NEWSLETTER

No. 97-5 FEB 97

TECHNIQUES and PROCEDURES

CENTER FOR ARMY LESSONS LEARNED (CALL)
U. S. ARMY TRAINING AND DOCTRINE COMMAND (TRADOC)

FORT LEAVENWORTH, KS 66027-1350

FOREWORD
his publication addresses techniques and procedures for sustaining the soldiers will and capacity to fight in cold weather. It does not address the tactics of conducting combat in cold weather operations. In Winning in the Winter, the cold environment is the enemy. To win in the winter, soldiers must know how to live, eat, drink, and bivouac in the cold environment; how to protect themselves from cold injuries; how to use cold weather equipment safely; and how to take care of personal hygiene. These are prerequisite to conducting successful combat operations against an enemy in the cold environment. The information contained herein is provided to supplement, not supplant, Army doctrine. Army doctrinal publications pertaining to cold weather operations may be found in the notes at the end of each Section. Winning in the Winter provides basic cold weather information, techniques, and procedures to enhance the training of forces which may be committed to cold weather operations without having time to take advantage of formal cold weather training programs.

EDWARD J. FITZGERALD III COL, IN Director, Center for Army Lessons Learned

WINNING IN THE WINTER

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I: SUSTAINING THE SOLDIERS CAPABILITY TO FIGHT SECTION II: COMBATING THE COLD SECTION III: COLD WEATHER INJURIES SECTION IV: LEADERSHIP IN COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS SECTION V: INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT SECTION VI: LIVING IN THE WINTER APPENDIX A: WINDCHILL CHART

COMBINED ARMS CENTER Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Training, TRADOC Brigadier General Stanley F. Cherrie CENTER FOR ARMY LESSONS LEARNED Director Colonel Edward J. Fitzgerald III Managing Editor Dr. Lon Seglie Author Clay Cooper Editor plus Layout and Design Mary Sue Winneke Multimedia Production Specialist Mrs. Cathy Elliott

The Secretary of the Army has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business as required by law of the Department. Use of funds for printing this publication has been approved by Commander, U. S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 1985, IAW AR 25-30. Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine or feminine gender is used, both are intended.

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LOCAL REPRODUCTION OF THIS NEWSLETTER IS AUTHORIZED AND ENCOURAGED!

SECTION I

SUSTAINING THE SOLDIER'S CAPABILITY TO FIGHT

inning in the winter means taking care of our Army's most important resource: the soldier. We provide soldiers with tested war-fighting doctrine, focused individual and collective training, superior warfighting leadership, effective war-fighting organizations, and the materiel and high-tech equipment needed to fight and win our country's battles. However, these resources are only effective when soldiers have the will and capacity to apply them against the enemy on a chaotic battlefield. To win in the winter, we must also overcome an additional enemy: the extreme and unforgiving cold weather environment. This means we must defeat cold injuries such as hypothermia and frostbite. Cold injuries, if allowed to develop, become debilitating to the soldier (or possibly fatal, in the case of hypothermia) and threaten our Army's ability to defeat an enemy force in cold weather operations. The four essential requirements 1 for survival in cold environments are:

Warmth Food Water Shelter

Keeping the soldier warm and nourished are essential factors in preventing cold injuries and sustaining the combat power of the fighting force. Shelter is particularly important because it is difficult to provide warmth and nutrition to soldiers without it in a cold environment. Each of these areas is discussed in detail in this publication. World War II: The Race to the Rhine
General Omar Bradley, the Commanding General of the 12th Army Group, tells us in his 1951 autobiography, When the rains came in November with a blast of wintry cold, our troops were ill-prepared for winter time campaigning. During our race to the Rhine, I had deliberately by-passed shipments of winter clothing in favor of ammunition and gasoline. We now found ourselves caught short, particularly in bad-weather foot wear. We had gambled and were now paying for the bad guess. Bradley pleaded with Eisenhower for more and more infantry replacements. Soldiers were wrapping their boots and feet in blanket shoes to try to avoid cold injury. The hospitals were filled with cases of frostbite and trench foot. The real cost was added up after the war. It was found that 90 percent of the cold weather casualties in the combat forces were in the infantry. They had an average hospital stay of 87 days; half of the cases went back [to] the United States and only 2 percent ever went back into combat. In the war altogether we had lost 84,000 soldiers to cold weather injuries. 2

_________ 1 Winter Operations Manual (1 Oct 89), published by the U.S. Army Northern Warfare Training Center, Fort Greely, AK, p. 8-1. 2 CPT Judith D. Robinson, The History of Feet and Fighting Cold Weather Injuries, International Conference - Cold Weather Military Operations (28 Feb - 2 Mar 95), Special Report 95-9, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, p. 294.

SECTION II

COMBATING THE COLD

PHYSIOLOGICAL REGULATION OF THE BODY'S TEMPERATURE

The body regulates the temperature of vital organs needed for survival (heart, brain, lungs, liver, kidneys) by varying the flow of blood to the extremities. As our body temperature rises, blood volume shifts and carries heat to the outer layers of the skin. As we cool, less blood flows to the periphery, preserving heat for the vital organs. When we are resting, only a small percentage of blood flows directly to the skin. During heat stress, the blood vessels open up and blood flow to the skin may increase a hundredfold. During cold stress, however, blood is shunted from the periphery to the core, reducing the heat lost to the environment. Constricted blood vessels can reduce blood flow to the skin by 99 percent. In this way, the body strives to preserve the functioning of the vital organs -- even at the expense or sacrifice of the extremities. Humans are designed to live in tropical climates, so our heat loss mechanisms are highly developed. Our insulation mechanisms, however, are less efficient. To adapt structurally to cold weather environments, we would have to grow a thick insulating coat of hair all over and develop reserves of fat. We would also need to develop an increased ability to convert stored fat into heat production through more efficient metabolism, and chemicals that could act like antifreeze in our cells. In reality, we must take conscious measures to sustain body temperature in cold weather through the application of proper clothing, equipment, and training.

Heat Production2
The body's three main physiological means for producing heat are metabolism, exercise, and shivering. Metabolism. Biochemical reactions which keep us alive produce heat as a by-product. Our basal metabolic rate is a constant internal furnace. However, when we are exposed to cold, wintry conditions for long periods, metabolism by itself does not produce enough heat to satisfy our body's entire heat requirements. Exercise. Exercise is an important method of heat production. Muscles, which make up 50 percent of our body weight, produce most of our heat during work. Short bursts of hard, physical effort generate tremendous amounts of heat. Moderate levels of exercise can be sustained for relatively longer periods. There are limitations, however. Physical conditioning, strength, stamina, and fuel in the form of food and water are necessary to sustain activity. Shivering. Shivering is a random, inefficient quivering of our muscles. It produces heat at a rate five times greater than our basal metabolic rate. It is our first defense against cold. Shivering occurs when temperature receptors in the skin and brain sense a decrease in body temperature and trigger the shivering response. As with work and exercise, the price of shivering is fuel. How long and how effectively we shiver is limited by the amount of carbohydrates stored in muscles and by the amount of water and oxygen available. To shiver, we have to pump blood into our muscles. Warm blood flowing close to the surfaces reduces our natural insulation and increases heat loss. Shivering hinders our ability to perform the tasks necessary to reduce heat loss and increase heat production. It is difficult to zip up your parka, start your stove, or operate equipment while shivering violently. Conversely, vigorous physical activity can override the shivering response, causing a person to cool past the point of shivering without experiencing the response.

HEAT LOSS
There are five mechanisms by which our bodies lose heat. The primary means of heat loss is through the skin. Conduction 3 is the transfer of heat through direct contact between a relatively hot and a relatively cold object. Heat moves from the warmer to the colder object. We lose heat when we lie on snow, ice, and cold or wet frozen ground (foxholes) -- or sit or lean against floors and bulkheads in unheated interiors of armored, mechanized, or wheeled vehicles. Convection 4 is the transfer of heat by the circulation or movement of relatively colder ambient environment (air or water) around the body. Relatively colder moving air (wind chill) or water, besides cooling the body directly, also strips us of the microclimate of air heated by the body. The loss of this insulating layer next to the body further accelerates heat loss. (See Appendix A, Windchill Chart.) Evaporation 5 is heat loss in the form of vapor. Heat is necessary to the evaporation of perspiration from the skin's surface. Evaporative heat loss accounts for 20 percent of the body's normal total heat loss. When we become overheated through physical exertion, evaporation becomes our major mechanism for heat loss. Sweating accounts for roughly two thirds of our evaporative heat loss; the remaining one third is lost through breathing. Respiration 6 also cools the body. As a soldier breathes in cold dry air, it is warmed and humidified in the lungs. As it is exhaled, as much as 25 percent of the bodys heat can be lost. Placing a wool scarf or mask over the mouth and nose warms inhaled air and assists in keeping the body warm. Radiation 7 is the emission of heat energy in the form of particles or waves. Energy is emitted by one body, transmitted through an intervening medium, and absorbed by another body. Infrared, or heat radiation, is transferred from a relatively hot to a relatively cold object. In winter, we lose heat to the environment through radiation. We can receive radiative heat input from fires, from the sun, or from reflection off snow, water or light-colored rocks. When exposed to the environment, the skin serves as a radiator. Unlike in the rest of the body, the blood vessels in the head do not constrict and reduce the blood supply flowing to the scalp. The head is, therefore, an excellent radiator of heat, eliminating from 35 to 50 percent of our total heat production. In cold weather operations, dry insulation, especially on the head, is essential in minimizing heat loss.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLD ON SOLDIERS AND OPERATIONS

Cold has a profound numbing effect on the human body. Essential tasks take longer to perform and require relatively more effort than in temperate climates. In extreme cold, a soldier can easily become numb and indifferent to nonessential tasks. Experience shows that at temperatures lower than -10 F, all other problems and requirements consistently lose significance in the personal battle for survival. When the temperature falls below -25 F, the problem of survival becomes even more significant. Soldiers tend to withdraw into themselves and adopt a cocoon-like existence, bundled in successive layers of clothing or wrapped in the warmth of a sleeping bag. These personal symptoms are also reflected in group behavior. The tent becomes a haven; soldiers become reluctant to leave its relative comfort. To remain functional, the body must be protected from the effects of cold. Soldiers must keep their bodies clean, and commanders must emphasize good hygiene. The body must also be kept dry and sufficiently warm to keep normal body processes working properly. Soldiers must have adequate amounts of food and water to fuel heat production and prevent dehydration. Soldiers also need regular periods of rest. If these support factors are not available, soldiers become psychologically defeated by the first enemy, the cold. Eventually, they become physiologically defeated -- casualties to cold injuries. If widespread, the mission is threatened.

The right approach to winning in the winter keeps soldiers healthy and focused on the mission. There are four basic rules to remember: Keep soldiers in shape. Cold weather clothing is heavy and presents an additional burden to a soldier's normal equipment. The additional equipment, coupled with the difficulty of trudging through the snow, causes soldiers to expend extra energy. The importance of maintaining a high level of physical conditioning cannot be overemphasized. Eat to keep fit. Regular, satisfying hot food is essential for sustained performance. Even if soldiers are not hungry, they must eat or they will lose physical conditioning. They will also lower their threshold of resistance to cold stress -- because their bodies will not have the fuel it needs to sustain heat production and protect against lowering of the core body temperature. Drink plenty of water. Normally, in cold climates, soldiers drink only when they are thirsty. This will not give them the water needed to avoid dehydration. Drinking plenty of water avoids dehydration and the fatigue that comes with it. Irritability is often an early sign of dehydration. Soldiers should not eat snow as a water substitute; the moisture content of snow is relatively low, and eating it will lower the body's core temperature. Also, there is a danger of illness from bacteria. However, melted snow can be consumed after treatment with water purification tablets. Maintain a positive attitude. In cold weather operations, soldiers will face many new challenges -- but none that they cannot overcome. Leadership will be reflected in soldier's attitudes and performance. Tasks may take longer, but they do not become impossible. Leaders must watch for early signs of cold stress in their soldiers such as fatigue, lethargy, apathy, irritability, withdrawal, loss of dexterity or decisionmaking ability, decreased group cooperation, disorientation, or slurred speech.

