Southeast Asia in Pakistan's Foreign Policy Author(s): K. B. Sayeed Reviewed work(s): Source: Pacific Affairs, Vol. 41, No.

2 (Summer, 1968), pp. 230-244 Published by: Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2754797 . Accessed: 18/12/2012 05:16
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Pacific Affairs.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Asia Southeast in Pakistan's Foreign Policy

K. B. Sayeed
sued in termsof its relationswith major powers such as the United States,China, and the Soviet Union.* Its dominantconcernhas been the Recently threatwhich,in Pakistanieyes,India has posed to its security. objective Pakistan's of important economic development becomeanother has in discernible Pakistan'sreforeignpolicy.But these policy orientations, with countries lationswithmajor powers,are also reflected her relations in as Asia. in suchregions theMiddleEast and Southeast such SoutheastAsian countries In order to determine how important as Malaysiaand Indonesiaare in the foreign policyof Pakistan,one could of test applythe simplecontent-analysis to the policy-pronouncementssome in of of the key decision-makers Pakistan.In a compilation speechesmade beforethe General Assemblyand its Committees during 1957-65 by the Mr. Bhutto,SoutheastAsian countries former were not Foreign Minister, out made by President once mentioned.' Similarly, of the nineteen speeches to Ayub during the period January December, i967, in which he dealt with foreignpolicy,Indonesia was mentionedonly twice and Malaysia not once. In the two chaptersthat the Presidenthas writtenon foreign the reference Indonesia to policyin his recentautobiography, only specific is when he suggeststhat Pakistan should belong to a major constellation fromCasablanca to Djakarta.2Ayub merelyexpresses pious the extending hope that Indonesia, along with other populous Muslim countrieslike However, the Pakistan,would play a vital role in such a constellation. is themeof the two chapters thatPakistan'sforeign policyrevolves central with the United States,China, and the U.S.S.R., around its relationship to the withIndia constituting singlemajorthreat Pakistan's security. thatone of the reasonswhy PakistanipolicyIt may also be suggested to makershave not given adequate attention SoutheastAsia is because,in
* This article a revised of version a paper presented the annual meeting the Assois at of MarchI968. Philadelphia, ciationforAsian Studies, 1 Zulfikar Bhutto, Ali SpeechesBeforeUnitedNations GeneralAssembly1957-1965 (Kaof rachi: Government Pakistan,n.d.). 2 MohammadAyub Khan, FriendsNot Masters:A PoliticalAutobiography (London: OxPress,i967), p. i8i. fordUniversity

PAKISTAN'S

FOREIGN

POLICY

and purby and largehas been conceived

230

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Policy Foreign Asia Southeast in Pakistan's

of policy,the influence West Pakistanielites-civil the makingof foreign This means that those been predominant. and armyofficers-has servants as the whichconcern country a whole (for example,Pakistan'srelafactors tionswithmajor powers) and thoseMuslim areas which are close to WTest Pakistan (Iran, Turkey,and some Arab countries)have been considered more importantthan areas which are closer to East Pakistan. As an fromAmbassador ranging in illustration, i964, out of the9i seniorpositions in to FirstSecretary theForeignServiceof Pakistan,only26 were held by whereasthe West Pakistanisharewas 65. Out of a totalof East Pakistanis of 138 members the Foreign Service,45 were fromEast Pakistan and 93 they One could argue that elites,howeverpowerful fromWest Pakistan.3 policyin to may be, cannotover a long periodgive an orientation foreign Pakistani elites of termsother than the national interests theircountry. of may also claim thattheyhave pursuedthe nationalinterests the country to the in trying strengthen relationsof Pakistan with the predominantly thanwithSoutheast Asia. MuslimMiddleEast rather This does not mean that SoutheastAsia plays no role in the foreign like policy of Pakistan.How, in fact,is the foreignpolicy of a country with the Pakistan,which has been largelyconceivedin termsof relations international when pursuedin another shaped and modified major powers, this quesbut environment with about the same objectives?In answering First,Pakistanhas triedto ensure tion,thisarticlerestson threepremises. its securityand maintain an increasingrate of economic development of by seekingthe friendship one or more major powers.Second, Pakistan to has sought to attain marginal increments its securityand economic in by development winningfriends the Middle East and SoutheastAsia; this means that its policies towardsthe Middle East and SoutheastAsia is role.The thirdpremise thatfriendly and play a supplementary subsidiary relationswith the Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian countriesare The raison d'etreof Pakistanis the settingup of nevertheless important. with other Islamic an Islamic polity.An Islamic state must be friendly in states. Moreover, orderto impressupon the major powersthatPakistan it relationswith fellow is an influential country must maintainfriendly Asian countries. This aspect of Pakistan'sforeignpolicy can best be examined in the in of relations, threeperiods:1954-62, widersetting Pakistan'sinternational in of i962-65, and i966-68. I954 and i962 are watersheds the development Pakistan'sforeignpolicy. In I954, Pakistan signed the Mutual Defense with the United States,which later developedinto AssistanceAgreement the Baghdad and CENTO Pacts,and again in I954 it joined SEATO. In
3 Civil List of Class I Officers 1964 of ServingUnder Government Pakistan. ist January Division,i965), pp. 347-357. Establishment Secretariat, (Rawalpindi:The President's

