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RADIOACTIVITY: The property possessed by some elements (such as uranium) of spontaneously emitting energy in the form of radiation as a result of the decay (or disintegration) of an unstable atom. Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles or radiation. The emission is spontaneous emission of ionizing radiation as a consequence of a nuclear reaction, or directly from the breakdown of an unstable nucleus; The radiation so emitted; including gamma rays, alpha particles, neutrons, electrons, positrons, etc. Radioactivity is also the term used to describe the rate at which radioactive material emits radiation. Another way Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the nucleus. When the nucleus loses a neutron, it gives off energy and is said to be radioactive. Radioactivity is the release of energy and matter that results from changes in the nucleus of an atom. RADIATION UNITS: Many units have been used to express different amounts of radiation. The units often used follow: Disintegration per second: May be defined as the number of radioactive disintegration occurring each second for a given amount of radioactive material. This equals N, where N is the number of atoms present and is the radioactive decay constant giving the probability of decay of the atom in question. Ci, curie: A unit of radioactivity equal to the amount of a radioactive isotope that decays at the rate of 37,000,000,000 disintegrations per second. This unit was defined so that 1g of natural radium together with its decay products amounted to 1 curie. R, roentgen: Originally defined as the amount of gamma or X radiation that produced by ionization 1 electrostatic unit of electricity in 1 cc of dry air at 0 oC and atmospheric pressure. Rad (for radiation absorbed dose): May be defined as that quantity of radiation that leads to the absorption of 100 ergs/g of the absorbing material for the body tissue this closely matches the definition of the rap. Gy, gray: the SI unit of energy absorbed from ionizing radiation; equal to the absorption of one joule of radiation energy by one kilogram of matter; one gray equals 100 rad. Rem(rontgen equivalent man): may be defined as that quantity of radiation that produces the same biological damage in man as one rep of gamma radiation.

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Becquerel: Radioactivity arises from the disintegration of unstable atoms and is expressed in units like the Becquerel (Bq) .One Becquerel (Bq) corresponds to 1 disintegration (transformation) per second. Sievert (Sv): Special dosimetric units are used in radiation protection to limit radiation exposure of nuclear workers and the public. These units include the rem and sievert (SI unit), which apply to single and mixed radiations and are measures of potential harm to humans. 1 sievert (Sv) =100rem. TYPES RADIATION: Radiation occurs when energy is emitted by a source and then travels through a medium, such as air, until it is absorbed by matter. Radiation can be described as two basic types, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation Some types of radiation have enough energy that they can knock electrons out of their orbits around atoms, upsetting the electron/proton balance and giving the atom a positive charge. Electrically charged molecules and atoms are called ions. The radiation that can produce ions is called ionizing radiation. There are many types of ionizing radiation. The following are some of the relevant ones: Alpha radiation: Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, and since they have no electrons, carry a positive charge. Due to their size and charge, alpha particles are barely able to penetrate skin and can be stopped completely by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation: Beta radiation consists of fast moving electrons ejected from the nucleus of an atom. Beta radiation has a negative charge and is about 1/7000th the size of an alpha particle and so is more penetrating. However, it can still be stopped by a small amount of shielding, such as a sheet of plastic. Gamma radiation: Gamma radiation is a very penetrating type of radiation. It is usually emitted immediately after the ejection of an alpha or beta particle from the nucleus of an atom. Because it has no mass or charge, it can pass through the human body, but will be absorbed by denser materials such as concrete or lead. Cosmic radiation: Cosmic radiation is usually fast moving particles that exist in space and originate from a variety of sources, including the sun and other celestial events in the universe. Cosmic rays are mostly protons but can be other particles or wave energy. X-rays: X-rays are a form of radiation similar to gamma radiation but they are produced mainly by artificial means rather than from radioactive substances.