__________ 1 Tod Schimelpfenig and Linda Lindsey, NOLS Wilderness First Aid, 2d edition (1993), published by the National Outdoor Leadership School and Stackpole Books, p. 154. 2 Ibid., p. 155. 3 Ibid., p. 158. 4 Ibid., p. 159. 5 Ibid., p. 160. 6 TC 90-6-1, Military Moutaineering, April 1989, p. 1-39. 7 Schimelpfenig and Lindsey, p. 1549. 8 Adapted from Winter Operations Manual, pp. 3-2 to 3-4.

SECTION III

COLD WEATHER INJURIES

INTRODUCTION
The primary injuries which threaten soldiers in cold weather are hypothermia, frostbite, chilblain, immersion syndrome, snowblindness, and sunburn. Any of these can cause debilitating injuries which diminish combat power for brief or extended periods. Hypothermia is the most dangerous because it may not be diagnosed early enough to reverse the condition. Hence, it can be fatal relatively quickly. Frostbite and immersion syndrome, while serious and which can result in the amputation of digits or extremities, are not normally fatal by themselves. However, soldiers suffering severe cases of frostbite or immersion syndrome which require hospitalization may be losses to their original unit. Snowblindness and sunburn injuries are normally debilitating only for brief periods; a soldier can usually return to duty in a few days.

COMBAT LIFESAVERS
As with other injuries that occur in the forward areas of the battlefield, cold injuries need immediate attention to save soldiers lives. However, medical personnel may not be immediately available to apply lifesaving measures. Because of this possibility, battalions, squadrons, and separate companies are required (by AR 350-41, Training in Units ) . . .to ensure that each squad, crew, or equivalent-sized unit has at least one member trained as a combat lifesaver. 1 If wounded or injured soldiers cannot be turned over to medical personnel immediately, unit combat lifesavers should be called upon to identify cold injuries. They are authorized to apply certain field treatment measures ...to slow deterioration of a wounded soldiers condition until medical personnel arrive. 2 Appropriate combat lifesaver actions are noted in the following discussions of cold injuries.

HYPOTHERMIA 3
Hypothermia is the condition of abnormally low core body temperature which results when heat loss exceeds the body's heat production. It occurs when body temperature drops to 95 F or lower. Hypothermia is usually associated with cold climates, but it can occur even in warm climates during extended exposure in thunderstorms, hail, rain, and accompanying winds. When exposed, watch your soldiers carefully for signs of hypothermia. Human cells, tissues, and organs operate efficiently only within narrow temperature limits. If our body temperature rises 2 degrees above the normal 98.6 F, we may become ill. If it rises 7 degrees, we become critically ill. If our body temperature decreases 2 degrees, we feel cold. A 7-degree decrease puts our life in jeopardy. If it drops as low as 80 F, death is likely. We survive in cold environments because our intellectual responses enable us to deal effectively with environmental stress. We compensate for our physiological deficiencies with behavioral responses such as eating and drinking and creating microclimates through use of clothing, shelter, and the generation of heat. The diminished intellectual response evident in early stages of hypothermia (as well as altitude sickness, heat illness, and dehydration) dangerously impairs our ability to react to the stress of the extreme environment.

Hypothermia -- Signs and Symptoms4

Signs and symptoms of hypothermia change as body temperature falls. Mental functions tend to decline first, and the soldier loses his ability to respond appropriately to the environment. Muscular functions deteriorate until he is too clumsy to walk or stand. Biochemical processes become slow and deficient as the body cools. Unfortunately, early signs and symptoms of hypothermia can be difficult to recognize and may easily go undetected. A victim may deny he is in trouble; believe the symptoms, not the victim. Mental signs. The soldier's decisionmaking ability deteriorates. His response to cold becomes slow, improper, or indifferent. His general state becomes apathetic and lethargic, and he expresses increased complaints. His cooperation in group activities decreases. He may also exhibit slurred speech, accompanied by disorientation progressing to incoherence, irrationality, and possible unconsciousness. Physical (muscular) signs. In the early and moderate stages of hypothermia, the soldier exhibits shivering. A hypothermic soldier loses fine motor ability, which may progress to stumbling, clumsiness, and falling. In severe cases, shivering ceases, and the soldier exhibits stiffness and inability to move.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HYPOTHERMIA 5

BODY TEMPERATURE (Degrees Fahrenheit) (Early Stage) 98.6 95.0 SYMPTOMS OBSERVABLE IN OTHERS FELT BY YOURSELF

Intense and uncontrollable shivering; ability to perform complex tasks impaired.

Slowing of pace. Intense shivering. Poor coordination.

Fatigue. Uncontrollable fits of shivering. Immobile, fumbling hands.

(Moderate Stage) 95.0 91.4

Violent shivering persists, difficulty in speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia begins to appear. Shivering decreases; replaced by muscular rigidity and erratic, jerky movements; thinking not clear but maintains posture. Victim becomes irrational, loses contact with environment, drifts into stupor; muscular rigidity continues; pulse and respiration slowed. Unconsciousness; does not respond to spoken word; most reflexes cease to function; heartbeat becomes erratic. Failure of cardiac and respiratory control centers in brain; cardiac fibrillation; probable edema and hemorrhage in lungs; apparent death.

Stumbling, lunching gait. Thickness of speech. Poor judgment.

Stumbling. Poor articulation. Feeling of deep cold or numbness.

( Severe Stages ) 91.4 87.8

Irrationality, incoherence. Memory lapses, amnesia. Hallucinations. Loss of contact with environment.

Disorientation. Decrease in shivering. Stiffening of muscles. Exhaustion, inability to get up after a rest.

87.8

85.2

Blueness of skin. Decreased heart and respiratory rate. Dilation of pupils. Weak or irregular pulse. Stupor.

Blueness of skin. Slow, irregular, or weak pulse. Drowsiness.

Unconsciousness.

85.2

78/8

78.8

Managing Hypothermia in the Field:6 Prevention, Detection, Evacuation

Leaders and soldiers should understand that prevention of hypothermia is vital to sustaining combat power. In the cold environment, leaders must be continually aware of the condition of their soldiers and be especially alert for signs and symptoms of cold injury. Prevention, early detection, and immediate evacuation are the leader initiatives through which hypothermia should be managed in the field. Prevention involves the proper use of clothing and equipment by soldiers and continual interaction by leaders with their troops. If efforts to prevent hypothermia fail, the leader must be able to detect cold injuries at their onset. To do so, leaders must circulate among their soldiers and be alert for cold injury signs and symptoms, as noted in the table above. While taking body temperatures would not be practical (even if adequate thermometers were available), leaders should be able to detect signs and symptoms (see table above) which are either out of the ordinary for a particular soldier or which point to hypothermia or other cold injury. When hypothermia is detected in its early stage, a soldier may respond well to the removal of the cold stress. In the absence of a serious underlying medical condition, the chances for successful rewarming are good. While we cannot change the air temperature, we can replace wet clothing with dry, protect the soldier from the wind, add layers of insulation, and apply heat. 7 Keep in mind that a rewarmed soldier should not return to the cold until his energy and fluid reserves have been replenished. After rewarming from the early stage of hypothermia, the soldier should be given a good hot meal, several quarts of liquids, and adequate rest before returning to duty. A fatigued or dehydrated soldier is a strong candidate for another episode of hypothermia. 8 If a chilled or cold soldier does not respond immediately to basic rewarming efforts, or if he continues to exhibit symptoms of hypothermia, the soldier may be in a more advanced stage of hypothermia than initially thought, and the leader should immediately initiate action to evacuate the soldier to a medical facility. In severe cases of hypothermia, the patient produces little or no heat and, in the absence of external heat sources, may cool further. Immediate evacuation is the preferred action for casualties suffering severe hypothermia. If immediate evacuation is possible, treatment should not be undertaken in the field. Do not delay evacuation to attempt rewarming. Rapid rewarming may lead to rewarming shock. A cold heart is also susceptible to abnormal rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation -- random quivering of the heart that fails to pump blood. Jarring or bouncing, almost inevitable in transporting a patient on the battlefield, can trigger this rhythm. 9 There may also be complications from an underlying medical condition, wound trauma, and complex disturbances in the body's biochemical balance. 10 During evacuation, the soldier should be insulated from the cold surfaces of a vehicle or sled. A windproof outer layer will reduce the patient's convective and evaporative heat loss. Wet clothing must be replaced with dry. 11 If the patient is conscious and alert, he can be given warm liquids to drink (being careful not to burn him) and simple, sweetened foods to eat, including candy bars. Carbohydrates are the fuel most quickly transformed into heat and energy. However, hot liquids should not be given by mouth to a severely hypothermic soldier. 12 If the patient is semiconscious, try to keep him awake.

COMBAT LIFESAVER TREATMENT FOR HYPOTHERMIC CASUALTIES

13

The preferred field management practice is to immediately evacuate the hypothermic casualty. If immediate evacuation is not possible, a unit combat lifesaver should proceed with the following measures to slow further deterioration of the hypothermic soldiers condition.

Moderate Hypothermia
Move the casualty out of the wind to a sheltered environment. Replace wet clothing with dry clothing or sleeping bags. Cover the casualty with blankets or other insulating material. Apply heating pads (if available) wrapped in towels to the casualtys armpits, groin, and abdomen. Give the casualty warm, nutritious fluids to drink. Do not give alcoholic beverages or tobacco products to the casualty. Wrap the casualty from head to toe and evacuate to a medical treatment facility in a recumbent (lying down) position.

Severe Hypothermia
Cut away wet clothing and replace with dry clothing. Ensure that the casualtys airway remains open, but do not use an oropharyngeal airway (J-tube). Perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation if the casualtys breathing rate drops below five respirations per minute. Apply an additional heat source. The casualtys body is not able to generate sufficient body heat and must receive warmth from another source. One method is to place the casualty in a sleeping bag with his outer clothing removed and have another soldier remove his outer clothing and get into the sleeping bag also. Cover both soldiers with additional clothing. The casualtys body will absorb the heat given off by the second soldiers body. Evacuate the casualty to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible. Evacuate the casualty even if you cannot detect respiration or a heartbeat. Handle the casualty gently.

FROSTBITE 14
Frostbite is the freezing or crystallization of living tissues. Exposure time can be minutes or instantaneous if skin is directly exposed to extreme cold or high winds. Heat loss occurs faster than it can be replaced by blood circulation, and is compounded by intense cold and inactivity. The extremities (fingers, toes, and ears) and face are affected first. Damp hands and feet may freeze quickly since moisture conducts heat away from the body and destroys the insulating value of clothing. The extent of frostbite depends on temperature and duration of exposure. Frostbite is one of the major nonfatal cold-weather injuries encountered in military operations. With proper clothing and equipment, properly maintained and used, frostbite can be prevented.

