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Power Electronics in Electric Utilities: Static Va r Compensators

LASZLO GYUGYI
lnvited Paper

This paper deals with dynamic var compensation of electric power systems, applying power electronics for reactive power generation and control. After an overview of the emergence and status of modern, solid-state var compensators in utility and industrial applications, the first part of the paper explains how dynamic var compensation increases transmittable power by providing voltage support, transient stability improvement, and power oscillation damping in electric power transmission systems. Subsequent sections describe the methods of reactive power generation and control using thyristor-controlled reactors, with fixed and thyristorswitched capacitors, or modern gate turn-off (GTO) power converters that can function without ac capacitors or reactors. The last part of the paper summarizes the control structure and operation to provide the desired characteristics and performance in power system applications.

INTRODUCTION

An inherent characteristic of electric energytransmission and distribution byalternatingcurrent (ac) i s that real power i s generally associated with reactive power. AC transmission and distribution lines are dominantly reactive networks, characterized by their per-mile series inductance and shunt capacitance. Thus, load and load power factor changes alter the voltage profile along the transmission lines and can cause large amplitudevariations i n the receiving end voltage. Most of the loads are not tolerant t o voltage variation. Undervoltage causes degradation in the performance of loads such as induction motors, light bulbs, etc.; overvoltage causes magnetic saturation and resultant harmonic generation, as well as equipment failures due t o insulation breakdown. Reactive power also increases the transmission losses. In addition t o steady-state considerations, rapid changes in reactive power and the corresponding voltagevariations, caused by line switching, faults, load rejection, and other disturbances, can suddenly change the real power demand i n the power system. Rapid changes i n real power demand can cause some power generators t o accelerate, and others to decelerate, from their steady-state synchronous speed,
Manuscript received November 5,1987; revised February9,1988. The author is Manager, Power Electronics Department, Westinghouse R&D Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15235, USA. IEEE Log Number 8821048.

resulting in transient frequency and power "swings" or, i n extreme cases, i n the total loss of synchronism and even in the disintegration of the power system. The need for controlling reactive power in transmission and distribution lines has been recognized since the emergence of the ac power system. Permanently connected and switchable shunt capacitors and reactors have been used from the beginning toensuredesirablevoltage profilealong the transmission and distribution lines, and to minimize voltage variation in face of daily power demand changes. To handle dynamic disturbances (line switching, loss of generation, load rejection, faults, etc.), the reactive power control has t o be fast i n order t o provide effective voltage and power flow control and thereby a significant improvement i n system stability. I n the past, transmission systems were conservatively designed with large stability margins and the then-available dynamic compensators, such as rotating synchronous condensers and-more recently-saturating reactors, were rarely required. In recent years, energy, environment, right-of-way, and cost problems delayed the construction of both generation facilities and new transmission lines. This has necessitated achange i n the traditional power system concepts and practices; better utilization of existing power systems has become imperative. The interconnectionof separate power systems allows better utilization of power generation capability, and fast reactive compensation of ac transmission lines can significantly increase the stability limits and, thereby, the transmittable power. As it frequently happens, the developing market needs have been answered by technology developments. Advances in high power semiconductor and sophisticated electronic control technologies have made the development of fast, thyristor-controlled static var compensators (SVCs) possible. These compensatorswere originally developed for arc furnace compensation i n the early 7970s, and afewyears later theywere adopted for transmission system compensation. They are characterized by extremely rapid response, unrestricted operation, high reliability, and almost unlimited operating flexibility. One of the first thyristor-controlled static var compen-

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sators,with aratingof40Mvar,was installed attheShannon Substation of the Minnesota Power and Light (MP&L) system in 1978. This EPRI-funded project, still in service, was to demonstrate the practicality of static compensators in utility applications. Since 1978, there has been a dramatic increase i n the use of static var compensators i n power system applications. Presently, there are 41 transmission line compensators installed, or on order, in the US. and Canada with a total rating of 9710 Mvar. There are also 28 industrial SVCs with a total rating of 1670 Mvar; this gives a total of 69 instal1 lations in thesecountrieswithacombinedcapacityof 1 380 Mvar. Worldwide, there are at least 300 SVC installations with a total rating of over 30 000 Mvar. Several new SVC projects are currently in various stages of negotiation, specification, and planning. There are several possible approaches to generate and control reactive power using different semiconductor switching devices and circuits. Presently, thyristor valves are used almost exclusively in conjunction with capacitor and reactor banks in practical compensators. However, other techniques usinggate turn-off (CTO) thyristors, which can generate controllable reactive power without the use of capacitors and reactors, are currently under development. This paper discusses static var compensators in electric power system applications. The first part of the paper reviews the basic operating principles of ac electric power systems and establishes the functional requirements forvar compensators. The second part of the paper describes solidstate approaches for controllable reactive power generation, and the control structure needed t o meet specific compensation requirements of ac power systems.

(inductance) and i s controlled by the angle between the sending and receiving end voltages. Consider the simple model of a generator being linked to an infinite bus by a reactive line shown in Fig. l(a). The

vR = V sin (ot - 6 )

= V sin ut

P I Pm

nI2 -6

Fig. 1. Simple two machine power system (a) and corresponding power transmission characteristic (b).

transmitted power P i s given by

I.