23I

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Pacific Affairs
i962 Pakistan's disenchantment with pro-Western alliancescrystallized into cordiality towards Chinese. the Pakistan's policy-makers, defendingtheir country's in militaryalignment with the West, have repeatedly referred certainunique defense to problems thatPakistanhas withrespect bothto India and the SovietUnion -the latterof historicorigin because of the strategic position of West Pakistanand becauseof Soviet interest obtainingaccess to warm-water in portsand the oil resources the Middle East. Pakistan'sdefenserequireof mentswere out of all proportion its actual defensecapacityif built on to its own resources. Thus, it is argued,Pakistanhad to align itself militarily withtheUnitedStatesbecauseof the dangerof conflict withIndia growing out of the Kashmir disputeand otherconflicts.4 Pakistanismaintainthat it was soon afterthe concentration Indian troopson Pakistan'sborders of in Julyi95i that Ayub startedthinkingof a military alliance with the United States.Militaryweakness,compoundedby the physicalseparation of the two partsof the country, no alternative. left Some arguedthatWest Pakistan,for all its martialtraditions, not have enough territory did with which to defenditself depthagainsta massiveonslaughtby a superior in power.Thus Pakistanhad to obtainmilitary equipmentin sufficient quanand as India from a tity ofsucha nature to deter attack. launching military To summarize the position that existed at the beginning of i960, Pakistan was reasonablysatisfiedin the sense that the returnsthat it realizedfromits foreign policywere of the same orderas the objectivessecurity(s)plus a reasonableamountof development (d). To statethisin theformof an equation:ForeignPolicy -S + d (small d to indicate that was as development notas important security). It could be argued that since Pakistan with its divided territory was both a Middle Easternas well as a SoutheastAsian country, had joined it its CENTO to protect West wing and SEATO to ensurethe safety East of Pakistan.Could one also say thatit had joined SEATO in orderto ensure its security against China? There is clear evidenceto suggestthat from the very beginningPakistan was not thinkingof a threatfrom China of but primarily its defensive positionagainstIndia. First of all, it is well known that when Pakistanjoined SEATO, it triedto persuade SEATO of membersnot to confinethe definition aggressionto CommunistagIn should be defined generalterms in gression. Pakistan'sview,aggression in and such a view was incorporated Article 4 of the SoutheastAsia CollectiveDefense Treaty of September8, I954. It has also been noted of that four days afterPakistan announcedits intention participating in see my chapteron "Pakistanand China," in A. M. of 4For a discussion thesequestions Halpern (ed.), PoliciesToward China (New York: McGrawHill forthe Council on Foreign i965), and my recentstudyThe PoliticalSystemof Pakistan(Boston: Houghton Relations, I967). Mifflin,