Categories of Frostbite15
Superficial Frostbite (mild). This category of frostbite involves only the skin. The skin usually appears white to grayish. The surface will feel very stiff or hard, but the underlying tissue will be soft. Deep Frostbite (severe). Deep frostbite extends beyond the first layer of skin and may include the bone. Joint movement may be absent or restricted depending on the extent of the injury. Discoloration is the same as for superficial frostbite, but the underlying tissue is hard. If a large area is frostbitten, such as an entire foot or hand, tissues may appear purple as the result of sludging of blood within the vessels. (A blackened appearance will be noticed after the injury has thawed.) This category of frostbite requires immediate evacuation to a medical facility.

Contributing Factors16
Dehydration. Below-freezing temperatures and wind chill. Skin contact with super-cooled metals or liquids. Use of caffeine, tobacco, or alcohol. Constriction of an extremity, which may be caused by tight boots, gloves, gaiters, watchbands, or confinement in a cramped position, may reduce blood flow and increase the likelihood of frostbite. 17 Neglect.

Signs of Frostbite Injury18

Signs of frostbite vary and may include a cold feeling, pain, burning, followed by numbness as it progresses in severity. The skin turns pale or grayish, appearing frosty or waxy white. The skin may feel hard, may not be movable over the joints and bony prominence, or may be frozen. The level of deep frostbite cannot be determined in the field. The extent of injury may not be fully realized until the frozen part has been thawed at a medical facility. It may then take three to seven days (or longer) for medical personnel to ascertain the extent of injury. Blisters, swelling, and pain may occur after thawing.

Field Management of Frostbite Injuries19

The buddy system is one of the prime preventative measures of frostbite. Buddies must watch each other for signs of frostbite and provide mutual aid if frostbite occurs. Frostbite should be identified early -- with prompt first-aid care applied to prevent further damage. Early signs of superficial frostbite may respond to simple rewarming using skin-to-skin contact or by sheltering the body part under the clothing next to the body. However, if tissues freeze, evacuate the victim immediately, before the frozen area begins to thaw. Thawing of a frostbitten victim is a medical procedure. Field thawing should not be attempted by nonmedical personnel. If the victim has frozen extremities, apply first aid, protect the frozen areas and evacuate as a litter casualty. Give the casualty liquids and keep him comfortable during evacuation. If frostbite is not recognized before it thaws, do not let the area refreeze since this causes more damage and may require amputation. The most often affected body parts are the hands, fingers, toes, feet, ears, chin, and nose. Apply first aid, protect the injured area, and evacuate. If evacuation of the victim as a litter case is not possible and the body part has not yet thawed, self-evacuation may be tactically necessary. It is better to walk out on frozen feet than to have them thaw and refreeze. If required, the soldier can walk many miles on frozen feet. It is impossible to walk far on thawed feet. When medical evacuation is not possible, walking evacuation may be the only course of action available to save the life of the injured soldier. Walking on frozen feet does less harm than walking on thawed feet. Do not rub frostbitten parts -- the crystallized tissues may break internally and cause more damage. Do not lance blisters; cover them with a sterile dressing. Apply first aid and protect the affected area.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO FROSTBITE 20 Cold stress Temperatures below freezing Wind chill Moisture Poor insulation Contact with super-cooled metal or fuel Interference with circulation of blood Cramped position Tight clothing/accessories (gloves, gaiters, wristwatch, belt) Localized pressure Tight-fitting or tightly-laced boots Dehydration

COMBAT LIFESAVER TREATMENT FOR FROSTBITE

21

Move the casualty to a sheltered area. Loosen constricting clothing. Remove jewelry. Gradually warm the casualty. (If possible, have the casualty warm himself. Apply local warming by putting bare hands over the affected area of the face or putting affected hands inside the uniform under the armpits. If a casualty has a frostbitten foot, have him remove his boot and sock from affected foot, have another soldier open his clothing to expose his abdomen, have the casualty put his foot against the soldiers abdomen, and have the soldier close his clothing over his abdomen and the casualtys foot.) WARNING: If a casualty with frozen feet must walk to a medical treatment facility or if the feet will probably refreeze before the casualty reaches the facility, do not thaw the feet. Thawing and refreezing increases the damage to the feet. DO NOT expose the frostbitten area to extreme heat which could result in burns. DO NOT apply ointments or medications to the frostbitten area. DO NOT rub, massage, or soak the frostbitten area. DO NOT not give alcoholic beverages or tobacco products to the casualty. Give the casualty something warm to drink. Protect the frostbitten area from cold and additional injury. Evacuate the casualty to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible.

CHILBLAIN 22
Chilblain is caused by prolonged exposure of bare skin to cool or cold temperatures (50 F ((10 C)) or lower). Signs and symptoms of chilblain include acutely red, swollen, hot, tender, and/or itching skin. Open sores or bleeding lesions may result from continued exposure.

COMBAT LIFESAVER TREATMENT FOR CHILBLAIN

23

Apply local warming (putting bare hands over the affected area on the face; putting affected hands inside the uniform under the armpits; putting bare feet against the abdomen of another soldier). Do not rub or massage the affected area. Rubbing or massaging the area may cause tissue damage. Signs and symptoms of tissue damage may be slow to appear. Apply a field dressing to lesions. Have medical personnel evaluate the casualty when practical.

IMMERSION SYNDROME 24
Immersion syndrome results from prolonged exposure (hours to days) to wet conditions at temperatures from 50 F to 32 F. Immersion syndrome occurs when cold, wet conditions constrict blood vessels. Immersion foot, trench foot, and trench hand are types of immersion syndrome injuries. Reduced blood flow to the extremity deprives cells of needed oxygen and nutrients. 25 Permanent muscle and nerve damage may result if this cold injury is allowed to develop. For the soldier, regular attention to his feet -- drying them and changing to clean dry socks once a day, or more often if his feet get wet -- is all that is needed to prevent immersion foot or trench foot.

Signs and Symptoms of Immersion Syndrome

The extremity appears cold, swollen, and mottled. Cyanosis, a blueness of the skin resulting from imperfectly oxygenated blood, is usually present. Tactile sensitivity is reduced, as is capillary refill time. The extrimity may look shiny. The patient may describe the affected area as feeling wooden. 26 Immersion syndrome usually occurs in three stages. In the first phase, the affected part is cold and without pain. There is a weak pulse at the site. In the second phase, the affected limb feels hot, as though burning, and has shooting pains. In the third phase, the casualty has pale skin, cyanosis around the nailbeds and lips, and decreased pulse strength. 27 When the extremity rewarms, the skin becomes warm, dry, and red. The pulse bounds and the injury is painful. The injured area may itch, tingle, and exhibit increased sensitivity to cold, possibly permanently. Recovery can last weeks. Nerve damage may be permanent. The development of blisters, ulcers, and gangrene is possible. Amputation may also be necessary. 28

Field Management of Immersion Syndrome29

Areas affected by immersion syndrome should be warmed slowly at room temperature. In serious cases, swelling, pain, and blisters will prevent walking. In most cases, the extremity will be sore. Soldiers should avoid walking on injured feet, and the feet should be elevated to reduce swelling. Bed rest and avoidance of trauma are necessary until the injury heals. Soldiers who suffer severe immersion syndrome may be coldweather casualties for an extended period.

COMBAT LIFESAVER TREATMENT FOR IMMERSION SYNDROME

30

Dry the affected part immediately. Rewarm the affected area gradually in warm air. Do not massage the extremity. The affected area will probably become swollen, red, and hot to the touch after it has been rewarmed. Blisters may form. Remove wet clothing and replace with dry, warm clothing. Protect the casualty from injury and infection. Elevate the affected part to reduce edema (swelling). Evacuate to a medical treatment facility as soon as practical.

SNOWBLINDNESS 31
Snowblindness is a temporary, but often painful, condition caused by inadequate eye protection when operating in brilliant sunshine reflecting off snow or light-colored rock. The eyes become bloodshot, feel irritated and full of sand. The proper field management technique is to apply clean, cool, wet compresses to the eyes. The patient should then wear dark, UV-protective glasses. Aspirin can be used to control the pain. Occasionally, it may be necessary to cover the patient's eyes and lead him by the hand to an area where treatment can be administered. Recovery may take two or three days.

SUNBURN 32
Sunburn, often associated with a summer day at the beach, can also become a debilitating cold weather injury. Both first and second degree burns are possible in cold weather operations. First degree burns involve reddening of the skin; second degree burns are characterized by the formation of blisters. Mountain climbers are especially vulnerable to sunburn because they often operate at high altitude environments covered with highly reflective snow fields. The relatively thinner air allows more of the burning rays of the sun to penetrate the atmosphere and reflect off of the snow. Because the air temperature seems relatively cold, soldiers may miscalculate the intensity of the sun or simply be too weary to take preventive action. Clothing provides adequate coverage of the skin; however, exposed areas, such as the face, lips, neck, ears, and bare hands, are susceptible to sunburn. In addition, reflection from snow can cause burns in areas not ordinarily affected, such as under the chin, around the eyes, inside the nostrils and ears, and even on the roof of the mouth. Lack of a hat, where hair is short, thin, or absent, may result in scalp burns. As with any burn -- from sun, rope, or fire -- if the affected area is large, toxic substances absorbed by the body can cause generalized illness. Sunburn usually is treated on first notice by further applications of sunburn preventive. Sun screens/blocks should be used rather than the more common cosmetic suntan preparations. In mild cases, sunburned soldiers can continue their duties even though they may suffer significant discomfort for a few days. In more severe cases, such as second degree sunburn (with blister formation), soldiers should be treated by medical personnel who can assess the impact of their injuries on their assigned duties. If there is much swelling, cold compresses should be applied. Aspirin may be taken for pain, and warm liquids should be administered to replenish body fluids. (Salty liquids can be administered if prescribed by medical personnel. If sunburned soldiers drink salt solutions without medical monitoring, they may become nauseated and vomit, thus compounding their dehydrated state.33)

OTHER CONDITIONS RELATED TO COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

In addition to the injuries directly related to exposure to the cold environment, other physiological conditions can develop which impair soldier performance. These include dehydration, constipation, carbon monoxide poisoning, and tent eye.

DEHYDRATION
Dehydration is a deficiency in body fluids that inhibits body functions. 34 It adversely affects the body's resistance to cold injury. It can cause serious physical problems and make the soldier more susceptible to other problems, such as frostbite and hypothermia. 35 Proper hydration is essential to supplying fuel and energy to body parts to facilitate heat production. Dehydration contributes to poor soldier performance in physical activities, even more so than lack of food. 36 It also adversely affects soldiers' mental attitudes; irritability is an early sign. Cold weather requirements for water are no different than in the desert and may, in fact, exceed desert requirements because of the increased energy expended in operating with additional layers of clothing and trudging through the snow. At high altitudes, the air is very dry; when combined with a rapid rate of respiration, as much as two quarts of fluid per day may be lost just in breathing. Soldiers need approximately four to six quarts of water per day to prevent dehydration when living and performing tasks in cold environments or mountainous regions.

Factors Contributing to Dehydration37

The thirst mechanism does not function properly in cold weather. Soldiers tend to not feel as thirsty as they do when operating in warmer climates. In cold weather operations, water is often inconvenient to obtain and purify. It may take 45-60 minutes to melt and purify enough snow to sustain body hydration. (The contact time for water purification tablets in water is 30 minutes before drinking. 38) There also tends to be a lack of moisture in the air in cold environments, especially at high altitudes. Cold also causes more frequent urination.