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Neutron radiation: Neutron radiation occurs when neutrons are ejected from the nucleus by nuclear fission and other processes. The nuclear chain reaction is an example of nuclear fission, where a neutron being ejected from one fissioned atom will cause another atom to fission, ejecting more neutrons. Unlike other radiations, neutron radiation is absorbed by materials with lots of hydrogen atoms, like paraffin wax and plastics. Non-ionizing radiation People use and are exposed to non-ionizing radiation sources every day. This form of radiation does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. Microwave ovens, global positioning systems, cellular telephones, television stations, FM and AM radio, baby monitors, cordless phones, garage-door openers, and ham radios all make use of non-ionizing radiation. Other forms include the earths magnetic field, as well as magnetic field exposure from proximity to transmission lines, household wiring and electric appliances. These are defined as extremely low-frequency (ELF) waves. The non-ionising radiation are of following types Microwave radiation(telecommunication and heating food) Infrared radiation(infrared lamps to keep food warm in restaurants) Radio waves(broadcasting) SOURCES OF RADIATION: There are two major sources of radiation. 1. NATURAL SOURCES 2. HUMAN SOURCES NATURAL RADIATION: The three major sources of naturally occurring radiation are: I. II. III. cosmic radiation sources in the earth's crust, also referred to as terrestrial radiation sources in the human body, also referred to as internal sources.

Cosmic radiation comes from the sun and outer space and consists of positively charged particles, as well as gamma radiation. At sea level, the average cosmic radiation dose is about 26 mrem per year. At higher elevations the amount of atmosphere shielding cosmic rays decreases and thus the dose increases. The average dose in the United States is approximately 28 mrem/year.

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There are natural sources of radiation in the ground, rocks, building materials and drinking water supplies. This is called terrestrial radiation. Some of the contributors to terrestrial sources are natural radium, uranium and thorium. Radon gas is a current health concern. This gas is from the decay of natural uranium in soil. Radon, which emits alpha radiation, rises from the soil under houses and can build up in homes, particularly well-insulated homes. In the USA, the average effective whole body dose from radon is about 200 mrem per year while the lungs receive 2000 mrem/year. Our bodies also contain natural radionuclides. Potassium 40 is one example. The total average dose is approximately 40 mrem/year.

HUMAN SOURCES: The difference between man-made sources of radiation and naturally occurring sources is the place from which the radiation originates. The following information briefly describes some examples of human-made radiation sources. Medical radiation sources X rays are identical to gamma rays; however, they are produced by a different mechanism. X rays are an ionizing radiation hazard. A typical radiation dose from a chest x ray is about 10 mrem. The total average dose from medical x rays is 40 mrem in a year. In addition to x rays, radioactive isotopes are used in medicine for diagnosis and therapy. The total average dose is 14 mrem in a year. Consumer products Examples include TV's, older luminous dial watches, some smoke detectors, and lantern mantles. This dose is relatively small as compared to other naturally occurring sources of radiation and averages 10 mrem in a year. Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons Another man-made source of radiation includes residual fallout from atmospheric nuclear weapons testing in the 1950's and early 1960's. Atmospheric testing is now banned by most nations. The average dose from residual fallout is about 2 mrem in a year. Industrial uses Industrial uses of radiation include x-ray machines and radioactive sources (radiography) used to test pipe welds, bore-holes, etc. Most people receive little if any dose from these sources. HARMFUL EFFECTS OF RADIATION: When ionizing radiation happen to pass through body tissue, it is able to split the molecules of the tissue into ions or free radicals, as the examples of water molecules. These fragments may

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later combine to form new chemical compounds. Ionizing radiation can thus split molecules into useless or reactive fragments and allow the formation of other reactive compounds. This effect can be classified into two groups DIRECT EFFECTS: fragmentation of biologically important molecules such as DNA molecules in the cell nucleus. Direct action occurs when alpha particles, beta particles or x-rays create ions which physically break one or both of the sugar phosphate backbones or break the base pairs of the DNA. The base pairs adenine, thymine guanine and cytosine are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. Adenine always pairs with thymine (except in RNA where thymine is substituted by uracil) and guanine always pairs with cytosine. The bonding of these base pairs can also be affected by the direct action of ionizing .alpha particle breaks the backbone of the DNA, the beta particle breaks hydrogen bonds, and X-rays damage bases when in fact all three types of radiation can cause all three types of direct damage. the sign of direct effect Damage the molecules and genes, Interrupt the cell division; the cell may be reproductively dead; skins burn etc.
INDIRECT EFFECTS: fragmentation of biologically less vital molecules(such as water) with