AC POWERSYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS AND TERMS

v2 . P = - sin 6
X
where V i s the magnitude of the generator and infinite bus voltage, X i s the total interconnective reactance, and 6 i s the power angle between the sending end machine internal voltage and the infinite bus voltage. The relationship between the power P and angle 6 i s shown i n Fig. l(b). The theoretical maximum transmittable power defining the steady-state stability limit i s obtained at 6 = d 2 :
pmm =

The main constituents of an ac electric power system are: generator, transmission and distribution lines, and loads. The generators are rotating synchronous machines. The transmission and distribution lines are essentially distributed-parameter reactive networks characterized by their series inductance and shunt capacitance. The loads generally consume both real and reactive power. AC power transmission i s based upon two fundamental conditions: 1)generators remain in synchronism, and 2 ) the voltage levels are kept close to their rated values. Controlled power exchange in an ac power system i s possible only if all synchronous generators run i n synchronism with each other. Thecapabilityof maintainingor regaining, synchronism i s expressed by the term stability. The stability i s the tendency of the power system to continue to operate in the intended steady-state mode and its ability t o recover after extraneous disturbances (faults, load switching, etc.) which forced a change in the steady-state operation. Maintenance of rated voltage levels i s important for the proper operation and utilization of loads. Undervoltage can cause degradation in the performance of loads, and overvoltages can lead t o equipment damage and the generation of harmonics due to magnetic saturation. Thetransmittable power over a transmission line between the sending and receiving end terminals i s primarily determined by the reactive line impedance. The real power through the line i s inversely proportional to line impedance

V2 7.

(2)

Transmission lines cannot be operated too close to their steady-state stability limit because a sufficient margin in the power transfer i s needed to recover from dynamic disturbances, during which the transmitted power and transmission angle can significantly change from, or oscillate around, the steady-state value. The transient stability limit defines the maximum level of steady-state power transmission at which the system can still recover normal operation following a specified major disturbance. Occasionally, a power system may have negative damping. In this case, a relatively minor disturbance can lead to increasing power oscillation and the eventual loss of synchronism ("dynamic or oscillatory instability"). Due to i t s reactive impedance, the voltage along the transmission line, and at the receiving end, may change significantly with load and load power factor. In the extreme

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case, a large load change may cause the receiving end voltage t o collapse. This phenomenon i s termed voltage instability. II. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION REQUIREMENTSOF AC POWER SYSTEMS The previous brief review of ac power system operating requirements and problems indicates that dynamic reactive compensation needs are i n the areas of
1) transient stability improvement, 2) power oscillation damping, and 3) voltage support (prevention of voltage instability).

6 2 = 7d2 is 2V2/X, twice the steady-state limit of the uncom1 pensated case. In general, the transmission reactance Xcan be divided into n equal sections with a perfect synchronous compensator at the joining points of the sections. In this case, the power transmission i s characterized theoretically by the following equation: P=

- sin X n

v2

6 n

(4)

A. Transient Stability Improvement Consider Fig. 2(a), where the previous simple power system model (Fig. l(a)) shown with an ideal controllable synchronous voltage source (such as an ideal rotating syn-

which gives a maximum transmittable power of nV2/X, that is, n times the steady-state power limit of the uncompensated case. The improvement in transient stability achievable with controlled shunt compensation is simply due to the significant increase in the steady-state stability limit obtained. A greatly simplified example i s used here to illustrate the basic concepts. Consider the simple power system models shown in Figs. l(a) and 2(a). Suppose that i n both the compensated and uncompensated systems the transmitted power i s the same. Assume that both systems are subjected t o the same fault for the same period of time. The dynamic behavior of the two systems i s illustrated in Fig. 3(a) and (b).

(Compensated)

--I

(uncompensated)

nl2
-6

Fig. 2. Simple two machine power system with ideal midpoint compensator (a) and corresponding power transmission characteristic (b).
O

6c1

6cz

6,)

6ccrll=T

chronous condenser) i s connected at the midpoint. If the voltage at the midpoint i s kept the same as that at the sending and receiving ends, then (1) can be applied for each half of the line, that i s

Fig. 3. Equal area illustrating transient stability margin for a two machine power system (a)without compensation and (b) with an ideal midpoint compensator.

v2 , 6 P = - sin -. x 2 2

(3)

The power transmission relationship expressed by (3) is illustrated in Fig. 2(b) where power Pis plotted against angle 6. Evidently, the maximum transmittable power obtained at

Prior t o the fault, each system transmits power PMat angles 6 and Scl, respectively (subscript c stands for compensated). During the fault, the transmitted electric power becomes zero, while the mechanical input power to the generators remains constant (PM). Therefore, the generators accelerate from the steady-state angles 6, and 6,, to angles 6, and hC2,at which the fault clears. The accelerating