Signs of Dehydration39
In addition to irritability, other signs of dehydration include darkening urine, decreased amounts of urine being produced, dry mouth, tiredness, mental sluggishness, lack of appetite, increased or rapid heartbeat, dizziness, and even unconsciousness.

Alleviating Dehydration40
The most important consideration is prevention. Leaders should ensure that soldiers consume four to six quarts of fluid per day. Coffee and liquids containing caffeine (tea, cocoa, soft drinks) should not be considered adequate sources for replenishing body fluids because they act as a diuretic, removing fluids from the body. Drinks containing caffeine should only be consumed in moderation -- not as the primary means of hydration. Alcoholic beverages also contribute to dehydration and should never be consumed during operations. If the soldier is conscious, administer fluids by mouth. If improvement is not obvious in an hour, evacuate the patient to a medical facility. In advanced stages of dehydration, as in the case of an unconscious soldier, immediately evacuate the patient to a medical treatment facility.

CONSTIPATION 41
Constipation is the difficulty in passing feces caused by a deficiency in body fluids (dehydration), improper nutrition, infrequent or irregular defecation, or ignoring nature's call altogether for extended periods.

Factors Contributing to Constipation42

Contributing factors include the unavailability of water, lack of sites protected from the elements to facilitate normal body functions, and not eating the food provided. Symptoms of constipation include loss of appetite, headache, cramping, and painful defecation.

Alleviating Constipation43
Treatment involves the consumption of adequate amounts and variety of foods and water (four to six quarts per day), and responding to nature's call to rid the body of waste. High fiber foods, especially fruits, vegetables, and whole grain breads, are effective in combating constipation if accompanied by regular and adequate amounts of water. If constipation is allowed to progress beyond the self-care stage, medical treatment is necessary.

CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING

44

Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs when oxygen in the body is replaced by carbon monoxide. For soldiers, the main contributing factor is inhalation of fumes produced by fires in areas that lack proper ventilation. Stoves and heaters in tents, and running vehicle engines in which fumes leak into the cab or cargo areas, are primary sources of carbon monoxide poisoning.

Signs and Symptoms of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning45

Signs and symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning progress slowly. At the onset, they may go unnoticed because carbon monoxide is colorless, tasteless, and odorless. Many of the signs and symptoms are similar to other common illnesses: headache, tiredness, excessive yawning, confusion, followed by unconsciousness and, eventually, death. A cherry-red coloring to the tissues of the lips, mouth, and inside the eyelids occurs very late in carbon monoxide poisoning -- when the patient is very near death. If this condition occurs, it may be too late to save the soldier. Action must be taken when earlier signs and symptoms appear.

First Aid for Carbon Monoxide Poisoning46

Immediately remove the victim from the source of contamination. If the soldier is not breathing on his own, administer rescue breathing. If available, give the soldier oxygen. Then, immediately evacuate the soldier to a medical facility; severe complications can develop, even in casualties who appear to have recovered perfectly. Prevention is the key. Carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented if unit leaders enforce a few simple rules: Don't permit soldiers to sleep in vehicles while engines are operating. Ensure tent stoves and heaters are regularly serviced and inspected to confirm safe operation; ensure that sleeping tents have proper ventilation.

TENT EYE 47
Tent eye is caused by fumes emanating from stoves and lanterns operated in a poorly ventilated shelter. It can be prevented by using properly functioning stoves and lanterns, and adequately ventilating the shelter. First aid for tent eye is fresh air.

CASUALTY EVACUATION 48
Helicopters, if available, are the preferred method of evacuation for injured or wounded soldiers; however, ground evacuation should always be planned. Cold injuries, as with all serious wounds and injuries, need prompt medical intervention. Helicopters provide rapid, direct transport of casualties to medical facilities. Generally, they also provide a smoother, less intrusive ride for the patient. However, helicopter operations are somewhat more affected by weather phenomena than are other means of patient transport. In the winter, other forms of transportation can also be affected by adverse weather conditions which can make ground transport treacherous. Helicopters, weather and tactical conditions permitting, can also get to areas that are inaccessible to ground vehicles. Ground ambulance is the second choice for patient evacuation -- but it should always be the planned method of evacuation. Units should plan on using ground transportation and regard helicopter evacuation as a bonus if it becomes available. Units operating in snowy terrain should have small unit support vehicles (SUSVs) available for medical evacuation. In wintry conditions, these tracked vehicles are preferred over wheeled vehicles, especially if the casualty is located in a remote, roadless area. The least preferred method of casualty transport is by sled. However, terrain and weather conditions can prevent a vehicle from reaching the casualty's position. The decision, then, is whether to risk further injury to the patient and possible injury to a sled team by attempting an evacuation on foot. Keeping the casualty where he is and obtaining medical advice by radio until an evacuation vehicle can reach the patient may be the only option.

SUMMING UP COLD WEATHER INJURIES: PREVENTION IS THE KEY

Cold injuries are always a possibility in cold environments. If allowed to develop, they can be debilitating to soldiers, diminishing a unit's combat power. However, leaders and soldiers can successfully avoid hypothermia, frostbite, and other adverse cold weather-related conditions 24 hours a day by practicing prevention. Attentive leadership is essential to ensure soldiers have, and are using, available cold weather clothing and equipment. A buddy system reinforces attentive leadership and helps the soldier monitor the fitness of a fellow soldier to ensure the buddy is eating properly, drinking adequate amounts of water, dressing warmly, and that individual and unit equipment is maintained and functional. During cold weather operations, leaders must continually check the fitness of their soldiers as well as the adequacy and condition of their clothing and equipment. Rapid evacuation of cold weather casualties is essential to minimize long-term effects of cold injuries and to save lives. Helicopter evacuation is the preferred method of transport; however, ground evacuation should always be planned. Risks to the patient, the unit, and the mission must be assessed.

__________
Chapter 12, AR 350-41, Training in Units, 19 April 1993, p. 22. Ibid., p. 22. 3 Tod Schimelpfenig and Linda Lindsey, NOLS Wilderness First Aid, 2d edition (1993), published by the National Outdoor Leadership School and Stackpole Books, pp. 160-165. 4 Ibid., pp. 161-163. 5 Adapted from MOUNTAINEERING, The Freedom of the Hills, edited by Ed Peters, p. 436.
2 1

Schimelpfenig and Lindsey, pp. 164-165. Ibid., pp. 164-165. 8 Ibid., p. 167. 9 Ibid., pp. 164-165. 10 Ibid., p. 165. 11 Ibid., p. 168. 12 Peters, p. 438. 13 Medical Tasks, Combat Lifesaver Course, Subcourse IS 0825, Edition A, The Army Institute for Professional Development, Army Correspondence Course Program, pp. 81-82. 14 Adapted from TC 90-6-1, pp. 1-46 to 1-48. 15 Ibid., p. 1-46 16 Ibid., p. 1-46. 17 Schimelphenig and Lindsey, p. 170. 18 TC 90-6-1, p. 1-46. 19 Ibid., p. 1-47. 20 Schimelphenig and Lindsey, p. 170. 21 Medical Tasks, pp. 80-81. 22 Ibid., p. 78. 23 Ibid., p. 78. 24 Ibid., p. 78. 25 Schimelphenig and Lindsey, p. 173. 26 Ibid., p. 175. 27 Medical Tasks, p. 78. 28 Schimelphenig and Lindsey, p. 175. 29 Ibid., p. 176. 30 Medical Tasks, p. 79. 31 Peters, p. 443.
7

NOTES (Continued from page III-12)

Ibid., p. 443. USAMEDDC&S comment to coordinating draft, on file at CALL. 34 Winter Operations Manual, p. 7-2. 35 TC 21-3, Soldiers Handbook for Individual Operations and Survival in Cold-Weather Areas, May 1986, p. 86. 36 Winter Operations Manual, p. 7-2. 37 Ibid., p. 7-5. 38 USAMEDDC&S comment to coordinating draft, on file at CALL. 39 Winter Operations Manual, p. 7-5. 40 Ibid., p. 7-5. 41 Ibid., p. 7-5. 42 Ibid., p. 7-5. 43 Ibid., p. 7-5. 44 Ibid., pp. 7-5 to 7-6. 45 Ibid., p. 7-5. 46 Ibid., p. 7-6. 47 Ibid., p. 7-7. 48 Ibid., p. 7-11.
33 32

SECTION IV

LEADERSHIP IN COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS1

he process of developing soldiers into cold weather fighters requires positive leadership. Leaders must understand the environmental threat and include plans for countering this threat in their operational plans or tactical standing operating procedures. Initially, the cold environment may be alarming, even frightening, to soldiers unaccustomed to operating in wintry conditions, especially when deployed to unfamiliar, remote areas. Some soldiers will find themselves confronted with challenges they have not encountered before. The cold becomes a constant reminder to the soldier of his vulnerability in the extreme environment and the likelihood of him becoming a casualty should he make a mistake. As soldiers gain experience, they develop confidence in themselves, their clothing, and their equipment, and learn they can fight and win in the winter, defeating both the cold and the enemy before them. Aggressive, cheerful leadership is essential in helping soldiers overcome the challenges of the cold environment. To defeat the enemy, soldiers must first overcome the cold by learning how to live and survive the elements so they can focus on the enemy. Leaders must maintain a positive attitude toward the mission, their soldiers, and the equipment they have to carry out the tasks at hand. Intense cold affects the mind as well as the body. Essential tasks take longer to perform and require more effort than in temperate climates. This should be considered when planning operations and giving orders -- even for such routine tasks as vehicle maintenance and making or striking camp. There is no simple formula for the extra time required to accomplish tasks; it varies with differing conditions, state of training, and degree of acclimatization of the troops. It should not, however, be used as an excuse for overinsurance; troops readied unnecessarily early or left standing in the open after striking camp will suffer physically. Their morale will ebb -- possibly at times when it should be at a high pitch.

Tips for Leaders 2

Leaders need to be aware of the symptoms that characterize a unit that is having difficulty coping with the cold environment. The following tips will help combat the effects of the cold when it begins to prey on the minds of soldiers. If soldiers find it hard to remember things they have been taught, show patience; review orders and drills. Get them to think through the challenges of the environment and the mission; encourage them to ask questions. Keep their minds busy. Be alert for soldiers who tend to withdraw from the group's focus; keep them involved. Soldiers who withdraw into themselves should be paired, in a buddy system, with soldiers who are well acclimatized to the cold environment. Remind them that everyone is in the same situation, including the enemy. If soldiers get depressed, moody, or blue, and do not want to talk, encourage them to chat with each other. Circulate among the troops in their duty areas. Keep them talking and interacting. If soldiers become irritable and get on each other's nerves, keep in mind that this is likely to happen. Maintain your sense of humor and show patience. Vary their duties. Be aware that soldiers may tend to shirk from some tasks to keep themselves warm. Remind them that their job is to fight -- that weapons and equipment must be kept in fighting order. During winter training, don't let the training become a camping trip; this is a common trap. Don't accept the cold as an excuse for not carrying out orders or routine tasks. It may be the reason for taking longer, but it is not a reason for letting things slide. Remember that, although the cold may make tasks more difficult to accomplish, it does not make them impossible. With knowledge, equipment, and proper training, leaders and soldiers can defeat the cold and be successful in combat. Plan frequent rotation of soldiers into warming tents/areas to provide relief from the cold. Provide warm liquids (noncaffeine) at frequent intervals, especially when rotating soldiers into warming tents/areas. Plan and provide extra insulating material for individuals, when available. __________
Winter Operations Manual (1 Oct 89), published by the U.S. Army Northern Warfare Training Center, Fort Greely, AK, pp. 3-4 to 3-5.
2 1

Ibid., p. 3-5.