232

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Southeast in Pakistan's Asia Foreign Policy

the firstSEATO conference, Ambassadorin Peking assured Chinese its government officials that Pakistan would continueto develop "the happy and harmoniousrelationsnow subsistingbetween the two countries."5 Similarly,at the Bandung ConferencePrime MinisterMuhammad Ali Bogra assuredChou En-lai thatPakistan'smembership SEATO did not in implythatPakistanwas againstChina and affirmed Pakistandid not that fearanyaggression from China.6 President Ayub,who has oftenbeen described the main architect as of Pakistan'smilitary allianceswith the West, has disclosedthatthe Generals were not consultedwhen Pakistan joined SEATO. "Even at that time I thought thatPakistanhad no reasonto join SEATO at all."7It is difficult to say whetherthese are afterthoughts whetherthey represent or the view often advancedby military planners PakistanthatWest Pakistanmustbe in the first bulwarkof defenseagainsta military threatto the country. Mr. Bhuttoalso once suggested that: "Given geography and the power realities of the nuclearage, the military threatto us, if thereis one, would come more fromthe Soviet Union than fromChina."8 However, it seems that Pakistanwas able to developmuch more harmonious with its relationships Muslim allies, Iran and Turkey,in CENTO than with its Asian allies, Thailand and thePhilippines, SEATO. in Pakistan'sdisenchantment with SEATO and its growingreluctance to shoulderits treaty responsibilities grew in directproportion its increasto ing cordiality with the Chinese.In December,i960, President Ayub Khan, commenting the situation Laos, declared: "If Pakistan (as SEATO on in member) is called upon to shoulderits burdenand responsibility will we neverhesitate do it."9But in July, to i964, the President statedthatif there were a confrontation between China and the United States over North Vietnam,Pakistanwould not get involved.When remindedof Pakistan's underSEATO, Ayubreplied: obligations
But thatwas at a timewhenwe had a margin military of and then powerto provide we were preparedto providemore than our share.But now with enlargement of and so on-India has 3 to i and verysoon it will have 5 to i lead over Indianforces Our capacity has been rendered us-it is inconceivable thatwe can do much. ineffective theactionof our friends.10 by

Even thoughPakistan,duringthe period I954-62, behavedmore or less like a satelliteof the United States,yet the policy which governedsuch
5 Surveyof China Mainland Press (SCMP), 869, P. 21. Cited in GeorgeModelski (ed.), of Columbia,i962), p. I3I. SEATO: Six Studies (Vancouver:The University British 6 See Chou En-lai's statement, was The Statesman (Delhi), April30, i955. This statement of confirmed MuhammadAli Bogra,NationalAssembly PakistanDebates,June27, i962, by pp. 622-623. 7 Ayub Khan, op. cit.,p. I75. 8 The Washington Post,Marchio, 1963. 9 Dawn (Karachi), December15, 1960. " Morning News, July i964. I7,

233

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Pacific Afairs
behaviorwas pragmatic.Pakistan was willing to act according to the global interests the United Statesin the Middle East and in Southeast of felt that they ensured their Asia because the Pakistani policy-makers country's security through sucha quid pro quo. aid After Westernnationsdecidedto give massivemilitary to India the Chinese attacks, Pakistan'sforeign to help it to defenditself againstfuture policy, under Bhutto's leadership,acquired new ideological dimensions. havingsprungfromdifferent backgrounds The two men,Ayub and Bhutto, and belongingto different also had different approachesto generations, He a personality. was foreign policy.Bhuttorepresents more complicated aristocratic origin,and somewhatscarredand bitteras a resultof his in of associations withthe West. He realizedthatthe politicalfuture a young with the establishleader like himself not merelyin aligninghimself lay mentbut in capitalizing issueswhichhad the widestappeal in an Asian on and Islamic country modernoutlook like Pakistan.He had a completely of but he constantly stressed the solidarity Pakistan with the rest of the Islamic world. He probablyfelt that Westerneducationhad merelydenationalizedhim withoutprovidingall the answersfor the problemsof hiscountry. he putitin a speechin theNationalAssembly: As
With foreign education we will not be able to answer the problems of an Asian society.The Western mind will never be able to harmonize itselfwith the music of Asia, and the music of Asia is a revolutionof greatnessand of justice.""1