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energies in the two systems are represented by areasA, and Ac2. After fault clearing, the transmitted electric power exceeds the mechanical input power and the machines decelerate, but their angle further increases due t o the kinetic energies accumulated i n the rotors. The maximum rotor angles 63 and 6 c 3 are reached when the decelerating energies defined by areas A2 and A are equal t o the accel, erating energies defined by areas A, and Ac,, respectively. If for a given power level and post-fault system the maximum rotor angle (63 or 6c3) reached i s below the critical the system will remain transiently rotor angle (6,,,, or 6ccrit), stable. The critical rotor angle represents the rotor angular swing beyond which rotor deceleration cannot be maintained. The difference between maximum angular swing and the critical angle determines the margin of transient stability, that is, the "unused" and still available decelerAcmargin Fig. in ating energy represented by areaSAmarginand 3(a) and (b). Comparison of Fig. 3(a) and (b) clearly shows the substantial increase in transient stability margin the (ideal) shunt compensation can provide. Alternatively, if the uncompensated system has sufficient transient stability margin, shunt compensation can increase significantly the transmittable power. In the above stability considerations, the shunt compensator i s assumed t o be an ideal synchronous compensator. The adjective "ideal" here means that the amplitude of the midpoint voltage remains costant all the time, except possibly during the fault, and its phase angle follows the generator (rotor) angle swings so that the synchronous compensator would not be involved i n real power exchange, but it would provide the necessary reactive power at the midpoint. The reactive power demand at constant midpoint voltage increases rapidly with increasing power transmission, reaching a maximum value equal t o 4, P ,, at the maximum steady-state power transmission limit of 2, P ., (P,,, is the maximum transmittable power of the uncompensated system.) In most practical applications, for economic reasons, the rating of the static compensator i s lower than that required for maximum attainable power. For this reason, a practical compensator approximates the ideal synchronous voltage source only as long as the (midpoint) var demand does not exceed its (capacitive) rating. Above its maximum rating, the compensator provides either constant current or becomes a constant reactive impedance, depending on the method used for reactive power generation.

For small variations, assuming constant mechanical power (PM = const) and expressing the change in electrical , power in terms of the (controllable) amplitude V of the midpoint voltage and angle 6 (refer to (3)), (5)can be written as PI Md2(A6) aP, +-AV, dt2 av,
apE + -A6 a6
= 0.

(6)

Inspection of (6) indicates that, if the midpoint voltage is constant (V,,, = const and AV, = 0), the angle A6 would oscillate undamped with a frequency of

(7)

In order to provide damping, the midpoint voltage must be varied as a function of d(A6)ldt, that i s

where K i s a constant. This means that the midpoint voltage i s to be increased (by providing capacitive vars) when d(A6)ldt i s positive (in order t o increase the transmitted electric power and thereby to oppose the acceleration of the generator), and it is t o be decreased (by absorbing inductive vars) when d(A6)ldt is negative (to reduce the transmitted electric power and thereby oppose the deceleration of the generator). Power oscillation damping achieved by alternating the maximum available var output [3] of the midpoint compensator according t o the polarityof d(A6)dt, between some capacitive and inductive limits, is illustrated in Fig. 4.

B. Power Oscillation Damping


Consider again the simple power system model with a midpoint compensator shown in Fig. 2(a). The magnitude of the midpoint voltage i s now assumed variable. The mechanical power applied t o the generator i s PM and the electrical powertransmitted tothe infinite busatthe receiving end is PE.If the mechanical angular momentum i s M and 6 i s the rotor angular position (with respect t o a synchronously rotating axis), the dynamic behavior of the system can be described by the so-called "swing equation"

Fig. 4. Power oscillation damping by static VAr compensator. Wvoltage regulation only, (&voltage control as a function of d6/dt.

C. Voltage Support
The receiving end voltage of a transmission line is a function of the line impedance, the load, and the load power factor. The magnitude of the voltage at the receiving end

(5)
where the difference PM - PE i s the accelerating power.

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the standpoint of initial capital and operating costs, static var compensators can differ significantly due to different space and installation requirements and, in particular, dissimilar loss versus var output characteristics.

Ill. METHODS VARIABLE OF VAR GENERATION


By definition, capacitors generate and reactors (inductors) absorb reactive power when connected to an ac power source. They have been used with mechanical switches for (coarsely) controlled var generation and absorption since the early days of ac power transmission. Continuously variable var generation or absorption for dynamic system compensation was originally provided by over- or underexcited rotating synchronous machines and, later, by saturating reactors in conjunction with fixed capacitors. More recently, high power semiconductors (thyristors) have been employed in various circuit configurations to produce variable reactive output. These semiconductor power circuits, with their internal control enabling them to produce var output proportional to an input reference, are termed, per CIGRE's recommendation [ ] I , var gensfafic erators (SVGs). A static var compensator i s thus a static var generator whose output is varied so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electric power systems. Most of the presently used thyristor-controlled static var generators i n effect provide a variable shunt impedance by synchronously switching shunt capacitors andlor reactors "in" and "out" of the network. Using appropriate switch control, the varoutputcan be controlled continuouslyfrom maximum capacitive to maximum inductive output at a given network voltage. Other evolving solid-state static var generators produce reactive power without the use of actual capacitors or inductors. Some of these are the true equivalents of the rotating synchronous condenser, in which the magnitude of the internally generated ac voltage i s varied to control the var output; others act almost like ideal reactive current sources, drawing leading or lagging current of control lable magn it ude. This paper deals mainly with presently used static var generators (and the related static var compensators), which employ thyristor-controlled reactors with fixed andlor thyristor-switched capacitors. However, a brief description i s also given of another emerging technique which uses a solid-state inverter to generate controllable reactive power without the use of capacitors or reactors. The performance and operating characteristics of current var generators are determined by the major thyristorcontrolled constituents: the thyristor-controlled reactor and the thyristor-switched capacitor. A. The Thyristor-ControlledReactor (TCR) An elementary single-phase thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown in Fig. 6(a). It consists of a fixed (usually aircore) reactor of inductance L, and a bidirectional thyristor valve (switch). Currently-availablelarge thyristors can block voltageof4000to6000Vand conductcurrentof2000to4000 A. Thus, in a practical valve many thyristors (typically 10 to 40) are connected in series to meet the required blocking voltage levels at a given power rating. A thyristor valve can be brought into conduction by simultaneous application of a gate pulse to all thyristors of the same polarity. The valve