formation of reactive ions or free radicals that can later affect more important molecules and impair their usefulness. When the initial ionization event begins with water, to form free radicals (a highly reactive chemical species with an unpaired electron in its valance shell), that cause a cascade of biological responses in macromolecules, the mechanism is collectively called an indirect effect. The main sign of indirect effect are Tissue damage somatic effect etc. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS: From a biological point of view ,radiation effects are also classified as two classes, such as SOMATIC EFFECTS: Somatic effects have been the effects on the body itself and have been of direct concern to the person exposed to the radiation. GENITIC EFFECTS: Genetic effects have been those involving mutations of the chromosomes or genes in sex cells. MEDICAL EFFECTS: These are divided into two types, such as DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS: where the serverity of the effect increases with the doses and there is a threshold dose below which no detrimental effects are seen.These are produced by relatively high doses. The effects very considerably from one organ to another and the more radiation sensitive tissues or organs are the ovaries, testes, bone marrow and the lens of the eye. STOCHASTIC EFFECTS: That are statistical or random in nature and occur(stochastic) and occur with a probability that depends on the radiation dose. The probability of the effect

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occurring is very low at low doses and it is assumed to be proportional to the doses. There two types of stochastic effects. The first may result in the induction of cancer in the exposed person(somatic).The second may be result in genetic(heredity) disorders. Effects of Radiation Exposure on Human Health or Radiation Sickness Although a dose of just 25 rems causes some detectable changes in blood, doses to near 100 rems usually have no immediate harmful effects. Doses above 100 rems cause the first signs of radiation sickness including: nausea vomiting headache some loss of white blood cells Doses of 300 rems or more cause temporary hair loss, but also more significant internal harm, including damage to nerve cells and the cells that line the digestive tract. Severe loss of white blood cells, which are the body's main defense against infection, makes radiation victims highly vulnerable to disease. Radiation also reduces production of blood platelets, which aid blood clotting, so victims of radiation sickness are also vulnerable to hemorrhaging. Half of all people exposed to 450 rems die, and doses of 800 rems or more are always fatal. Besides the symptoms mentioned above, these people also suffer from fever and diarrhea. As of yet, there is no effective treatment--so death occurs within two to fourteen days. In time, for survivors, diseases such as leukemia (cancer of the blood), lung cancer, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, and cancers of other organs can appear due to the radiation received. ISOTOPES AND RADIOISOTOPES: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons. In other words, the atoms have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in the nucleus. Examples: Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are both isotopes of carbon, one with 6 neutrons and one with 8 neutrons (both with 6 protons). Elements like to have an equal number of protons and neutrons because this makes them the most stable. Stable atoms have a binding energy that is strong enough to hold the protons and neutrons together. Even if an atom has an additional neutron or two it may remain stable. However, an additional neutron or two may upset the binding energy and cause the atom to become unstable. In an unstable atom, the nucleus changes by giving off a neutron to get back to a balanced state. As the unstable nucleus changes, it gives off radiation and is said to be radioactive. Radioactive isotopes are often called radioisotopes.