His approach was basicallyideological and his concernfor economic development muchless thanAyub's.LamentingthefactthatPakistan's was deby independence had to some extentbeen undermined the country's aid abroad, pointed he out: pendence economic on and military from
The question, however, is a larger one than that of meeting the immediate needs of capital and equipment. It involves consideration of what is Pakistan's place in the world. The size, population, and geopolitical situation of Pakistan, and the faith and Pakistan ideology of its people, have thrustupon it a certain role and responsibility. is today in the main streamof world politics.'2

with Bhuttoemphasizedon severaloccasionsthatPakistan'sfriendship and China was not based on any opportunistic considerations thatit would of continueundiminished resolution the Kashmir even aftera successful considconflict. Pakistan'srelationswith Indonesia transcended Similarly, of nature.It was obvious that he was erations an economicor diplomatic workingforan Afro-Asian unityof which China would be the leader and It Pakistan and Indonesia her most influential supporters. is well known
" 2

Debates,Vol. NationalAssembly Pakistan of Ibid., p. 358.

i (i966),

p. 5o8.

234

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Southeast in Pakistan's Asia Foreign Policy

how the attempts hold a second Afro-AsianConference to went awry and how the Conference was wreckedby the deep divisionsthat existed in the Afro-Asian world, China trying exclude the Soviet Union as a to non-Asianpower, India and Pakistan working against each other,and Indonesiatrying excludeMalaysia. to Though PresidentAyub exercisedan over-allpragmaticcontrolover Bhutto'sideologicalenthusiasm, was preparedto see how far the new he policywould help his country attain some of its objectiveswithoutforegoing the militaryand economic assistancethat Pakistan receivedfrom the West. Broadly speaking Pakistan was really followingtwo foreign policies designed for two sets of objectives.For increasingits sense of security and prestige, Bhutto'sforeignpolicy with its ideologicalorientationsand cordiality towardsChina was pursued.For purposesof maintaining a rapid pace of economic development, Pakistan tried not to let its relations withtheUnitedStatesdeteriorate below a certain levelof tolerance. In the pursuitof this policy,the Government relied on Finance Minister Shoaib,whowas knownforhispro-American leanings. The positionbeforePakistan's conflict with India in September1965 may therefore represented follows:ForeignPolicy U.S. and China be as -4S (U.S.) + IS (China) + ?4D (U.S. and Westernsources).Again, S stands security D fordevelopment. for and For the firsttime, Pakistan had received support on the Kashmir questionfroma big power,China. The compulsions such an alignment of with China were thatPakistanhad to adopt certain ideologicalorientations in its foreignpolicy broadlysimilarto those of the Chinese. Following Ayub's visitto China in March,i965, a China-Pakistan joint communique was issuedwhich extolledAsian-African solidarity and referred coloniato lism and racial discrimination obstaclesto national independenceand as world peace. The communique, withoutmentioning United States by the name,alleged thatby introducing nuclearweapons into the Indian Ocean, it had posed a threatto the independence the countries of concerned and had underminedAsian-African solidarity. the communique,Pakistan In expressed oppositionto the schemesfor creatingtwo Chinas and the its Chinesesupported Pakistani the demandfora plebiscite Kashmir.13 in In SoutheastAsia, it has already been noted that Pakistan played a subordinant role and tried to further interests its major ally, the the of United States. One of the great advantages of including Pakistan in military alliances,accordingto a United States Congressional Committee was that"in its relations report, with otherMoslem statesand with other membersof the Afro-Asian bloc, Pakistan can be an efficacious advocate of westernpolicies and can exerta moderating influence the extreme on
13

No. PekingReview,

iI,

March12, 1965, pp.

9-IO.