Fig. 5. Amplitude variation of the receiving voltage V, as a function of load Pand load power factor (dashed lines). Possible voltage regulation with a variable VAr source (continuous line).

of a typical lossless (radial) line of given length (and impedance) as a function of the load and load power factor is shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 5. In the case of a weak power system, load changes and the switching of transmission lines, transformers, or large capacitor and reactor banks, can cause significant voltage variation at the receiving end. In the extreme case, when the power demand of the load exceeds the maximum transmittable power at the given load power factor (see Fig. 5), the receiving end voltage may collapse ("voltage instability"). A typical system configuration for potential voltage instability is when a large load area is supplied from two or more generator plantswith independent transmission lines. (This frequently happens when, for example, the locally generated power i s inadequate to supply a large load area and additional power i s imported over a separate transmission link.) The loss of one of the power sources could suddenly increase the load demand on the remaining part of the system above the maximum transmittable power level, causing the receiving end voltage to collapse. The fact that the maximum transmittable power over a given transmission line can be increased by increasing the reactive power at the receiving end suggests that with a rapidly variable var source of appropriate rating connected to the receiving end terminal, voltage collapse could be prevented and constant terminal voltage maintained, as shown by the continuous line in Fig. 5.

D. Summary o f Compensation Requirements


The functional requirements of static var compensators, used for transient stability improvements, power oscillation damping, and voltage support, can be stated simply as follows: 1) They must be able to stay i n synchronism with the terminal voltage under all conditions, including major disturbances. 2) They must be able to regulate (transient stability improvement and voltage support), or control(power oscillation damping) rapidly the terminal voltage by generating reactive power for, or absorbing it from, the ac power system. As will be seen, all of the solid-state approaches for var generation and control provide functional characteristics and response times compatible with the dynamic compensation requirements of power systems. However, from

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7-V

Bidirectional Thyristor

(a) (b) Fig. 6. Basic thyristor-controlled reactor (a) and associated waveforms (b).

-,-

will automatically block immediately after the ac current crosses zero, unless the gate signal i s reapplied. The cvrrent in the reactor can be controlled from maximum (thyristor valve closed) t o zero (thyristor valve open) by the method of firing delay angle control. That is, the closure of the thyristor valve i s delayed with respect to the peak of the applied voltage in each half cycle, and thus the durationsof thecurrent conduction intervalsarecontrolled.This method of current control i s illustrated in Fig. 6(b), where the reactor current ;,(a) and its fundamental component iFL(a) shown at various delay angles, a. are The amplitude /&) of the fundamental reactor current i&)can be expressed as a function of angle a!

(a) (b) Fig. 7. A basic thyristor-switched capacitor bank (a) and associated waveforms (b).

conditions (e.g., control malfunction causing capacitor switching at a "wrong time"); it may also be used to avoid resonances with the ac system impedance at particular frequencies. Under steady-state conditions, when the thyristor valve is closed and the TSC branch is connected t o a sinusoidal ac voltage source, v = Vsinwt, the current in the branch i s given by
"2
isteady-state

v-n2 - I w c cos wt

where where V i s the amplitude of the applied ac voltage, L i s the inductance of the thyristor-controlled reactor, and w i s the angular frequency of the applied voltage. As Fig. 6(b) illustrates, the conduction angle control results in a nonsinusoidal current waveform i n the reactor. In other words, the thyristor-controlled reactor generates harmonics. For identical positive and negative current halfcycles, only odd harmonics are generated. The amplitudes of these are a function of angle a, given by the following expression:
/Ln(a) =

-W L 7r

sin a cos (na) - n cos a sin (na) n(n2- I)

where n = 2k 1, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The maximum amplitudes of the most significant harmonics, third, fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth are 13.78 percent, 5.05 percent, 2.59 percent, 1.57 percent, 1.05 percent and 0.75 percent, respectively, of the maximum fundamental current. In a three-phase system, three single-phase thyristor-controlled reactors are used, usually i n deltaconnection. Under balanced conditions, the triplen harmonic currents, (third, ninth, fifteenth, etc.) circulate in the delta connected TCRs and do not enter the power system. The magnitude of the other harmonics generated by the thyristor-controlled reactors can be reduced [4] by multipulse and multibank circuits, or by filtering.
B. The Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)

The TSC branch can be disconnected ("switched out") at any current zero by prior removal of the gate drive t o the thyristor valve. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage i s at its peak value, V = Vn2/(n2- 1).The discon, nected capacitor stays charged t o this voltage and, consequently, the voltage across the nonconducting thyristor valve varies between zero and the peak-to-peak value of the applied ac voltage, as illustrated in Fig. 7(b). If the voltage across the disconnected capacitor remained unchanged, theTSC bankcould be switched in again, without any transient at the appropriate peak of the applied ac voltage. Normally, the capacitor bank is allowed to discharge after disconnection. Thus, the reconnection of the capacitor may have t o be executed at some residual capacitor voltage between zero and Vn2/(n2 - 1). This can be accomplished with the minimum possible transient disturbance if the thyristor valve i s turned on at those instants at which the capacitor residual voltage and the applied ac voltage are equal, that is, when the voltage across the thyristor is zero.