SECTION V

INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

THE COLD WEATHER CLOTHING SYSTEM

Leaders should understand the design principles of the military cold weather clothing system . These principles are: Insulate Layer Ventilate

Insulate 2
Insulation allows the creation of a microclimate around the body through which the amount of body heat lost to the environment can be regulated. By varying the amount of insulation, a soldier can regulate the amount of heat lost or retained.

Layer3
Several layers of clothing provide more insulation and flexibility than one heavy garment, even if the heavy garment is as thick as the combined layers. By adding or removing layers of clothing (insulation), the soldier can regulate the amount of heat lost or retained.

Ventilate 4
Ventilation helps maintain a comfortable microclimate around the body, thereby helping control body temperature. By ventilating, the soldier can release excess heat and minimize sweating which can lower body temperature later as it evaporates.

Making the Principles Work 5

There are four ways to apply the principles in the military cold weather clothing system. Keep it -- Clean

Overheating Wear it -- Loose in layers Keep it -- Dry

Avoid -Keep clothing clean. Dirt and grease clog the air spaces in clothing and reduce the insulating effect. Dirty clothes are cold clothes. Avoid overheating. Select the clothing needed to stay comfortable, or even a little cool. Leaders should ensure that their soldiers are not overdressed for the job they are performing. Wear it loose. All items of the cold weather uniform are sized to allow wearing of the appropriate number of layers; this means, for example, that the field jacket may appear too large when worn without all of the layers designed to fit under it. If the uniform items do not fit loosely, the insulation will be substantially reduced. Keep it dry. It is vital that all layers of clothing be kept dry because wet clothing conducts heat away from the body, compromising the microclimate around the body and making it difficult to regulate body temperature. Moisture soaks into clothing from two directions; from melting snow and frost that has collected on the outside of the clothing, and from perspiration. Leaders should ensure that soldiers brush snow and frost from clothing before entering heated shelters or vehicles.

EXTENDED COLD WEATHER CLOTHING SYSTEM (ECWCS)

The ECWCS is an insulated layering system designed to reduce the cumbersome weight of the current cold weather clothing systems while maintaining adequate environmental protection between 40 F and -60 F. Due to the layering design of this system, the user may add or remove clothing layers to suit conditions and individual preferences. Synthetic fibers and innovative fabric constructions allow moisture, the prime conductor of the cold to the skin, to be removed quickly and efficiently from the system. The ECWCS issue consists of the following: Layer 1 -- Polypropylene undershirt and drawers, with standard wool socks (two-sock system is preferred with a thin liner sock and a heavier wool outer sock). Layer 2 -- Bib overall, cold weather shirt and trouser liner. Layer 3 -- Coat liner and field trousers. Layer 4 -- Extended cold weather camouflage parka and trousers. Layer 5 -- Snow camouflage parka and trousers (overwhites). Standard trigger finger inserts and arctic mittens; standard or Nomex balaclava, standard VB boot. (The Army has recently type-classified a lightweight boot which may be available to the troops by the winter of 1996-1997.)

TIPS ON WEARING AND MAINTAINING CLOTHING

Field trouser liners are sometimes substituted for the wool field trousers and function well in a cold, wet environment. Parka and liner may be substituted for the field coat and liner. When deciding how to configure the uniform, determine the degree of protection your personnel require, and select the items which best meet those needs. Remember to keep it loose. When drying wet clothing, Hang items separately. Do not place anything too close to a stove. Do not allow items to be hung directly over a stove. Do not hang clothes over steaming pots. Discourage soldiers from placing wet clothing in their sleeping bags. This practice transfers moisture from the clothing to the sleeping bag, which is more difficult to dry than clothing. When drying damp clothing, Hang damp items on the pack while on the march, weather permitting. If the temperature is below freezing, items will freeze (they still may dry through the process of sublimation if the humidity is low). Place damp articles close to the body between the innermost layer of clothing and the next layer so body heat can dry the items. Small, damp items can be placed in the sleeping bag; theyll dry by morning. When washing clothing is not possible, have soldiers dry-rub and air their clothing. Do not allow soldiers to wear their boots when warming their feet next to an open fire. Soldiers should remove their boots before warming their feet. Soldiers should not wear boots in their sleeping bags. However, if the tactical situation dictates that boots should be worn while sleeping, the feet should be dried, foot powder applied, and dry socks should be worn. This should be a last resort since wearing boots while sleeping can be dangerous; it may increase the risk of foot injury from immersion foot or frostbite. While sleeping, soldiers should put their boots in a waterproof bag under the sleeping bag. Dry boots can be placed inside the sleeping bag under the knees or behind the head as a pillow -- theyll be toasty warm in the morning.

COLD WEATHER EQUIPMENT

Sleeping Equipment 9

Sleeping equipment consists of a sleeping bag, an insulated sleeping mat, and a waterproof bag. There are two types of sleeping bags. Type I. This sleeping bag is designed for intermediate cold, for temperatures ranging between 45 F and 10 F. It is made with polyester batting for insulation and weighs 7.5 pounds. Type II. This bag is designed for extreme cold, temperature range between 10 F and -50 F. Its insulation is made up of waterfowl feathers, down, and polyester batting, weighing 9.5 pounds. Strap it to the outside of the pack as it will use up all the space inside the pack. Leaders should ensure that their soldiers are issued sleeping bags appropriate for the temperatures you expect to encounter, and that each soldier has a sleeping bag cover. The insulated sleeping mat has replaced the pneumatic mattress. It provides excellent insulation from cold ground or snow when used with the sleeping bag. It is also useful for sentries and soldiers in ambush positions who must remain prone for extended periods.

Load-carrying Equipment 10
The ALICE pack is available in medium and large sizes. The large size is preferred. In more temperate environments, the method with which a soldier organizes his pack is not of great concern; however, during cold weather operations, commanders should establish a standard pack organization system for all soldiers. The aim is to avoid having to unpack during halts to get to frequently needed items. Here are some suggestions: Small External Pockets. Use these pockets for small, high energy foods (candy, cereal bars) to be eaten while on the move. They may freeze, but can be consumed. If freezing is undesirable, use the inside pocket of the parka or between layers of clothing. Large, External Pockets. Use these pockets for rations for morning and evening meals, extra socks, scarf, and spare cap. Use openings behind pocket compartments for skis or other long items. External Attachment Points. Attach the sleeping mat to the bottom of the pack or under the top flap. Also use the attachment points for other combat items, as required. Top Flap. Use the top flap for camouflage overwhites and pack cover. Main Compartment. Pack the sleeping bag in the bottom of the pack. Use the upper half for spare clothes, where they can be easily reached.

Over-snow Movement Equipment 11

Before deciding to use snowshoes or skis, always determine if movement by foot is feasible; in shallow snow (30cm or less) or heavily crusted snow, movement on foot provides better maneuverability with the least expenditure of energy. Snowshoes. These are made of a white, magnesium frame, laced with nylon-coated steel cable. They are approximately 48" x 12" and weigh 4.8 pounds with bindings. Here are some tips to consider when using snowshoes. Check bindings for proper adjustment. When properly adjusted, the toe of the boot will extend approximately halfway across the opening in the snowshoe. The toe strap should be firm, but not so tight that it restricts circulation. The heel straps should permit minimal side-to-side movement. Ski poles are very useful in any terrain when moving on snowshoes. Skis. Standard military skis are approximately 200 cm in length, have a hole in the tip for towing, and a groove in the heel for attaching mohair climbers. Ski Bindings. Currently, there is no standard ski binding in the military supply system. The old, all terrain (balata) ski binding is no longer in production. Two binding systems have been typeclassified. One is Nordic-capable system; the other is a binding capable of both Nordic and Alpine applications. Ski Poles. The military ski pole consists of a steel shaft with rubber hand grips and baskets, and a leather wrist strap. Poles are available in three lengths: 130, 137, and 147 cms. When fitting the poles, the soldier should stand on the floor and place the pole at his side. It should come to the point of his shoulder (about 1" below the top of the shoulder). Mohair Ski Climbers. Mohair climbers are attached to the bottom of the skis for added grip when climbing steep slopes. These climbing skins are attached at the tips and tails of the skis and kept in place with a mastic substance on the back of the skins. Using climbing skins eliminates the need for waxes. (Sticks taped to the skis are an easy alternative to climbing skins.) Ski Waxes. If waxes are used, try red wax for wet snow (above 32 F) and blue for dry snow (below 32 F). Other waxes are available for specific conditions (melt/freeze/old snow).

Miscellaneous Equipment 12
Sunglasses. Tinted, UV-protective sunglasses should always be worn on bright days when the ground is covered with snow. Even on overcast days, when the need for them is less apparent, they should be worn to prevent snow blindness. A snow-blind soldier is a liability to the unit. Leaders should ensure soldiers have sunglasses and require that they be worn. Protective Masks. Prior to an operation, leaders should make certain their soldiers have cold weather winterization kits for their protective masks.

Canteens. The plastic canteen, when filled with water, will freeze very quickly in cold weather if it is carried in the standard fabric carrier. Since the canteen cannot be applied directly to a heat source, there is no quick method for thawing it. Whenever possible, the canteen should be carried in one of the interior uniform pockets or wrapped in clothing and placed in the pack. During extreme cold, soldiers should not fill the canteen over two-thirds full to allow for expansion should ice form. The insulated canteen is a one-quart capacity stainless steel vacuum bottle. It is provided with a cotton duct cover and a stainless steel cup. Although this canteen will help keep water from freezing, it has several deficiencies. First, it is difficult to fill; second, it must be propped up to keep from spilling; and third, it is easily rendered unserviceable. It should not be filled to over two thirds during extreme cold. Personal Items. Soldiers should carry the following items with them at all times. Small, sharp knife. Matches, in a waterproof container. Five meters of strong nylon cord. Small flashlight. Sunscreen or sun block. Emergency rations equal to 2,500 calories (two MREs). Chapstick. Candle. Small brush. Sunglasses. Whistle. __________
Winter Operations Manual (1 Oct 89), published by the U.S. Army Northern Warfare Training Center, Fort Greely, AK, pp. 4-1 to 4-23. 2 Ibid., p. 4-2. 3 Ibid., p. 4-3. 4 Ibid., p. 4-3. 5 Ibid., p. 4-3. 6 Ibid., pp. 4-11 to 4-14. 7 Ibid., pp. 4-15 to 4-16. 8 Ibid., pp. 4-16 to 4-23. 9 Ibid., p. 4-16. 10 Ibid., p. 4-18. 11 Ibid., p. 4-18. 12 Ibid., p. 4-18.
1

SECTION VI

LIVING IN THE WINTER

o fight and win in the winter, soldiers must first learn to live and function in the harsh, cold weather environment. This includes the daily requirements of eating, drinking, camping, sleeping, and taking care of personal hygiene.