235

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Pacific Affairs
of nationalism anti-western and attitudes someof the members these of groups."14 However, this changedduringthe periodi962-65 when all into Pakistan, through alignment its with China,was transformed an Asia ardent advocate Afro-Asian of solidarity. Whatbenefits Southeast in thatPakistan derived from thisnew policymaybe seen in its relations and withIndonesia, country a preponderant a Muslim with majority, with and Malaysia, where Muslims thelargest are religious community constitute the thatduring Indo50 per centof thepopulation. Bhutto Mr. claimed the Pakistan war in i965 theentire worldof Islam"right from Maghreb to thePacific, There right from Algeria Indonesia" to supported Pakistan. of is no doubt that Indonesia support did Pakistan, was it because the but Islamic bondalone?Indonesia supported had Pakistan's stand Kashmir on evenbefore outbreak theIndo-Pakistan butthiswas notmerely the of war, because theIslamicbond,forit occurred of Pakistan's onlyafter foreign regarding alignment theWest.Indeed, its with according theIndonesian to Ambassador Pakistan, to was Indonesian support regarding Kashmir given after Pakistan supported Indonesia its struggle secure in to WestIrian."5 MinHowever, during Indo-Pakistan President the war Sukarno, Foreign ister for Subandrio, several and other Cabinet Ministers expressed support "the InThe Indonesian denounced Pakistan. House of Representatives dian aggression There were backedby the UnitedStatesimperialists." demonstrationsIndonesian of Muslimyouths and students organized by theNahdatul Ulama.The IndianEmbassy attacked its property was and damagedand a considerable section it burnt the demonstrators.16 of by Indonesia offered also military toPakistan. aid Pakistan's From relations withMalaysia followed opposite the course. 1954 to i962, theywerecordial contrast the coolness in to and distance thatseparated and Pakistan Indonesia. Pakistan had theadvantage also of able beingserved an extremely and conscientious by High Commissioner in Kuala Lumpur, GeneralSher Ali. But MalaysiaarousedPakistan's and when India in its border suspicions resentment she openly supported war withChina.The Malaysian to delegate theUnitedNations described the Chinese on actionas "unprovoked, armedaggression" India. Tunku the that of declared Malaysians AbdulRahman, PrimeMinister Malaysia, of India because thatcountry's association withthe Commonsupported and had wealth itsfaith democracy, alsobecause and in they passed through of to a similar A attacks. "Save experience beingsubjected Communist
14 Mutual Security House on the Committee ForeignAffairs, Act of 1958. Hearingsbefore I958), Part 14, p. 1753. (Washington, of Representatives 15 Brig.-Gen. "Some Aspectsof IndonesianForeign Policy," Pakistan R. Rendraningrat, 1965), p. 142. Horizon,Vol. XVIII, No. 2, (SecondQuarter, Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 1279-1280. 16.Asian Almanac,

policychangedin i962-65 and Pakistanstarted openlyexpressing skepticism

236

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Southeast in Pakistan's Foreign Policy Asia

of DemocracyFund" was startedunder the chairmanship the Tunku.17 Delegate to the when Malaysia'sPermanent But the finalblow was struck United Nations, Mr. R. Ramani, a Malaysian of Indian origin, while Council duringthe debate on the Indo-Pakistan speakingin the Security the Pakistanfornot only havinginitiated conflict criticized armed conflict, call of the Security to obey the cease-fire but also for its unwillingness Council. During the course of his speech, Mr. Ramani questioned the day in to verybasis of Pakistan'sideologywhen he referred that "fateful were cut and one ancientpeople August 1947 when one ancientcountry into two unequal parts."He also pointedout that accordingto the U.N. therewas no questionthat "the highlyarmed,well trainedand findings, line." Regardcame fromPakistanside of the cease-fire well led infiltrators provide for a should ultimately ing Pakistan's claim that the cease-fire of leading to the final settlement the Kashmir arrangement self-executing of the observation the Malaysian delegate problemthrougha plebiscite, Council would committhe Security was that "the logic of that argument so a to have securedfor a statea happypositionof provoking conflict as the "readiness to be able to secure politicalprofitfrom it." Contrasting with the "consistently and willingness India" to abide by the cease-fire of attitude Pakistan,"the Malaysiandelegatesuggestedthat the of unhelpful to Pakistanfor having resorted "large Council should reprimand Security scale armed infiltrations Kashmir" and call upon Pakistan-but not into proposals-"to cease India, which had accepted the Secretary-General's immediately."'8 hostilities Pakistanis were so shocked by the speech that Pakistan newspapers There were also declaredthat a Muslim nation was siding with "kafirs." demands fromMuslim Malaysiansfor the recall of the Malaysian reprethe to sentative theUnitedNations.A Malaysiannewspaper, UtusanMelayu, thatthe Kuala Trengurgedthe recallof Mr. Ramani. It was also reported ganu (youthsectionof the United Malays' National Organization) urged theTunku to take"positive action"againstMr. Ramani.19 with Malaysia on October5, T965. relations Pakistansevereddiplomatic Tun Abdul Both Tunku Abdul Rahman and the Deputy Prime Minister, the represented neutral Razak, declared that Mr. Ramani had faithfully of stand of the Government Malaysia at the United Nations. Regarding was thatPakistan the relations, Tunku's reaction of theseverance diplomatic towards Malaysia because of Malaysian support had become unfriendly forIndia in its struggle againstChina. Accordingto the Tunku, Malaysia had been neutral between the two Commonwealthcountrieswhereas
17