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USES OF ISOTOPES OR RADIOISOTOPES IN FOOD AND AGRICULTURE: Isotope represents a tool, which can do certain jobs better, easier, quicker, more simply, and cheaper than competitive methods. Some measurements could not be done at all without the use of isotope, as there are no alternative methods available. Isotopes are ideal tool for use in analysis, a single atom can be detected when using radioactive isotopes, as compared to chemical methods in which the detection limit of an element is enhanced a million times. Stable isotopes also can be detected with great accuracy nowadays, although not quite with the same sensitivity as radiation emitting (radioactive isotopes). Most important, especially in biological and medical work, is that radioisotopes can be located during a biological process, the functioning of certain glands also can be checked, by first administering a small amount of a radioisotope and then following the path of this compound in the body simply by measuring the radiation from the outside. Larger sources, some 1,000,000 times stronger, which emit penetrating radiation, can be used as a portable X-ray unit to check welds in underground pipelines, such sources also are used for certain analysis especially suited for work in the field, such as in geology. Very large sources, some 1000 million times stronger than the activities used as tracers, can destroy bacteria or other spoilage organisms in food, can be used for sterilization of medical sutures or syringes or can impart specific desirable properties to some materials. They find wide application in practically all fields of science and industry. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE: In agricultural research isotopes are a basic tool without which research in molecular biology could not be done. The main agricultural problems isotopes and radiation are helping to solve are to determine conditions necessary for optimizing fertilizer and water use efficiency, as well as biological nitrogen fixation: i) breed high performance, well adapted and disease resistant agricultural and horticultural crop varieties using radiation induced mutations; ii)eradicate or control insect pests using insects that have been radiation sterilized or genetically altered; iii) improve reproductive performance, nutritional status, and health of animals using radioimmunoassay and related techniques, as well as isotopic tracers; iv) reduce food borne diseases and extend shelf-life using radiation and reduce pollution from pesticides and agrochemicals. CROP PRODUCTION: A good crop needs soil with adequate amounts of nutrients and moisture. Nuclear techniques are ideal tools for measuring the efficiency of fertilizer use by crops and for keeping a watch in the moisture contents. In modern agriculture, the use of fertilizers is essential to maximize crop yields, through biological process, that legumes fix nitrogen can provide high protein for human and animal consumption and also increase nitrogen in soils. The water plant Azolla, for example, can derive 80-90 per cent of its nitrogen by fixation, and is valuable in providing nitrogen to paddy rice crop, in this way obtain maximum benefits from this unique biological process, isotopes are used to find the amount of nitrogen that

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a plant can fix and how this can be improved. Isotope techniques are an ideal tool to distinguish nitrogen derived from the atmosphere, soil and applied fertilizer. Water is the most important limiting factor for crop production in many areas of the world. The efficient use of water in irrigation systems requires continuous monitoring of the moisture content of soil. Neutron moisture gauges are ideal instruments for this purpose and help soil physicists to make the best use of limited water resources. Through these methods, traditional irrigation methods are improved and in some cases up to 10 per cent of the water can be saved. AGROCHEMICALS: Isotopes are ideal tools for studying the behaviour, breakdown, and residues of agrochemicals in soil, water plant, animals and their products. As a result of their use, it has been possible to devise safer ways to apply agrochemicals and safer formulations which are more effective in controlling pests of promoting growth, as well as less harmful to health and the environment. MUTATION: For centuries, mankind tried every possible way to improve quantity and quality of crops. Natural evolution results from spontaneous mutation and selection of the fittest mutants. The rate of mutation occurrence can be multiplied by radiation treatment thereby accelerating evolution and the selection of superior crops. Over the last 50 years, a number of plant breeding programmes have included mutation induction with radiation or chemicals to breed improved crops. Physical mutagens like X-ray, gamma rays or fast neutrons are most frequently applied and their use has resulted in the highest number of improved mutant crops. The number of induced mutant derived crop varieties now exceeds 1500 worldwide with billions of dollars added to farmer's incomes annually. i) IMPROVED LODGING RESISTANCE: The derived properties are a reduction in plant height and a stiffer stem, which can withstand rain and storm. ii) CHANGED MATURING TIMES: Early maturing is important to escape frost, pests etc. or simply to make room in the field for other crops. iii) INCREASED DISEASE RESISTANCE: Becoming very important in attempts to decrease the use of chemicals which are used against pests to protect the environment. iv) INCREASED YIELDS: The yield of many crop varieties has been increased many fold after mutation breeding using nuclear techniques. v) IMPROVED AGRONOMIC CHARACTERS: For example, more winter hardiness, greater tolerance against heat, or generally better adaptability to available soil conditions. vi) IMPROVED SEED CHARACTERISTICS: Improvement of nutritional value (protein or oil content), backing and melting qualities, or reduction in cooking time. Radioisotope have done remarkable work in the field of agriculture in the country. Through the use of radioisotope, the four agriculture centres of PAEC have evolved many varieties of wheat,