NUTRITION 1
The greater portion of what we eat and drink maintains our body heat, while only a small proportion is used to produce energy for physical work. A larger intake of calories is needed in a cold climate than in temperate zones. A soldier needs approximately 4,500 calories per day to perform hard work in the cold; otherwise, efficiency is likely to fall off rapidly. 2 The body loses liquid at an exceptional rate in arctic conditions. Regardless of how carefully one adjusts cold weather clothing, the heavy exertion of energy required to move on foot through the snow and to prepare bivouacs and defenses exacts a significant toll on the soldier in the form of moisture loss through sweating and breathing. 3 Thus, eating and drinking are primary considerations in sustaining the soldier's will and capacity to fight and win in the winter.

Rations4
In cold weather operations, soldiers may be fed any of three different types of combat rations: arctic ration, Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE), and the Long-Range Patrol Ration (LRPR). Arctic Rations. These rations have been developed to provide the 4,500 calories needed daily to effectively sustain a soldier living and fighting in the cold. They also have the correct proportion of carbohydrates, fat, and protein to sustain health -- if the soldier consumes all of his ration at each meal. Meals should be properly spaced to sustain performance. Lethargy induced by the cold, combined with the difficulty and inconvenience of cooking, may sometimes tempt soldiers to skip or skimp on meals. In cold weather, the principles of sound leadership and discipline require that meals be prepared regularly, and that the entire ration be eaten. Arctic rations, which have been described as being similar to civilian junk food, provide snacks which can be eaten throughout the day. MREs. These rations provide 1,223 calories per meal. However, they do contain liquids which may freeze in cold weather. Soldiers should carry the individual, liquid-containing food items in their shirt pockets inside their field jackets or ECWCS parkas. LRPRs. These rations provide 1,131 calories per meal. They are lightweight, nourishing rations that can be easily prepared in hot water. Leaders must ensure that soldiers are on a four-meals-a-day regimen to gain the necessary calorie intake for living and fighting in the winter. (This ration is to be replaced by the Food Packet, Assault, containing 1,530 calories.)

Liquids5
Soldiers operating in a cold environment lose between 3.5 and 5 quarts of fluids per day, depending on their level of exertion. This loss must be replaced each day to keep the body functioning properly and to help ward off cold injuries. Several points should be kept in mind: Leaders should insist that as much of the daily liquid as possible be taken as hot, noncaffeine drinks. When practical, begin main meals with soup. Between-meal snacks should be based on a hot drink with plenty of sugar. Potable water may be delivered to soldiers by way of unit distribution from a direct support supply unit. This is the preferred method because the water is already safe to drink. Also, some units, especially light infantry, may not have the necessary means with which to go to a water point, draw the water, and transport it back to the unit area. If unit distribution of potable water is impossible and supply point distribution is impractical, water may be readily available from streams, lakes, snow, or ice. However, water obtained directly from these natural sources, or other sources in which potability cannot be verified, must be purified before being provided to soldiers for consumption. Water from streams or lakes is more readily made potable than snow or ice, which must be melted. Fuel to melt snow and ice may be a limiting factor. Allow milky, glacial water to stand until the coarser sediment settles. Pour the clearer water off the sediment and purify it. If a hole is cut through ice to get water, cover it by a snow block, a board, or a poncho covered with snow to prevent refreezing. In very cold weather, break the hole open frequently. Clearly mark water holes so that they can be easily found again. If no free water is available and snow or ice is the only source for obtaining water, it must be melted and purified. Ice produces more water in less time than snow. When melting snow, place a small amount into the cooking pot, initially. When this snow has melted, add more to the pot. Continue this process until enough water is produced. Whatever the source of water, purify it by boiling rapidly for three to five minutes or by using water purification tablets. Always have a stove and fuel available to make emergency water in the event the primary source dries up or freezes.

Nutrition Tips for Leaders6

Ensure your soldiers eat all their rations. Allow time for hot meals, which are more satisfying than cold rations. Encourage soldiers to save some snacks (cookies, candy) for between meals and when on the march. Train your soldiers to drink plenty of hot liquids, especially noncaffeine liquids, such as soups, to prevent dehydration. Ensure stoves are filled each night, and that enough water has been prepared for breakfast. Use all available stoves when heating water since this is the most time-consuming operation. Melting and purifying sufficient snow or ice for beverages may take 45-60 minutes. Moreover, anytime the stove is operating, continue melting snow/ice. When operating the Yukon stove, always use a cooking pot to melt ice or snow. Keep canteens and water cans full from this reservoir. Do not use containers that have been used to store petroleum products, containers that are painted on the inside, or tightly closed containers. These containers can cause illness if used to melt snow or ice for drinking. Designate areas from which ice or snow will be taken for water production well away from, and upwind of, latrine and garbage disposal sites. Keep a plastic trash bag filled with snow handy to minimize the trips to gather snow/ice. Discourage your soldiers from eating snow or ice; it may reduce body temperature and can result in painful cracking of lips, making them vulnerable to infection. Train soldiers to refill their canteens regularly, and to carry one canteen close to the body. Plan so that your soldiers never have to stand around in the cold. If it is unavoidable, plan to provide hot drinks and snacks, if possible. Use the buddy system to check on the condition of the soldiers. Circulate among the troops to check for early stages of cold injury. Prohibit consumption of alcoholic beverages. The perceived warming effects of alcoholic beverages are illusory and are brought about by a quick release of internal body heat through increased circulation of the blood to the surface of the skin. This temporary feeling of warmth is soon lost, leaving the soldier much colder than before. It also promotes dehydration.

PERSONAL HYGIENE 7
Personal hygiene is difficult, at best, in cold weather operations. Water is precious, especially that produced from snow or ice. It should be produced and purified for consumption. The following techniques and procedures can be used to maintain minimal personal hygiene in the field, especially if laundry and bath support is not readily available. Shave, if necessary, at night in the shelter so that facial oils stripped during shaving will be replenished overnight before the face is again exposed to the elements. Brush teeth daily. If a toothbrush is not available, chew the end of a twig into a make-shift brush. If a twig is not available, salt on a fingertip can suffice if applied gently. Change underwear as frequently as practical, at least twice weekly. Change socks as often as needed to keep the feet dry. Use foot powder as a dry rub to clean the feet.

Foot Care8
Toenails. Trim toenails straight across at approximately a 90-degree angle with the edges of the nails. This relieves pressure at the edges of the nails, permitting the nail to arch in the middle, so that the corners won't cut/dig into the skin below. Foot Powder. Use foot powder to dry feet. Apply powder on feet and between toes. Remove excess. Do not put foot powder in socks; extra powder may cake and hasten the onset of blisters. Blisters. Blisters can become a problem unless they are treated at first sign of irritation, before a blister actually forms. Tape over a developing hot spot; the bandage should be sufficiently large that the tape touches only nonirritated skin. Once a blister has formed, apply a doughnut-type bandage to relieve pressure on the blister. Again, the doughnut and bandage should be large enough to encircle the blister and avoid further irritation of the blistered area. Use tincture of benzoin to help the tape adhere to the skin; it also helps toughen the skin. Never lance or drain blisters unless they are surrounded by redness or they are oozing purulent material indicating infection. If this is the case, drain the blister, clean it with soap and water, and cover with a clean, dry dressing until it can be assessed by medical personnel.

BIVOUAC SITES 9
Tactical bivouacs (other than those established as long term or relatively permanent bases) are designed to provide temporary living accommodations within a defended position. The tactical bivouac, seldom occupied for more than one night, is normally established after last light of day, and requires minimum preparation. It is organized for a rapid and disciplined response to enemy action. A defended position is likely to be occupied for longer than a tactical bivouac and should be organized accordingly. The layout and placement of tents or shelters must be carefully coordinated with the defense. Planning considerations are: All-around defense. Mutual support. Concealment

Selecting a Tactical Bivouac10

Forested Areas. Forests provide excellent sites; camouflage is usually natural, and building materials, firewood, and wood for insulation are readily available. Pine and spruce grow on welldrained soil. Forested areas are the most desirable locations for campsites. Marshy Ground. Frozen swampy areas are acceptable sites, as are lake shores and the banks of rivers -- if the site selected is well above flood level. Open Country. If possible, avoid open country. It is exposed to strong winds and drifting snow, and also provides poor concealment. If open country cannot be avoided, seek natural shelters offered by depressions or situate the bivouac behind pressure ridges of ice on lakes and glaciers. If no natural windbreaks exist, dig shelters deep into the snow, and use snow blocks to construct windbreaks. Masking infrared signature must also be considered. Mountainous Areas. Normally, these are open areas, especially above the tree line, and offer little shelter. In mountains, it is difficult to find an area large enough for a company. Usually, platoons set up near a central point; however, they still need to establish their own 360-degree defense. During high winds, pockets of comparatively still air occur in the shelter of a leeward slop; such locations should be sought. Deep valleys should be avoided as cold air gathers in such places. Avalanches can occur on steep slopes, and their likely paths must be avoided. To assess the avalanche threat, look for these signs: Heavy snow overlaying a crust of ice (generally the result of a freeze after a thaw). Steep slopes with significant snow load. Avoid likely avalanche runout zones. Evidence of avalanches in previous years. This may be a swath cut through the trees (branches stripped off, and broken tree stumps of varying height), or a smooth clear strip of ground running down the mountain.

Assessing the Tactical Bivouac11

In addition to the geographic and environmental factors, consider the following tactical factors when selecting the location of the encampment. Proximity of the enemy. Likelihood of enemy patrols. Air threat. Defensibility of the encampment. Dominating features from which an attack could develop. Wind direction -- which carries sounds of movement. Situate the bivouac downwind of likely enemy approach routes, particularly when wind speeds are low. Escape routes if a hurried move is required. Availability of camouflage materials. In good weather or bright moonlight, situate the bivouac in an area of deep shadow such as in a wooded area or on the northern slope of a ridge.

Bivouac Site Reconnaissance12

The reconnaissance party precedes the main body of the force to lay out the bivouac site and receive and situate the troops as they arrive. Consider the following points. Site the bivouac -- and a dummy site, if necessary. Establish track plans before anyone enters the camp. Normally, the incoming track will be extended well beyond the area of the actual campsite and may lead to a dummy position. Establish a camp track off the incoming track (preferably at an acute angle) leading into the main campsite. This track becomes primary camp track, the main street. Establish secondary tracks leading off the main street into unit areas. Site tent groups in the unit areas, which are usually connected by a simple spoke-wheel plan. Select defensive sectors. Mark tent sites. Select areas for cutting brushwood. Members of the reconnaissance party guide main-body elements to their planned locations. The reconnaissance party also provides site security until arrival of the main body.

Occupying a Tactical Bivouac13

Arrange a rendezvous whereby guides from the reconnaissance party meet the main body of troops and explain the layout of the camp and the track plan. The guides then lead the elements of the main body into their respective positions. Once in position, the commander confirms the decisions made by the reconnaissance party. Important considerations include: Breaking or marking the trails to be used in the camp area. Designating a temporary location for stacking weapons and equipment to prevent losing them in the snow while units fall in on their designated sites within the camp. Determining the types of field defenses to be constructed and siting them. Designating areas for obtaining construction materials, collecting snow and ice for water, positioning latrines, and disposing garbage. If tents are not used, deciding the type of improvised shelters to be constructed. Preparing hot meals and drinks. The first priority is preparing defenses. The timing of any meal or snack should be determined by the progress made in establishing the encampment, and the need for shelter due to weather conditions.