p. i82.

R. S. Milne, Government and Politicsin Malaysia (Boston: HoughtonMifflin, I967),

18 Security Council Official Records. 1241st meeting. September i8, i965. 19 The Straits Budget, September 29, I965, p. 13.

237

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Afairs Pacific
with Malaysia by Pakistan had supportedIndonesia in its confrontation to Prime Ministers'Conference opposing a move in the Commonwealth censure Indonesia. The Malaysian Prime Ministersingled out Foreign MinisterBhutto for most of the blame and suggestedthat the Foreign hostiletowardsMalaysia and had finally Ministerhad been consistently "I betweenthe two countries. thinkthisis in keeping brokenoffrelations Pakistan has with China."20The Malaysian Prime with the friendship that Malaysia,in spite of being a to while reacting the criticism Minister, had failed to supportPakistan,anotherMuslim country, Muslim country, in in itshourofneed,declared a laterspeech:
ties and brotherly with all Islamic friendly We all agree that we should maintain relationof but countries, we mustalso bearin mind theimportance our international Malaysia status.. . . Moreover, of ship with othernationsregardless theirreligious and it is not fairto thenonorigins, of consists peopleof variousracialand religious of to for of Muslimcitizens thiscountry, theGovernment speakonlyin terms Islamic
religious ties.21

was provided by Anothercause for friction to Pakistan for protection. tradersand other classes of Pakistani origin who had settledin Burma have not and who were asked to leave. On the otherhand,theseproblems createdserioustension.On the whole the volume of trade between the has two countries been largerthan Pakistan'strade with any otherSouthIn east Asian country. March i967, Pakistan signed a borderagreement issues. SometimesPakistanis have with Burma settlingall outstanding included Burma among those countriesof South and Southeast Asia with PakisfearIndia whereasits relations to which,according Pakistanis, However, Burma has remainedneutral on the tan have been friendly. vitalquestionof Kashmir. afterthe signing policystarted phase of Pakistan'sforeign The current Bhutto. of and the resignation ForeignMinister of the Tashkentagreement The and development. Almostequal emphasisis now placed upon security or withIndia not in bitter vitriolic to has President referred tenserelations would improve.He has expressed termsbut with the hope that relations to his gratitude the United Statesforthe economicaid thatit has given to Pakistan and has indicatedhis awareness of American global interests, but he has not gone so faras to antagonizethe U.S.S.R. or China. He has
20 21

again with Arakanese Muslims either fleeing to East Pakistan or turning

to whichsharesits borderwithBurma,may be expected have Pakistan, than it has with Malaysia or Ineven closer relationswith that country cordial for several has not been altogether donesia. But the relationship reasons.First, the cultural bonds are not very close because Burma is mainly a Buddhist country, and, secondly,tension has arisen now and

Ibid., September 29, x965. Ibid., October 6, I965, p. 5.