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rice, sugarcane, chickpea, etc. It has been estimated that PAEC's agriculture centres have released more than 30 genotypes of these crops, which are growing in the four provinces of the country and have contributed substantially in the agricultural development of the country. FOOD PRESERVATION: First priorities in the world is to have enough healthy food for everybody. For thousands of years, this problem has been with us and preservation methods have evolved from the earliest days of sun drying to salting, smoking, canning, freezing, heating and the addition of chemicals. A relatively new commercial process, food irradiation has been studied more thoroughly than any other food technology. More than 40 years of research have shown conclusively that there are no adverse effects from the consumption of irradiated food. In fact, for many foods, the preservation of food by irradiation has proved to be by far the best method. All necessary rules and regulations to irradiate certain foods have been adopted by the relevant international authorities, but there is still some public reluctance over the acceptance of such foods. In the future, food irradiation will certainly develop to be one of the great benefits for mankind, and food preservation by irradiation will be of greatest importance to food products grown in developing countries. The benefits of using irradiation, it can kill viable organisms and specific, non-spore forming, pathogenic micro-organisms such as salmonella, or it can interfere with physiological processes, for instance it can be used for sprout inhibition of potatoes or for extending the shelf life of fresh fruit. In short, irradiation of food is an alternative, and in some cases, the only methods to: i) eliminate many health risks in food; ii) enhance the quality of fresh produce; iii) improve the economy of food production and distribution; iv) reduce losses during storage or transportation and disinfest stored products such as grain, beans, dried fruit, and dried fish. RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE: A period of time in which half the nuclei of a species of radioactive substance would decay or The half-life period is the time in which half of a certain amount of radioactive material will decay. Half-life, abbreviated t, is the period of time it takes for the amount of a substance undergoing decay to decrease by half. The name was originally used to describe a characteristic of unstable atoms (radioactive decay), but it may apply to any quantity which follows a set-rate decay. Another way The term half-life is defined as the time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive material to disintegrate. Half-lives for various radioisotopes can range from a few microseconds to billions of years.e.g Polonium-215 half-life 0.0018 seconds, Sodium-24 half-life 15 hours, Iodine-131 half-life 8.07 days etc.

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BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE: The biological half-life or elimination half-life of a substance is the time it takes for a substance (for example a metabolite, drug, signalling molecule, radioactive nuclide, or other substance) to lose half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiologic activity, as per the MeSH(Medical Subject Headings) definition. In a medical context, half-life may also describe the time it takes for the blood plasma concentration of a substance to halve ("plasma half-life") its steady-state. The relationship between the biological and plasma half-lives of a substance can be complex depending on the substance in question, due to factors including accumulation in tissues, active metabolites, and receptor interactions. Biological half-life is an important pharmacokinetic parameter and is usually denoted by the abbreviation t Examples of biological half-lives Polonium in the body has a biological half-life of about 30 to 50 days. Caesium in the body has a biological half-life of about one to four months. Mercury (as methylmercury) in the body has a half-life of about 65 days.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE: Radioactive waste is any material that is either radioactive itself or is contaminated by radioactivity, for which no further use is envisaged. Radioactive wastes are usually byproducts of nuclear power generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology, such as research and medicine. Radioactive waste is hazardous to most forms of life and the environment, and is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health and the environment. CATEGORIES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES: In Bangladesh there is currently no grand unified classification system for radioactive waste. However for practical purposes radioactive waste is classified into five different categories, such as very low level,A,B,C and S, These are given below Very low level: Very low level Radioactive waste is defined as having radioactivity content greater than for exempt waste but less than upper limit specified in the IAEA document. Category A: Cover solid radioactive waste with mainly beta or gamma emitting radionuclides of short half-life. This category of waste will generally comprise lightly contaminated items such as paper, cardboard, plastics, rags, protective clothing, glassware, laboratory trash or equipment,