Protecting a Tactical Bivouac14

A tactical bivouac must be protected by a system of listening posts, sentries, and warning devices appropriate to the proximity of the enemy based on the length of time the bivouac site is occupied and the tactical situation. A bivouac that is an integral part of a defensive position will normally get its protection as part of the overall defense plan. Other considerations are: Protect tactical bivouacs by establishing listening posts and warning devices that can be quickly positioned. Establish listening posts on likely enemy avenues of approach. Emplace trip wires and night observation devices to deceive the enemy while providing early warning. Approach all listening posts, observation posts, and devices outside the perimeter from the flank so enemy patrols are not led to the bivouac site. If a bivouac is close to the enemy or vulnerable to attack, troops not on duty should rest in their sleeping bags (with the zipper open), and be fully clothed with boots on. Minimize lighting in tents to preserve night vision and reduce unit signature. Devise an alarm system that will alert each tent commander. When the alarm is given, the occupants of a tent prepare to move, but no one moves until all are ready. Extinguish the light before the tent is vacated.

Establishing Garbage Pits15

Whenever possible, dispose of all garbage in pits; burn or bury it prior to departure. There should be a pit for each platoon. Patrols should never leave behind any evidence of their presence in an area; all waste should be carried until it can be disposed of properly to avoid giving away potential intelligence to the enemy about patrol or campsite locations or activities. During training, bag all trash and garbage and haul it to the rear for disposal.

Establishing Latrines16
Normally, a central latrine should be established if dispersion within the camp is not too great. One latrine will usually serve the needs of three to four shelters or a unit of platoon size. Chemical toilets are the preferred latrine devices. An alternate facility for training exercises is the burn-out latrine. (Federal, state, local, and many host-nation laws prohibit construction of pit/straddle, trench/cross-tree latrines.) The latrine must be placed downwind of the campsite, but not so far from the shelters that the placement encourages individuals to break sanitary discipline. It should be wind-proofed by branches, snow blocks, ponchos, or other available materials, and should be camouflaged. For training, an empty MRE box, lined with a trash bag, can suffice. Full bags can be sealed, left in the box, and then hauled to the rear.

Duties of the Tent Group Leader17

The tent group leader should ensure that: Water is produced continuously. Sleeping space is properly allocated. Equipment is conveniently placed outside the tent -- with weapons and stores on one side of the door and fuel to the other side, marked to avoid loss in the snow. Track, camouflage, and blackout/light disciplines are maintained. Housekeeping duties are performed on a roster basis. Guards and sentries know where their reliefs are sleeping. Tent is de-iced and drifted snow is moved away so the tent does not sag or collapse. Fire precautions are observed. Stoves and lamps are filled outside the tent. Stove, lamps, and equipment are regularly maintained. Snow is brushed off clothing and equipment before entering the shelter. Soldiers dry their clothes at every opportunity. All rations are consumed or any remaining portions are saved for snacks, and each soldier receives and eats the proper amount of food each day. Cooking utensils are cleaned after each meal. The highest standards of personal hygiene and sanitation are maintained .

Sentries18
In very cold conditions, sentries can remain alert only for very short periods; they cannot look into the wind for long and, in spite of frequent reliefs, can hear and see little after extended exposure to the elements. Leaders must use their judgment on how long a soldier can perform duty out in the cold. The time will vary with the temperature, degree of windchill, and visibility. The following suggestions may apply in some circumstances. A number of combined living and fighting positions might be established on likely enemy approaches to situate small, standing patrols, with a warning system to give notice to those in the main position of enemy approach. One complete sub-unit might be used to provide all sentries, allowing the remainder of the force an extended period of time out of the cold for rest and warmth. Doubling all guards so that one soldier is on guard and one is serving as fire guard in a shelter. Their positions can then be changed every 30 minutes or so, with the fire guard going out to relieve the sentry on the post. Both soldiers should be relieved at staggered intervals.

Heating at Night19
Heating shelters at night requires that a soldier in each shelter be on duty as fire guard at all times when someone is sleeping in the tent. A fire guard can make use of the time by cleaning his weapon and equipment, washing and shaving, and preparing hot drinks for the sentries outside. The advantage of heating is that soldiers will lose less body heat and conserve more energy when asleep. Their performance during the day will be correspondingly better. Train soldiers to dry wet clothing in a heated shelter. They should not wear wet clothing when going to sleep in their sleeping bags in an effort to dry them. In a heated shelter, troops are more prepared to meet an enemy threat as they need not be in their sleeping bags, but can sleep fully clothed on top of them.

TENT FIRES 20
Fire can engulf a tent in less than 10 seconds and destroy it in one minute, giving soldiers very little time to react and save fellow soldiers. One fire guard was refueling a commercial kerosene radiant space heater while it was running. The soldier overfilled the gas tank and the fuel exploded. The soldier was injured by burning fuel; the tent was destroyed. More than 80 percent of tent fires are caused by human errors. The most common error is leaving a hot stove unattended. In one incident, a soldier left the stove burning after getting warm. All was well when he left the tent. When another soldier entered the tent to get some reports, he saw flames around the bottom of the stove. The tent burned to the ground in less than two minutes. In another incident, soldiers created a dangerous situation just trying to keep warm; they piled grass and pine needles on the floor for insulation. Using combustible insulating materials in tents with stoves is extremely hazardous; stoves in tents with wood floors must be in sandboxes. Soldiers should never attempt to light a burner while the burner and heater are warm. Never substitute MOGAS for the appropriate fuel. (The Yukon stove uses MOGAS.) One soldier poured fuel from an unmarked can into a paper cup to refuel a burning kerosene heater inside the tent he shared with four other soldiers. Unfortunately, the unmarked can contained MOGAS. Vapors from the MOGAS filled the tent and were ignited by a lit propane lantern hanging above the heater. Fortunately, all five soldiers exited without injury, but the tent and all the soldiers gear were destroyed. A faulty carburetor caused one tent fire; a severed fitting on the heater head caused another. Adequate inspections and maintenance will usually catch such deficiencies, as well as leaking valves, holes in gas cans, and improper assembly. Every stove and all its components should be thoroughly cleaned and inspected before using or storing. Fuel should not be taken inside a tent warmed by fire. Soldiers should not drop cigarettes butts around combustible materials or go to sleep with a lantern or candle burning. If a tent fire does occur, soldiers must know and practice safe firefighting procedures. The first and most important task is to evacuate the tent. Do not open a stove while it is still hot, even after a flameup has subsided, because it allows fresh air to feed the fire and it will reignite. Soldiers should not attempt to remove hot stoves from tents. Hot surfaces can contact tent flaps and set them aflame. The first response is to save soldiers lives; seconds count.

HOT TIPS ON HEATING TENTS 21

TM 10-4500-200-13 and TM 5-4540-202-12 contain complete instructions for the use of space heaters and immersion heaters. Even in extreme cold, do not operate heaters at full capacity. An overheated stovepipe may ignite the tent, and high temperatures can warp grates and damage other components. Provide sufficient ventilation for fresh air to enter the tent at all times; ensure fire extinguishers are available in every tent that has a stove or heater. Do not leave heaters unattended because, as fuel levels decline, pressure drops and the drip valve must be readjusted to maintain the proper flame. Dont leave stoves on when everyone is asleep unless a fireguard is posted. An unwatched fire in a tent full of sleeping soldiers can be deadly in mere seconds. When lighting a heater, always turn face away from chamber door. If a flash occurs, it will most likely happen when the fuel first ignites. Before lighting a Yukon stove, it is a good practice for all soldiers to leave the tent except the soldier lighting the stove. Keep stoves clean. However, the practice of hitting a hot stovepipe and pouring in a little water to clean out soot is extremely dangerous. Throwing blanks into a burning stove to clean out carbon buildup in the stovepipe is even worse. Adding water to a gas fire will cause the fire to flame up and spread.

Organizing the Tent22

Tents are just large enough to provide sleeping space for the occupants, with a small area by the door for the cooking stove and for washing and changing. Order is necessary in such cramped quarters. Allocating space to soldiers is the responsibility of the tent group leader who considers the duty roster, order of reliefs, and the need to egress quickly in response to an alarm. The amount of clothing worn when sleeping depends on the state of alert and whether the shelter is heated. If there is a fire, stove, or light burning, it is essential to have a fire guard on duty. Keep a knife or sharpened bayonet available to cut through the tent wall if a fire or other emergency occurs.

Breaking Camp23
When the commander issues the order to strike tents in preparation to move, each tent group leader ensures that his tent is ready to be struck. All equipment except the tent must be packed onto the appropriate transport, ahkio (sled) or vehicle. Pull tent poles as late as possible, and strike the tents in the order in which the move is to take place so that soldiers are not required to stand around in the cold unnecessarily. Every leader should know how much time his soldiers need to strike the tent and be ready to move. A well-trained tent group needs only 15 minutes -- provided the soldiers have at least 30 minutes to have everything except the tent packed and ready to move. It is essential that all garbage and latrine sites be closed and covered with at least two feet of earth or snow. Security of the campsite must not be relaxed, nor should track, camouflage, light or noise discipline be forgotten.

Striking Tents24
If a tent is slowly or improperly pitched, only the occupants suffer; however, if a tent group is slow in striking its tent, the more efficient groups will have to stand in the cold and wait for the slow tent group. Practice in the drills for breaking camp and striking tents is very important. Fifteen minutes before pull-pole time, clear the tent of everyone except the cook, who begins packing his equipment. Every soldier should have his rucksack packed and placed outside the tent so that he is ready to move.

Brushwood Bivouacs25
Brushwood bivouacs take longer to build than erecting a tent, but they can be effectively camouflaged and more easily incorporated into a defensive layout. There are five main types. However, personal enterprise, imagination, and initiative can be applied to devise a comfortable shelter using a variety of materials to meet different tactical needs.

The Single Lean-to Shelter. 26 Build this shelter with its back to the wind or it will be cold and smoke-filled (there will be some smoke in the lean-to due to the eddying effect of any wind). Clear the snow down to ground level, if possible, and position the main poles so they slope with the prevailing wind. Place the top crossbar on the limbs of two trees where they branch out from the trunk, preferably about shoulder height. Construct the lean-to sufficiently wide to allow 24 inches of space for each soldier, head to toe, and deep enough for the soldiers to lie down with their packs behind their heads, protected by the sloping, overhead main poles. This means the sloping main poles must be at least 9-10 feet in length. Use strong timbers for the main structure. The top crossbar should be 4-6 inches in diameter.

The Single Lean-To Shelter

Complete the lean-to with the construction of a fire and a reflecting wall. Build the wall about 1.5 meters (about 4-5 feet) from the open front of the lean-to, extending the full width of it. The fire should also extend the full width so that every soldier can warm himself. It is important to build a good base for the fire if it is on snow. If available, use rounded stones from a stream bed to form a good base for the fire. Some of these stones, when heated by the fire, can be used as heat sources for exceptionally cold soldiers when placed beneath the edges of the their sleeping bags to prevent them from becoming victims of hypothermia. Football-size stones can emit heat for a couple of hours, depending on heating time and ambient temperature. Sufficient firewood should be cut to keep the fire going all night.

The Double Lean-to Shelter. 27 This lean-to arrangement consists of two single lean-tos facing each other. It is economical since only one fire is build for the two bivouacs, and no reflector wall is needed. However, the layout is not very satisfactory in windy weather, since the occupants of one shelter will almost certainly be troubled by smoke.

The Double Lean-To Shelter

The Wigwam

The Wigwam. 28 This is one of the warmest and most draft-free of all the brushwood bivouacs. It is, however, rather high, and unless it is well concealed among standing trees, it presents a conspicuous silhouette. Large wigwams can be built to accommodate up to ten soldiers, but one for four is most usual.