238

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Policy Foreign Asia Southeast in Pakistan's

tried to convincethe formerthat Pakistan joined the Western military Such assurances, along with attempts alliancesonly to ensureits security. to to downgrade CENTO and other alliances, and determinedefforts with the Soviet Union, resultedin Communistcounfriendship cultivate economicaid to Pakistan the triesproviding greatbulk of non-Consortium but obviouslybeduring i966-67. Friendshipwith China has continued, with the to cause of Pakistan'sattempts maintaina balance of cordiality threemajor powers-the U.S., the U.S.S.R. and China-the warmthand closenessdisplayedduring the days of Bhutto have slightlydiminished. than to quote Ayub who thinksthat such relationOne cannotdo better :" equations by shipscouldbe bestdescribed "bilateral
wouldinfluence equations other in No bilateral equationcouldbe established isolation; of of by its level.In the end each equationwould be determined the limits tolerance withwhom parties to So third parties. each equationwould have to be acceptable third the . of relations mutualbenefit. . To illustrate, bilateral we mightbe able to establish economicand United Stateswould not be too eager to provideus with unlimited withthemajorcommunist relations bilateral if military assistance we wereto establish in or interests strategy Asia. If we cannotin any regardto American powerswithout we with Americaninterests, must learn to do ourselves an unlimited way identify assistance.22 American withlessthanunlimited

policyhas developedin terms Thus, one can see how Pakistan'sforeign The threestagescan be from1954 to the present. of objectives and returns :* as stated equationform follows in
1954-62
i965

U.S.
=U.S.

and Westernsources) i965-68 = U.S., China, U.S.S.R. = V2S (purchasesand spares,Western sources) + ?4S (China) + %3D (West) + %3D (bulk Soviet bloc)
foreign policyin quantitative terms. Two explanations in order.The equationshave been are used to suggestthat Pakistan'sforeignpolicy-makers have adopted a fairlypragmaticapproachfromthe beginning and have been interested maximizing security in the and developmental (economic) returns fromtheirforeign policy.They have also been consciousof the costsor deprivations that the country had to bear in orderto obtainthesebenefits has from certainsources.Thus, if the cost of obtainingmilitary aid froma single source like the United States becomes excessive,when the United States offerssimilar military assistance to India (which poses in Pakistanieyes the greatestthreatto its security), Pakistan has triedto diversify dependence turning China. A second explanation its by to regarding these equationsis thatthe arithmetical fractions used maygive the impression thatbenefits mililike taryaid or economic have beenreceived aid exactly theproportions in suggested thefractions. by as to Again, the fractions given only as roughindicators. is difficult obtaininformation are It like the regardsthe exact proportions military of aid that Pakistanreceivesfromcountries thatboth duringI965 and in I966-68 UnitedStatesand China. Thus, it has been suggested This does not mean thatthereis is China's contribution Pakistan'ssecurity 14 S (security). to aid accurateinformation the amountof military thatPakistanreceivesfromChina. It is on 22Ayub Khan, op. cit., pp. ii8-i9. * These equationsmay give the impression thatone can measurethe successof Pakistan's

= S + d and China =

4S (U.S.)

?4S

(China)

D4D

(U.S.

239

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

PacificAfairs
Afterit joined the variousWestern Pakistanhas ceased to be a satellite. of military pacts,Pakistan tried to serve the global interests the United aland independence, it States. More recently has developed flexibility though,as PresidentAyub has taken pains to point out, this is not the or product a policyof expediency blackmailor pseudo-neutralism: of
and of problems by our not by If their globalpolicyis served our understanding their thatand requires well and good. But if the demandgoes beyond actingagainstthem, of power,thenwe will have us to do something thatis againstthe interests another of the to decline wouldbe goingagainst interests Pakistan.23 becausethat

to in to This amounts sayingthatPakistanwill continue its own interest with the Chinese,makingsure at the same time thatthis does collaborate not hurtthe interests the United States.Thus Ayub did not come out of openly in supportof the Chinese demand that the United States should withdrawfromVietnam or otherpartsof Asia. Obviously,it will not be increasing easy to pursuesuch a policybecause the United States,through economic assistance, China, throughits supportof Pakistan's policy or assistance, could military substantial Kashmir and by extending regarding that in tryto tiltthe balance of cordiality theirfavor.It may be suggested Pakistan has been able to pursue this pragmaticforeignpolicy under and the by Ayub because foreignpolicy is formulated the Government withoutbeing subjectedtoo much to gustsof popular pasForeign Office sion. While talking about the new orientationthat he has given to policy, Ayubobserved: Pakistan's foreign
and They [the people] mustremaincool and calm,leave it to the Government, the and interest thecountry, they of is of all, Government after fortheinterest thepeople, disposal. Why not leave it to themand whynot say, have all the information their at for let we here is an instrument have created thispurpose, it get on well, all right, with thisbusiness.24