C. Fixed-Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAr Generator


A basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently connected) Capacitor with a thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR) i s shown functionally in Fig. 8(a). The current in the reactor i s varied by the previously discussed method of firing delay angle control. The fixed capacitor i n practice is usually substituted, fully or partially, by a filter network that has the necessarycapacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency t o generate the vars required, but

A single-phase thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) i s shown in Fig. 7(a). It consists of a capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a relatively small surge current limiting reactor. This reactor i s needed primarily t o limit the surge current in the thyristor valve under abnormal operating

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I I~ I I I

current to Delay Angle Converter

a Firlng +

Generator

tion. This i s accomplished by the firing pulse generator circuit which produces a relatively large gate current pulse (initial peak i s typically 1.5 A) for the thyristors in response to the output signal provided by the reactive current to firing angle converter. The operation of the FC-TCR type var generator i s illustrated by the waveforms in Fig. 8(b). The loss versus var output characteristic of the FC-TCR typevargenerator i s shown in Fig.g.Asseen,thetotaI losses

ut

(b) Fig. 8. Functional control scheme for the FC-TCR type static VAr generator (a) and associated waveforms illustrating operating principles (b).

it providesalow impedanceat selectedfrequencies toshunt the dominant harmonics produced by the TCR. I n this arrangement, the constant capacitive var generation of the fixed capacitor i s opposed by the variable var absorption of the thyristor-controlled rector, to yield the total var output required. At the maximum capacitive var output, the thyristor-controlled reactor i s off (a= goo). To decrease the capacitive output, the current i n the reactor i s increased by decreasing delayanglea. Atzerovar output, the capacitive and inductive currents become equal and thus the capacitive and inductive var perfectly cancel. With a further decrease of angle a (assuming that the rating of the reactor i s greater than that of the capacitor), the inductive current becomes larger than the capacitive current, resulting i n a net inductive var output. The control of the thyristor-controlled reactor in the FCTCR type var generator needs t o provide four basic functions as shown in Fig. 8(a). One function issynchronous timing. This function i s usually provided bya phase-locked loopcircuitthatruns in precise synchronism with the ac system voltage and generates appropriate timing pulses with respect t o the peak of that volt age. The second function is the reactive current (or admittance) t o firing angle conversion. This can be provided by a real time circuit implementation of the mathematical relationship betwen the amplitudeof the fundamental TCRcurand the delay angle a given by (9). rent The third function is the computation o f therequiredfundamental reactor current ILF the requested var genfrom erator output current that i s provided as the amplitude reference input /, t o the var generator control. This is simply done by subtracting the (scaled) amplitude of the capacitor current, I from I,. C The fourth function is the thyristor firing pulse genera-

I =I
C

LF

(0)

Iout=I ( a ) -Ic

+
LF

Capacttive

Inductive

(ILF(a ) > IC)

v
Loss versus VAr output characteristic of a fixedcapacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor type static VAr gen-

Fig. 9.

erator. increase with the increasing TCR current and, consequently decrease, with increasing capacitive var output. At zero var output, there are appreciable losses (typically about 1 percent of rated capacitive output) because the zero var output i s obtained indirectly, by canceling the fixed capacitivevarwith inductivevars.The lossversusvaroutputcharacteristic shown i n Fig. 8 i s advantageous when the average capacitive var output i s relatively high as, for example, in industrial applications requiring power factor correction, and it is disadvantageous when the average var output i s low, as for example, i n the case of dynamic compensation of power transmission systems. D. Thyristor-Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAr Generator The thyristor-switched capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor (TSC-TCR) type var generator was developed primarily for dynamic compensation of power transmission systems with the intention of minimizing standby losses and providing increased operating flexibility. A basic single-phase TSC-TCR arrangement is shown in Fig. IO. For a given capacitive output range, it consists of n TSC branches and one TCR. The number of branches n i s determined by practical considerations that include the operating voltage level, maximum var output, current rating of the thyristor valves, bus work, and installation cost,

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Fig. 10. Basic TSC-TCR type static VAr generator (a) and i t s VAr demand versus VAr output characteristic (b).

3 a,,n v r/ , * . . , and (n - 1) v r a,/ n t o vr a , range by switching i n the second, third, . . . ,and nth capacitor banks and using theTCR t o absorb the surplus capacitive vars. I n order t o avoid indeterminate switching, a hysteresis between the "switching in" and "switching out" var levels is usually employed i n practice. A functional control scheme for the TSC-TCR type var generator i s shown i n Fig. 11. It provides three major functions: 1) determines the number of TSC branches needed t o be switched in t o approximate the required capacitive output current (with a positive surplus), and computes the amplitude of the inductive current needed t o cancel the surplus capacitive current, 2) controls the switching of the TSCbranches in a "transient-free" manner, and 3) varies the current in the TCR by firing delay angle control. The operation of the TSC-TCR type var generator with three capacitor banks i s illustrated by the oscillograms in Fig. 12. The oscillograms show the reactive current refer-

etc. Of course, the inductive range also can be expanded t o any maximum rating by employing additional TCR branches. The operation of the basic TSC-TCR var generator can be described with reference t o Fig. 9(b) as follows: The total capacitive output range is divided into n intervals. I n the first interval, the output of the var generator is controllable in the zero t o v r/ a,n range, where vr a , is the total rating provided by all TSC branches. I n this interval, one capacitor bank is switched in (by firing, for example, thyristor valve SW,) and, simultaneously, the current i n the TCR i s set by the appropriate firing delay angle so that the sum of the var output of the TSC (negative) and that of the TCR (positive) equals the capacitive output required. I n the second, third, . . . , and nth intervals, the output is controllable in the v r/ a,n t o 2varmaX/n, v r,n 2 a,/ to