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certain consumer products and industrial tools or equipment. It may also comprise lightly contaminated bulk waste from mineral processing or high contaminated soils. Category B: Cover solid waste and shielded sources with considerably higher activities of beta or gamma emitting radionuclides than Category A waste. long lived alpha emitting radionuclides should be at relatively low levels. Thus category of waste typically comprise gauges and scaled sources used in industry, medical diagnostic and therapeutic sources or devices and small items of contaminated equipment. Category C: Covers solid waste containing alpha or gamma emitting radionuclides with activity concentration similar to those for Category B ,this waste typically will comprise bulk materials such as those arising from down streaming processing of radioactive minerals, significantly contaminated soils or large individual items of contaminated plant or equipment for which conditioning would prove to be impractical. Category S: Covers waste that does not meet the specification of category A,B or C. Typically this category will comprise sealed sources, gauges or bulk waste which contains radionuclides at higher concentrations than are allow able under category A,B or C. waste within category S is unacceptable for near surface disposal and must be retained in storage until an alternative disposal method is available. Radioactive waste classified as category A,B and C under the Bangladesh scheme is low level or short-lived intermediate level radioactive waste ,according to the IAEA classification. Category S waste is analogous to long-lived intermediate level radioactive waste. TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE: On the basis of amount of Radioactive Waste are classified three classes such as Low-level waste Low level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. Low-level wastes include paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. Materials that originate from any region of an Active Area are commonly designated as LLW as a precautionary measure even if there is with only a remote possibility of being contaminated with radioactive materials. Such LLW typically exhibits no higher radioactivity than one would expect from the same material disposed of in a non-active area, such as a normal office block. Some high-activity LLW requires shielding during handling and transport but most LLW is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. Low-level waste is divided into four classes: class A, class B, class C, and Greater Than Class C (GTCC).

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Intermediate-level waste Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and in some cases requires shielding. Intermediate-level wastes includes resins ,chemical sludge and metal reactor nuclear fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. As a general rule, short-lived waste (mainly non-fuel materials from reactors) is buried in shallow repositories, while long-lived waste (from fuel and fuel reprocessing) is deposited in geological repository. U.S. regulations do not define this category of waste; the term is used in Europe and elsewhere High-level waste High-level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors. It contains fission products and trans uranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and often thermally hot. HLW accounts for over 95 percent of the total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear electricity generation. The amount of HLW worldwide is currently increasing by about 12,000 metric tons every year, which is the equivalent to about 100 double-decker buses or a two-story structure with a footprint the size of a basketball court. A 1000-MW nuclear power plant produces about 27 tones of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICY: In Bangladesh radioactive waste management policy and regulatory frame work is underpinned by international recommendations made by the international commission on radiological protection(ICRP) and national recommendation made by BAEC on radiation protection principles and criteria. It has the principal aims of ensuring that: Radioactive waste are not unnecessarily created. Such wastes as are created are safely and appropriately managed and treated. They are then safely disposed of at appropriate times and in appropriate ways. So as to safeguard the interests of existing and future generations and wider environment and in a manner that commands public confidence and task due account of costs. This similar to the fundamental principal of IAEA consistence with the concept of sustainable development thatRadioactive waste shall be managed in such a way that predicted impacts on the health of future generation will not be greater than relevant level of impact that are acceptable today. The licensees shall a)ensure that the activity and volume of any radioactive waste that result from the sources for which they are responsible be kept to the minimum practicable and that the waste be managed i.e collected, handled, treated, conditioned, transported, stored and disposed of in accordance with the requirements of the standards and any other applicable standard and b)segregate and treat separately if appropriate different types of radioactive waste where

