed on front side of the machine If there will be a plate on front of the machine might the other atmospheric factors will not affect the sensors of the machine. There will be a chance there is function error in the heat sensor of the machine which needs to be changed. The sensor might be changes there are two possibilities Sensors are old enough Sensors should be cleaned
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Eierman K., Thermal condictivity of high polyemers [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Journal of polymer sciencce part c Polymer Symposia , 1972. Haghi A.K Factors effecting water vapor transport through fibers [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Journal of Theroretical and applied mechanics, 2003. Hes L and Dolezal I , New method and equipment for measuring thermal properties of Textiles [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Textile mach , 1989. Institute Hohenstein Clothing phsysiological reasearch in service of wear comfort [Book]. - Germany : Germany Editor , 2009. Irkova B.K and Drasarova J.. Description of manual threads interlacing in builiding [Journal]. - Liberec, Czech Republic. : 7th International Conference - TEXSCI 2010, 2010. KC Parsons The effect og gender , acclimation state the opportunity to adjust clothing and physicla disability on requirement for thermakl comfort [Book]. - [s.l.] : Energy and building , 2002. krevelen D.W . and Hoftyzer , P.J Properties of polymers, correlations with chemical strutcure [Book]. - [s.l.] : Elsevier, 1972. Kunz Gracel l . Apparel manufacturing [Book]. - [s.l.] : Prentice Hall., 2004. l Hes Fundaments of design of fabrics and garments with demanded thermophysiological comfort [Conference] // International round table clothing comfort . - Romania : [s.n.], 2009. Li M., D., Zhang W., and Tag x., Factor analysis on subjective attribute affecting knitted fabric's comfort sensation [Conference] // Data base technology and applications. - 2009. Militky j. and Havrdova Porosity and air permeability of composite clean roon textle [Journal]. - [s.l.] : International journal of clothing science and technology , 2011.
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MK Epps HHand Song Thermal transmittance and air permeability of plain weave fabrics [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Textle research journal , 1992. Norman R.S Hollies Ralph F . Goldman Clothing Comfort ( Interaction of Thermal Ventilation consturtion and Assessment factors [Book]. - United states of America : Ann Arbor science . Papkov SP Some aspect of comfort evaluation of clothing made from fabric based on synthetic fibers [Conference]. - [s.l.] : Fiber chemistry , 1981. Productivity development team P Idetifying waste on the shopfloor [Book]. - [s.l.] : Productivity Press, 2003. R.M Crow Heat and moisture transfer in clothing system . Transfer through materials [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Defence research establishment , 2003. Ruckman J.E ., Murray and Choi H.S.,, Engineering of clothing system for improved thermophysiological comfort [Journal]. - [s.l.] : International journal of clothing science and technology , 1999. Sadikoglu T.G., Effect on Comfort Properties of Using Superabsorbent Fibres in Nonwoven Interlinings [Journal]. - [s.l.] : FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe July / September, 2005. Saville BP Physical testing of Textile [Book]. - washington : The Textile Institute , 2002. Schacher L.Adolphe D., and Drean j.-Y Comparison between thermal insulation and therman properties of classical and microfiber polyester fabrics [Journal]. - Kc : Internal jounral of clothing science and technolog, 2002. Voborova J., Garg, A., Neckar, B. , Ibrahim, S. Yarn Properties Measurement: An Optical Approach. in 2nd International Textile, clothing and Design Conferenc [Journal]. - Crotia : Magic World of Textiles 2004. Dubrovnik, , 2004. y. Li A. M., Holcombe B.v Fiber hygrosopicity and perceptions of dampness [Journal]. [s.l.] : Physical menhanism Textile researh , 1995.
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Yoshihiroa Y., Hiroakia , Y., and Hajimeb Effectove therman condctivity of palin weave fabric and its composite material made from high strength fibers [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Journal of Textile engineering , 2008. Yoshihiroa Y., Hiroakia, Y., and Hajimeb, M.,, Effective Thermal Conductivity of Plain Weave Fabric and its Composite Material Made from High Strength Fibers. [Journal]. - [s.l.] : Journal of Textile Engineering,, 2008. Zhu F., and Li, K., Determining Effective Thermal Conductivity of Fabrics by Using Fractal Method. [Journal]. - [s.l.] : International Journal of Thermophysics , 2010.
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Statement
I herewith declare that I have completed the present thesis by myself and without use of any aids other than listed. All passages that were taken wither directly or mutatis mutandis from publish and non published sources have been marked as such. The thesis has never been submitted to a different examination authority in the same or similar form Monchengladbach Date:
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ABSTRACT
This research mainly aspires to find out the best and most useful method to find out the accurate thermal resistance by associating each method to find the best solution. While first chapter is giving detail external factors which are affecting the thermal comfort of human body and its relation with its body and environment. Second chapter is giving detailed explanation of the machine what are the ways to handle the machine, while chapter 3 is the area focused of the practical work to find out the methods and there result about calculating the thermal resistance of the lighter fabrics. Chapter 4 is the conclusion of the whole study or crux of whole study , that what are the remedies to handle to machine to get the desired results.

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HS Niederrhein 1

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Chapter: Machine Introduction ......................................................................................................... 47 2.1 Machine requirements. .......................................................................................................... 47

Practical Work .................................................................................................................................... 47 2.2 Introduction of Permetest Machine ...................................................................................... 47

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Chapter: Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 88

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HS Niederrhein 6 5 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 93

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Fibres 1960-1980 (Daily News Record 1975; Textile Organ 1975).

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Thermo-physiological Comfort Skin Sensational Comfort

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Journal of Fiber Bioengineering & Informatics 2008: p. 968-976..

Thermal comfort natural phenomenon

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4. Pores filled by air 5. Pores filled by moisture

of knitted fabrics. International Journal of Thermal Science, 2007. 46(12): p. 1318-1322

Y. Li, A., Plante, A. M., Holcombe,

B. V., Fiber Hygroscopicity and Perceptions of

Thermal balance and protection Ralph F. Goldman PhD 01760

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Exchange of radiation Air movement Humidity Activity Clothing

Resistance in series and parallel

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Energy cost (watts ) 70 90 140-175 420-545 445-545 700-770 1400-1500

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Here is need to explain the mechanism of heat loss system in body

Figure 4 : Conduction Heat flowxviii

Physical Testing of Textile BP Saville http://www.aos.wisc.edu/~aalopez/aos101/wk5/heatrans.jpg

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Figure 7 : Evaporation system in Human bodyxxii

Physical Testing of Textiles BP Saville http://www.xyktf.com/en_ktf.asp

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Figure 10 : structure of Cotton Fibrexxvii

Figure 11: Molecular structure of Cotton xxviii

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Figure 12 : Structure of polyester fibres xxix

POLYESTER FIBERS Updated: April, 2004- Raghavendra R. Hegde, Atul Dahiya, M. G.

Kamath(Ramaiah Kotra and Xiao Gao)

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Figure 13: Wool structure xxxi

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Figure 14 : Heat Balance xxxii

Level of health types of activities

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