Fig. 12. Waveforms illustrating the operation of the thy-

ristor-switched capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor type static VAr generator. I, = current reference to SVC input, i , = sum of the TSC currents, iL = TCR current, i,,,,, = sum of TSC and TCR currents. iL),the curence signal I,, the total output current i,(=ic rent icdrawn bythe thyristor-switched capacitor banks, and the current iL drawn by the thyristor-controlled reactor. The loss versus var output characteristic of the TSC-TCR type var generator follows from its basic operating principle. (Refer to Fig. IO.) At or slightly below zero var output, all capacitor banksare switched out,theTCRcurrent iszero or negligibly small, and consequently, the losses are zero or almost zero. As the capacitive output is increased, an increasing number of TSC banks are switched i n with the TCR absorbing the surplus capacitive vars. Thus, with each switched-in TSC bank, the losses increase by afixed amount. To this fixed loss, there are the added losses of the TCR, which vary from maximum t o zero between successive switchings of theTSC banks. Overall, the losses of theTSCTCR type var generator vary, on the average, i n proportion with the var output, as illustrated in Fig. 13. This type of loss characteristic i s clearly advantageous i n those applications in which the var generator i s used for dynamic compensation and is not required t o provide high average var output for the normally functioning power system. E. All Solid-state Var Generators As discussed i n the previous sections, the presently used static var generators are comprised of fixed or thyristorswitched capacitors and thyristor-controlled reactors. Thus, in these var generators the thyristor valves function simply as control elements, varying the reactive power generated by the capacitor and reactor banks. Consequently, each major constituent of a static var generator (capacitor, reac-

Reactor Current

Fig. 11. Functional control scheme for the TSC-TCR type static VAr generator.

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the amplitude E of i t s voltage, the reactive power can be controlled; increasing E above the amplitude V of the system voltage causes leading (capacitive) current to be drawn from the ac system, whereas decreasing E below Vproduces a lagging (inductive) load on the ac system. Under either operating condition a small amount of real power of course flows from the ac system to the machine t o supply i t s mechanical and electrical losses. A dc-to-ac inverter can be represented at i t s (ac) output terminal as a voltage source. For the present discussion it i s assumed that the inverter output voltages are sinusoids, although the basic operating principles remain valid for any waveshape produced by a practical inverter. Suppose that the outputs of a three-phase inverter are connected through three inductors to an ac system as shown i n Fig. 15(a). For purely reactive power flow the

'out =

:IC"-

ILF'

Fig. 13. LossversusVAroutputcharacteristicof a thyristorswitched capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor type static VAr generator.

Capacitive Inductive

Iout = ILF(PI
"DC

I
.

Voltage Supply

(a)
"
Static
Inverter
c

tor, thyristor valve) has a similar VA rating, and thus every one of them contributes significantly t o the size and cost of the equipment. Therefore, it follows that if both vargeneration and controlwere accomplished by solid-state means without the use of passive storage elements, a potentially significant size and cost reduction could be achieved. Therearea number of possibleapproaches[2] t o thegeneration of controllable reactive power without the use of capacitors or reactors. These approaches employ various dc-to-ac or ac-to-ac converter circuits. A particular approach, using a GTO (gate turn-off) thyristor inverter has been developed recently [5] under ESEERCO (Empire State Electric Energy Research Corporation) sponsorship, and a 1 Mvar demonstration unit installed at the Spring Valley, NY, test site of the Orange and Rockland Utilities, !nc., i n October 1986, i s being currently field tested. The basic operating principle of this voltage source type static var generator i s similar t o that of a rotating synchronous condenser shown schematically in Fig. 14. For purely
'1

"DC

--

(b)
Fig. 15. static voltage-source typevargenerator employing a dc/ac inverter.

"2

'3

i,
c -

Fig. 14. Basic voltage-source type var generator employing a rotating synchronous condenser.