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warranted by differences in factors such as radionuclide content, half-life, concentration, volume and physical and chemical properties, talking into account the available options for waste disposal. PRINCIPLES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT: Basic principles of radioactive waste management: A strategy should be produced and implemented for managing radioactive waste on a site. This should be consistent with government policy, including the governments overall policy aims on sustainable development, should take into account the possible consequences for present and future generations and should consider the environment and non-human species. Where reasonably practicable, radioactive waste generation should be prevented or minimized, both in terms of quantity and activity. The accumulation of radioactive waste on site should be minimized. Characterization and segregation of radioactive waste should be used to help ensure subsequent management is safe and effective. Radioactive waste should be stored using good engineering practice and in a passively safe condition. Radioactive waste should be processed into a passively safe state as soon as is reasonably practical. Information that might be required now and in the future for the safe management of radioactive waste should be recorded and preserved. THE STORAGE / DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE: The production of wastes by nuclear power, its storage and handling are of great concern to the public. There are three levels of nuclear waste, low activity or low level, intermediate activity or intermediate level and high activity or high level wastes.
LOW LEVEL WASTE

Low level waste include materials that are used to handle nuclear material such as radiation suits and laboratory equipment. They are normally stored for up to 15 years in secure storage and then, after careful packaging they can be disposed of as normal waste. However, there is disagreement over the way the waste is disposed. For example, The British and Irish Governments do not agree on the disposal of low level radioactive material in the Irish Sea

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INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE

These are much bulkier materials and are characterized by low heat emission. They contain metal fuel cladding, chemical sludges and other radioactive wastes. The waste is first encased in resin or concrete and sealed in steel drums. The drums are then packed into concrete casks and placed in concrete trenches up to 18 metres deep. When completely filled the trenches are covered with a concrete slab, a layer of compacted clay and a reinforced concrete intrusion shield and a final layer of clay. Deep disposal of intermediate wastes also takes place, storing the wastes in a suitable geological formation at a depth of at least 100 metres.
HIGH LEVEL WASTE

High level waste is extremely radioactive and remains in this state for thousands of years. Safe and stable storage of this type of waste is of great concern. Modern storage methods include the use of glass vitrification. This involves combining the radioactive liquid waste with glass to form a solid compound. Because of the solid nature of the waste it is much less likely to contaminate the surrounding area. Unlike liquid waste, it cannot leak into the ground if the stainless steel container it is in becomes faulty. In theory, the highly radioactive waste can be stored indefinitely in deep stable formations such as caves and caverns. REQUIRMENTS FOR A STORE FOR RADIOACTIVE WASTE: A store designed to temporarily hold radioactive waste shall meet the following requirements It shall have signs, which clearly identify the purpose for which the store is used and appropriately advice all person who may enter it, including fire-fighting personnel. It shall be adequately shielded to protect all person outside the store from doses, which exceed those specified in current regulation. It shall be secure against the unauthorized entry. It shall be sited so as to minimize the risk of flood and other natural and man-made hazards. Provision shall be made for bulk liquid waste in glass, plastic or metal containers to be stored in trays having sufficient volume to hold any liquid released through breakage or rupture of the container. If the store is likely to hold any volatile radionuclides an air extraction system shall be installed which can be switched on outside before a person enters the store. The inside of the store shall be of such materials and so designed as to a flow for easy decontamination.