The Tree-Pit Bivouac. 29 Where there is deep snow in a wooded area, a very quick bivouac can be made using the lower branches of a tree as a roof. A shelter of this type is very easy to conceal. It can be made for up to four soldiers. A tree-pit bivouac larger than this is unsatisfactory as few fir trees have spreads of branches sufficiently wide to provide cover. Two-soldier size is the most common.

Tree-Pit Bivouac

The Fallen Tree Bivouac

The Fallen-Tree Bivouac. 30 This is another quickly constructed and easily concealed bivouac. It is built using a cut or fallen tree. If a tree has to be cut, it should have plenty of green branches. It should be felled in the direction of the prevailing wind at such a height that when the snow is removed down to ground level under the fallen tree, there will be about 11.5 meters of headroom. Trim off the inside limbs; use these to fill in the sides. Once sidewalls have been packed with branches, pile up snow to prevent drafts. Use brushwood to cover the floor. Two-soldier size is about right; larger ones are normally unsatisfactory. Build a fire in front with a reflector wall beyond it, similar to the single lean-to bivouac.

The Thermal Shelter. 31

Step 1

The thermal shelter was developed by the U.S. Air Forces COOL School which teaches pilots and air crews how to survive in arctic-like conditions after ejection or crash landings. The thermal shelter, designed to capture and retain heat emitted from the earth, provides the best protection from the elements during periods of extreme cold, The thermal shelter is primarily designed as a one- to two-person shelter; however, a larger shelter can be constructed to accommodate a small team or squad. Step 2 In forested areas, a wooden framework is built, covered with a parachute, ponchos, or evergreen boughs, and covered with eight to ten inches of snow for insulation. In alpine regions and other barren conditions, the shelter can be constructed by piling up a large mound of snow and then digging into it. Even light powder snow will solidify enough once it is disturbed and shoveled into a mound. This variation, similar in appearance to a snow cave, is referred to as a molded-dome shelter or Quingy Hooch. Step 3 The key to both construction methods is to remove the snow from the ground surface, exposing the frozen soil which will then radiate thermal energy into the shelter. The doorway is best sealed by filling a trash bag or other large sack with loose snow and form-fitting it into the door opening. A rucksack or other bulky item can also be used. The shelter actually becomes more efficient as the outside temperature decreases. At -40 F outside, a The Thermal Shelter temperature of +5 F has been recorded inside. This was achieved solely by the shelters capacity to retain emitted thermal radiation; there was no additional heat provided by personnel, stoves, or candles. If a candle or stove is used in the shelter, the door must be cracked open or a ventilation hole must be added during construction (as in the snow cave, below). Keep a ski pole or tree limb inside and periodically check vent holes.

In addition to the benefits gained during survival situations, the shelter can also be built to enhance forward fighting positions, surveillance posts, and other static positions away from base camps. The shelter will increase soldier comfort and lengthen the time a team can remain at perimeter positions. Because the conditions within the shelter are reasonably comfortable without the use of additional heat sources, thermal shelters built for static positions may provide an excellent alternative to using heated shelters when detection by infrared and other thermal devices must be avoided.

Snow Shelters.32
Snow shelters are relatively easy to build, provided there is enough snow of the proper consistency available. They are more easily concealed than tents or brushwood bivouacs. They are also very warm and easily illuminated because of their white reflective walls. The following are some important principles to consider. Construct the top of the entrance so that it is lower than the sleeping bench; this ensures that the warmest air is trapped around the occupants. The ceiling should be arched and smooth to prevent dripping. Ceilings melt back as they age, and the internal dimensions of the shelter will increase. Keep at least one snow shovel inside every snow shelter so that soldiers can dig themselves out if it collapses. Keep a second shovel outside the shelter. Every shelter must have a permanently open ventilation hole in the roof or walls; a hole made with a ski pole is quite suitable for this. Building snow shelters follows no firm rules as the depth and condition of the snow will vary and the tactical needs may dictate the type of shelter constructed, as well as the degree of comfort that can be achieved. There are a few basic types which are described in this section. The Snow Cave. 33 The snow cave shelter is simple to build and easy to conceal. It is comfortable and warm, but requires a large snow bank or drift. Assess the depth of snow of a potential site before starting work. Examine the ground behind the snow bank for protruding saplings, wind-blown ridges, and exposed surfaces. These characteristics, if present, are often useful indicators as to the depth of snow and adequacy of the site for a snow cave. For a two- or four-soldier cave, a drift three meters wide and two meters deep is needed. Bigger caves require proportionately bigger drifts. A snow cave can be built either by tunneling or by stacking blocks of snow.

The Tunnel Method. A tunnel is made into the snow bank or drift. Initially, there is only enough room for one soldier to work. As progress is made, a second soldier clears away the snow at the entrance as the first soldier excavates and enlarges the cave. After excavating about two meters, decide the location of the sleeping bench. If there is plenty of snow, it is best to have a sleeping bench on either side of the tunnel, parallel to the axis of the tunnel. If the snow bank is narrow, build the sleeping bench at a right angle to the tunnel. Use a snow block to seal up the entrance to the tunnel; ensure that an adequate ventilation hole is kept open.

The Snow Cave, Tunnel Method

The Block and Cave Method. If the snow is of a consistency that permits it to be cut into blocks, use the block and cave method. In the building block method of constructing a snow cave, the factors used in deciding the internal layout are the same as those used in the tunnel method. When the layout is decided, soldiers can dig straight into the snowdrift all along its width. There is plenty of room to work, and several soldiers can work together while one soldier digs the entrance tunnel to the side of the main excavation. Once the entrance and sleeping benches are completed, and the stove position is established, seal the cave with snow blocks. These blocks are best cut during the last stage of excavation as the snow is usually more densely packed inside the drift. Using snow blocks from the interior of the excavation minimizes the amount of snow that must be moved.

The Block and Cave Method

The Snow Trench. 34 The snow trench bivouac is dug into the snow and covered to provide protection. It is the easiest and quickest snow shelter to build. It is fairly easy to conceal and gives good protection. It is not particularly comfortable, since it is cramped and entry and egress can be difficult. At least one meter of snow is required to build a snow trench. First, mark out an area about eight feet by two feet, then dig out the trench. (Waterproof clothing is an asset when constructing the snow trench bivouac.) Lay snow spoil to one side of the trench for use on the roof later. If the ground is reached before the trench reaches shoulder height, build snow walls to gain the extra height. If two soldiers are to occupy the snow trench, widen the bottom portion to make the sleeping bench four feet wide. The top must not be too wide because bridging it to form the roof could be a problem. Before the roof is built, move the packs inside as it may be difficult to do so later. If possible, insulate the floor with brushwood, scrub, or moss. This should also be done before the roof is installed. Next, dig an entrance tunnel; it should be lower than the sleeping bench to retain as much warmth around the occupants as possible. The roof can be installed in a number of ways. If the available snow is reasonably compact, cut blocks and lay them across the top of the trench. Once these are in place, throw loose snow on top to seal the seams, increase the depth of overhead insulation, and enhance the camouflage. If it is not possible to use snow blocks to make the roof, cover the trench with branches or brushwood. In situations where shelter is vital for survival, use skis, ski poles, and a tent sheet to install a roof, and cover it with loose snow to hold it in place and provide camouflage.

The Snow Trench

The Snow House or Igloo. 35 The snow house or igloo provides greater protection from the weather and is warmer and stronger than any other snow shelter. Its construction requires experience, practice, and good quality snow from which blocks can be cut. Powdery or granular snow is useless, and the poorer the quality of the snow, the smaller the igloo must be. Igloos can be made for up to 10 soldiers.

The Igloo

The Snow Wall. 36 If little time is available, a snow wall can provide some shelter quickly. Snow bricks are cut and laid in a semicircle with the open side away from the wind. The snow is then banked against the outer, windward side. The snow wall provides protection for cooking and sleeping against the wind and driven snow. Snow drifts will form on the leeward side.

The Snow Wall

__________
Winter Operations Manual (1 Oct 89), published by the U.S. Army Northern Warfare Training Center, Fort Greely, AK, pp. 6-1 to 6-4. Ibid., p. 6-1. Ibid., p. 6-1. 4 Ibid., pp. 6-1 to 6-2. 5 Ibid., pp. 6-2 to 6-3. 6 Ibid., p. 6-3. 7 Ibid., pp. 7-8 to 7-9. 8 Ibid., pp. 7-8 to 7-8. 9 Ibid., pp. 8-2 to 8-21. 10 Ibid., p. 8-3. 11 Ibid., pp. 8-3 to 8-4. 12 Ibid., p. 8-4. 13 Ibid., pp. 8-6 to 8-7. 14 Ibid., pp. 8-5 to 8-6. 15 Ibid., p. 8-7. 16 Ibid., p. 8-7. 17 Ibid., p. 8-9. 18 Ibid., p. 8-10. 19 Ibid., p. 8-10. 20 Countermeasure, Army Ground-Accident Report, Volume 16, Number 9 (Sep 95), p. 3. 21 Ibid., pp. 2-3. 22 Winter Operations Manual, pp. 8-10 to 8-11. 23 Ibid., p. 8-11. 24 Ibid., p. 8-11. 25 Ibid., pp. 8-12 to 8-17. 26 Ibid., pp. 8-12 to 8-13. 27 Ibid., p. 8-14. 28 Ibid., p. 8-15. 29 Ibid., p. 8-16. 30 Ibid., p. 8-17. 31 USARAK Northern Warfare Training Center comment on coordinating draft, on file at CALL. 32 Winter Operations Manual, pp. 8-17 to 8-22. 33 Ibid., pp. 8-18 to 8-19. 34 Ibid., pp. 8-19 to 8-20. 35 Ibid., p. 8-21. 36 Ibid., p. 8-21.
2 3 1

APPENDIX A

WINDCHILL CHART 1

WIND SPEED

COOLING POWER OF WIND EXPRESSED AS EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50

KNOTS CALM

MPH CALM

EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE

3-6 7 - 10 11 - 15 16 - 19 20 - 23 24 - 28 29 - 32 33 - 36 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 30 20 15 10 10 5 5 0 25 15 10 5 0 0 -5 -5 20 10 0 0 -5 -10 -10 -15 15 5 -5 -10 -15 -20 -20 -20 10 0 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -30 5 -10 -20 -25 -30 -30 -35 -35 0 -15 -25 -30 -35 -40 -40 -45 -5 -20 -30 -35 -45 -50 -50 -55 -10 -25 -40 -40 -50 -55 -60 -60 -15 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -65 -70 -10 -40 -50 -60 -65 -70 -75 -75 -25 -45 -60 -65 -75 -80 -80 -85 -30 -50 -65 -75 -80 -85 -90 -95 -35 -60 -70 -80 -90 -95 -100 -100 -40 -65 -80 -85 -95 -100 -105 -110 GREAT DANGER FLESH MAY FREEZE WITHIN 30 SECONDS -45 -70 -85 -95 -105 -110 -115 -115 -50 -75 -90 -100 -110 -50 -120 -125 -55 -80 -100 -110 -120 -125 -130 -130

WINDS ABOVE 40 MPH HAVE LITTLE ADDITIONAL EFFECT

LITTLE DANGER

INCREASING DANGER FLESH MAY FREEZE WITHIN ONE MIN

__________ 1 Chart adapted from Appendix A,Winter Operations Manual (1 Oct 89), U.S. Army Northern Warfare Training Center, Fort Greely, AK.