reactive power flowthe three-phase induced electromotive forces (EMSs) e,, e2, and e3 of the synchronous rotating machines are in phase with the system voltages v,, v and , v3. By controlling the excitation of the machine, and hence

inverter output voltages v l vO2,and ~ 0 are kept in phase o, 3 with the ac system voltages v,, v and v3. By controlling the , amplitude Vo of the inverter output voltages, the reactive power can be controlled from full leading to full lagging. That i s to say, increasing Vo above the amplitude Vof the system voltages causes leading (capacitive) current t o be drawn from the ac system and vice versa, decreasing Vo below V results i n lagging (inductive current in the ac system. When the inverter is operated strictly as a reactive power source, as described above, it absorbs no real power from the ac system and thus i t s losses have to be replenished from a separate dc supply. However, the dc supply can be dispensed with if a suitable dc reservoir capacitor is used (Fig. 15(b)) and each inverter output voltage is made to lag slightly the corresponding ac system voltage. A real component of current will then flow from the ac system t o the inverter, and the losses will be accommodated thereby. The dc reservoir capacitor has t o carry the input "ripple" current of the inverter. This ripple current is, of course, afunction of the type, circuit configuration, and operating mode of the inverter used; however, it can generally be accommodated quite readily when the output currents are reasonably balanced. I n contrast to the conventional var generators, where the thyristors are naturally commutated at current zero crossings, the inverter type (and other similar all solid-state) var generators require semiconductor power switches with intrinsic turn-off capability (otherwise force commutating circuits are required which would make the approach

GYUGYI: STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS

491

impractical). A currently available semiconductor with suitable rating and characteristic i s the GTO thyristor. This devicecan be both turnedon andoff byasuitablegatedrive current. Although maximum voltage and current ratings of 4500 V and 2500 A (peak turn-off) for available GTOs are smaller than those of the largest conventional thyristors, they are sufficiently large to make the all solid-state var generator economically viable at the present time. Further advances in high power smeiconductor technology, resulting in higher device ratings and better switching characteristics, would reduce cost and losses, making the broad application of this var generation approach in power transmission and distribution systems possible within the next decade. IV. CONTROL STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS OF As discussed in Section II terminal voltage control can enhance significantly the power transmission capability of the power system. Specifically, the regulation of the voltage at particular terminals of the transmission system limits voltage variation, prevents voltage instability (voltage collapse), and increases transient (first swing) stability limits, whereas appropriate control(variation) of the terminal voltage i s needed t o achieve power oscillation damping. In order to meet the general compensation requirements of a power system, the output of the static var generator i s controlled to maintain or vary the voltage at selected terminal points of the transmission line. A general control scheme, converting a static var generator into a transmission line var compensator, i s shown in Fig. 16.

terminal voltage regulator: the amplitude VrOf the terminal voltage VT i s measured and compared with the voltage reference V the error AV, i s processed and amplified by a ;: PI (proportional integral) controller t o provide the current i s closed-loop reference /,for the SVG. In other words, Icomp , , controlled via input I so that V is maintained precisely at the level of the reference voltage V in face of power : system and load changes. If the proper compensation of the ac power system requires some specific variation in the amplitude of the terminal voltage against time or some other variable, then an appropriate correcting signal V,, derived from the auxiliary inputs, i s summed t o the fixed reference V, in order to : obtain the desired actual (variable) reference signal V that controls the terminal voltage in a closed-loop manner. The auxiliary inputs are used commonly for voltage regulation slope, and power oscillation damping. A. The Regulation Slope In many applications, the static var compensator is not used as a perfect terminal voltage regulator, but rather the terminal voltage i s allowed to vary in proportion with the compensating current. There are several reasons for this: First, the linear operating rangeof a compensator with given maximum capacitive and inductive ratings can be extended if a regulation droop i s allowed. Regulation droop means that the terminal voltage is allowed to be smaller than the nominal no-load value at full capacitive compensation and, conversely, it i s allowed t o be higher than the nominal value at full inductive compensation; second, perfect regulation (zerodroopor slope)could result in a poorly defined operating point, and atendencyof oscillation, if the system impedance exhibited a flat region (low impedance) in theoperating frequency range of interest; and third, a regulation droop or slope tends to enforce automatic load sharing between static var compensators as well as other voltage regulating devices. The desired regulation slope, defining the terminal voltage versus output current characteristic of the compensator, can be established by a minor control loop using one of the auxiliary inputs. A signal proportional t o the ampli~ ~ ~ ~ , tude of the compensating current K Iwith an ordered polarity (capacitive current i s negative and inductive current i s positive), is derived and summed to the reference V. The actual reference V controlling the terminal voltage , : thus becomes

i
Circuits

Fig. 16. General control scheme of a static VAr compen-

sator. : Equation (13) indicates that V and thus the amplitude of the terminal voltage Vr decreases from the fixed no-load value with increasing capacitive current (as determined by the slope K ) , and, conversely, it increases with increasing inductive compensating current until the maximum capacitive or, respectively, inductive compensating current i s reached. For further terminal voltage changes, the output current of the compensator becomes similar t o that obtainable with a fixed capacitor or reactor. A typical terminal voltage versus output current characteristic of a static var compensator with a specific slope i s shown i n Fig. 17, together with particular load lines (voltage versus reactive current characteristics) of the ac system. Load line 1 intersects the SVC V-l characteristic at

The power system, at the terminal of the SVC, i s represented by a generator with a generally varying motor angle 6 and source impedance Z (including the generator and transmission line impedances) that i s a function of the angular frequency w and time t. (The impedance variation in time i s due t o faults, line switching, etc.) The terminal voltage vr of the power system can be characterized by a generally varying amplitude Vr and angular frequency u p The static var generator includes TSC and TCR banks (or a GTO inverter) which are controlled so that the amplitude Icomp of the reactive current icomp drawn from the power system follows the current reference I . ,With the basic static var compensator control, the SVG i s operated as a perfect