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RADIOACTIVE WASTE MINIMIZATION: Select reagents and procedures that minimize the volume and toxicity of all wastes. If feasible, design experiments in such a way that radioactive wastes are generated separately from chemically or biologically hazardous wastes Avoid ordering radioactive materials in quantities that exceed your intended usage Non-radioactive wastes must never be mixed with radioactive wastes. Failure to do this significantly increases the volume of wastes Non-radioactive tracers and methods are available for many common assays, and procedures used in biomedical Substitute with Short-lived Radionuclides where feasible Reduce the activity and volumes of materials used in the experiment to decrease the amount of wastes generated Replace hazardous chemical solvents with formulations not regulated as hazardous or mixed wastes Limit the number of users of radioactive materials Limit the number of areas where radioactive materials are used HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE: Radioactive waste needs to be safely managed because it is potentially hazardous to human health and the environment. Through good practices in the production and use of radionuclides, the amount of waste can be significantly reduced but not fully eliminated. Inadequate management after use or loss of radioactive materials, especially sealed radiation sources has reduced in radiation exposure of members of the public of extensive contamination of equipment, buildings or land. In some cases uncontrolled radiation exposure has been lethal. It is important that safe waste management in full compliance with all relevant regulation is considered and planned for at the early stage of any project involving radioactive materials .It should be established from the outset that the waste can be properly handled, treated and ultimately disposed of Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to secure an acceptable level of protection for human health. Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to provide an acceptable level of protection of the environment. Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to assure that possible effects on human health and the environment beyond national borders will be taken into account. Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way that predicted impacts on the health of future generations will not be greater than relevant levels of acceptable today.

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Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way that will not impose undue burdens on future generation. Radioactive waste shall be managed within an appropriate national legal framework including clear allocation of responsibilities and provision for independent regulatory function. Generation of radioactive waste shall be kept to minimum practicable. Interdependencies among all steps in radioactive waste generation and management shall be appropriately taken into account. The safety of facilities for radioactive waste management shall be appropriately assured during their life time. MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE: Government standards for radiation protection are established by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) and its international counterpart, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Both of these organizations offer recommendations for the maximum permissible dose (MPD) of radiation to which people should be exposed, and those recommendations are generally adopted by various government regulatory agencies (e.g., FAA, EPA, OSHA, NRC) as the maximum limits permitted by law. Current MPD limits are shown below:

Maximum Permissible Dose(MPD) NCRP ICRP General public: Annual MPD 1mSv 1mSv Radiation workers: Annual MPD 50 mSv 20 mSv RADIOACTIVITY ON FOOD: Bananas: As mentioned above, bananas contain about 3,520 picocuries of radiation per kilogram (pCi/kg). They are one of the more radioactive foods we eat on a daily basis. Potatoes: Your average white potato contains 3,400 pCi/kg. Carrots: Carrots and potatoes together will net you 6,800 pCi/kg, as carrots carry an equivalent amount of radioactive potassium to potatoes.

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Lima Beans: Lima beans, like kidney beans, contain 4,640 pCi/kg due to high levels of potassium (as well as a little bit of radium for good measure). Kids, this likely won't be a valid argument against eating them, however. Red Meat: Again, potassium is the culprit here. That steak will get you about 3,000 pCi/kg. Low-sodium Salt: Because it's made with potassium chloride instead of straight sodium, low-sodium salt also contains roughly 3,000 pCi/kg. Beer: Yes, beer. Stay strong, though, as beer only contains a trifling amount -- only 390 pCi/kg -- that's about 10 times less that of a banana. Nuts: At more than 6,600 pCi/kg, nuts are the most radioactive food the average person consumes due to their high levels of radium present in the tree's root system, as well as high levels of potassium. Not to fear, though: The human body retains almost none of the radiation consumed while eating nuts. Paradoxically, these radioactive nuts are thought to help prevent breast and prostate cancer thanks to their high levels of selenium. ACTION OF RADIATION ON FOOD: Radiation doses vary for different foodstuffs. for the vast majority of foods, the limit is less than 10 kiloGray. The U.S food and Drug Administration(FDA) sets dose limits for specific food types Food category fruit poultry Spices,seasonings Dose(kiloGrays) 1 3 30

The dose limit for spices and seasons in higher because they are consumed in very small quantities. REFERENCES: Environmental pollution:causes,effect and contol- R.M. Harrison. Environmental pollution Yogendra N. Srivastava.

Modern Inorganic Chemistry - By Madan, R.D. Prakash,Satya. -Internet