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APRIL 1988

With

I IVT

SUMMARY Modern power electronics technology has provided new and superior means for dynamic var compensation. High power thyristor valves are capable of switching large capacitor banks and controlling current in reactor banks accurately and rapidly. The thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) are used presently in combination with fixed or thyristorswitched capacitors (7SCs) t o form a static var generator whose output i s continuously variable over a specified capacitive and inductive range. Other emerging power electronic circuits, using gate turn-off (CTO)thyristors, can provide controllable var output without capacitors or reactors. A static var generator can be converted into a static var compensator by external (usually closed) control loops, which vary the var output so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the ac power system. The fundamental purpose of static var compensation is to increase the transmission capacity of the power system. This can be achieved by providing voltage support and increased stability margins. For receiving end terminal voltage support, as well as for transient (first swing) stability improvement, the static var compensator is operated essentially as a voltage regulator: the var output i s varied so as t o minimize terminal voltage variation during and, in particular, following major power system disturbances. For dynamic stability improvement, the var output i s varied in concert with frequency (or power flow) variations so as to damp power oscillations. REFERENCES
I.A. Erinmez, Ed., Static Var Compensators.Working Group 3801, Task Force No. 2 on SVC, CIGRE, 1986. L. Gyugyi, Reactive power generation and control bythyristor circuits, ITrans. Ind. Appl., vol. IA-15, no. 5, pp. 521-532, Sept./Oct., 1979. A. Hammad, Analysis of power system stability enhancement by static var compensators, /E Trans. Power Systems, vol. PWRS-1, no. 4, pp. 222-227, Nov. 1986. L. Gyugyi, Fundamentals of thyristor-controlled static var compensators in electric power system applications, presented at the 1987 Symp. on Application of Static Var Systems for System Dynamic Performance, IEEE Publ., no. 87TH0187-5PWR. C. W. Edwards eta/., Advanced static var generator employing GTO thyristors, paper 38 WM 109-1, presented at the Winter Meeting of the IEEE Power Engineering Society, Jan.31-Feb. 5, 1988.

L-Compensation

Range

Fig. 17. V-l characteristic of the static VAr compensator.

the nominal (reference) voltage, thus the output current of the compensator i s zero. Load line 2 i s below load line 1 due toadecrease in the power system voltage (for example, generator outage). I t s intersection with the SVC V-l characterLoad istic calls for the capacitive compensating current lc2. line 3 i s above load line 1 due t o an increase in the power system voltage(for example, load rejection.) Its intersection with the SVC V-l characteristic defines the inductive compensating current lL3. The intersection points of the load line 2 and 3 with the vertical (voltage) axis define the terminal voltage variation without any compensation. The terminal voltage variation with compensation is entirely determined by the regulation slope as indicated in Fig. 17.

B.

Power Oscillation Damping

As i s shown in Section 11-B, power oscillation damping generally requires the variation of the voltage at the terminal of the SVC in proportion t o the rate of change of the effective rotor (or power transmission) angle. Rotor angle changes, of course, result in frequencyand real power variations. In practice, usually the variation of the system frequencyorthetransmitted real power i s measured and used for controlling the var output to produce the terminal voltage variation desired. In a possible control scheme, the signal corresponding to the variation of the system frequency, or that of the real power, i s summed t o the fixed reference voltage signal V, at the auxiliary input. The added signal causes the output current of the SVC to vary (oscillate) around the fixed operating point t o control the terminal voltage so as t o aid system damping. That is, the terminal voltage i s increased when, for example, the frequency deviation A f r d(A6) d t i s positive (in order to increase the transmitted electrical power and thereby to oppose the acceleration of the generators) and it i s decreased when A f r is negative (to reduce the transmitted electrical power and thereby oppose the deceleration of the generators).

Laszlo Cyugyi received his basic technical education at the Polytechnical University, Budapest, studied mathematics at the University of London, England, and electrical engineering at the Universityof Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, where he obtained the M.S.E.E. degree in 1967. He received the Ph.D. degree from the University of Salford, England, in 1970. He worked at the Epsylon Research and Development Co., Ltd., England, from 1958 to 1963, then joined the Westinghouse Research Laboratories, Pittsburgh, PA, where he i s now Manager of the Power Electronics Department. During his professional career, he has carried out research and development in different fields of electronics, involving precision laboratory data recording and measuring instru-

CYUCYI: STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS

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ments, analog and digital control systems, solid-state motor drives, and various power converters, inverters, and cycloconverters. His areas of special expertise include variable-speed-constant frequency (VSCF) power generators, variable-speed ac motor drives, active and passive power filters, high voltage thyristor valves, and static reactive power (VAR) compensating systems. In his current position, he i s responsible for the research and development of power electronics equipment and systems for aerospace, industrial, and utility applications. He i s coauthor of the book Static PowerFrequencyChangers(New York, NY: Wiley, 1976), and author

of the section Power Frequency Changers both in the Electronics Engineers Handbook and the ElectricalEngineers Handbook (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1975and 1980, respectively). He has numerous societal publications and won the Prize Paper Award, IEEE Power Engineering Society, in 1982, for the paper entitled Characteristics of Static, Thyristor-Controlled Shunt Compensators for Power Transmission System Applications. He holds 60 patents. Dr. Cyugyi i s a Fellow in the Institution of Electrical Engineers, andamemberof both theCICREand IEEEWorkingGroupson Static VAR Compensators.

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