However, it is clear that Pakistan is pursuing a pragmaticforeign and criticizedthe pronouncements achas recently policy.The President tions of his former Foreign Ministeras "emotional."He has suggested
fromChina, but what is equally equipment known thatPakistanhas receivedsome military towards hostility towards India and theircordiality is important the factthatChinesecontinued against security the threat from India. Thereto someinsurance Pakistan have provided Pakistan, equipment from China,considered some military roughterms fore, one could arguethatin very posturetowardsPakistan, towardsIndia and friendly along with the Chinesehostileattitude problem.On the otherhand, the proporwould cover about a quarterof Pakistan'ssecurity during the years x966-68, are more particularly tions indicated for economic assistance, than in the case of militaryaid. During 1966-67, Pakistan requested accurate indicators for $580 million in aid, but up to March 31, 1967 aid fromthese countries Consortium was made assistance in sourcesamountedto only $401.5 million.The shortfall Consortium sources(mainlythe U.S.S.R., to amounting $190.1 millionfromnon-Consortium up by credits thatPakistanobtained2/3rds to Thus, it is reasonable suggest Yugoslaviaand Czechoslovakia). theSovietbloc. I/3rd from the from West,and theremaining assistance of theneededeconomic
23 Ibid., p. 119. 24 The Pakistan AugustI6, i967. Observer,

240

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Southeast in Pakistan's Asia Foreign Policy

thatPakistanshould refrain frombuyingany politicaland military liabili25 ties. With this increasingpragmatism and growing confidence arising out of the country's economicdevelopment, one can see that Pakistan is engaged in extendingand deepeningits influence SoutheastAsia. In in orderto do this,Pakistanwill have to undertake carefulstocktaking a of its assets and liabilities.In Malaysia and Indonesia, Pakistan has often triedto capitalize on the supportof the local Muslim communities. But carefulappraisalof the role and politicalcultureof the Muslim communities in Malaysia and Indonesia disclosesthat a simple invocationof the Islamic bond does not always producefavorable results. First of all, as in all otherMuslim countries, thereis a conflict betweenthe modernists and the orthodoxamong Muslims in Malaysia and Indonesia. In addition, no Muslimsin Malaysia constitute morethan 50 percent the population. of As we have notedearlier, PrimeMinister Malaysiawas not prepared the of to supportPakistan in the Indo-Pakistanwar in the name of Islamic for solidarity becauseit would thenhave been difficult Indian communities Anotherfactto be taken in Malaysia to remainloyal to his government. into accountis thatIslamic culturein Malaysia is composite, incorporating a body of superstitions ritualistic and beliefsnot practiced Muslims in by theNear East.26 an In Indonesiapresents even morecomplexMuslimsociety. manyparts in of Sumatra and particularly North Sumatra,Islamic penetration has been so deep that it has eliminatedmost of the pre-Islamic religiousbelike the Santri,who are devout,co-exist liefs.But in Java,communities with Abangan, whose Islamic faith is strongly tinged with Hindu inhave suggested thatthe Javanese Some observers fluences. drama,drawing from the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, its inspiration on has cast its influence the thinkingand behaviorof IndonesianpolitiAll thisrecallsthe kind of Islam thatone comes acrossin large partsof East Pakistan.Can one concludefromthis that Pakistanidiplomatsfrom from East Pakistanwould be in a betterpositionthan theircounterparts and skillfully the support West Pakistan in understanding manipulating of such Muslim groupsin favorof Pakistan?PerhapsEast Pakistan,with world of Islam, its culturaland physicaldistancefromthe Persian-Arabic like would be able to help Pakistanto developcloserlinks with countries Islamiccultures Indonesiaand Malaysiawhichhave also had to evolvetheir homelands Islam. of the so farfrom spiritual
Ibid. of Malaya (Seattle: University Washington Norton Ginsburgand ChesterF. Roberts, Press, 1958), pp. 228-229. of The CulturalBackground IndonesianPolitics.Essay seriesNo. I. 27p. J. Zoetmulder, of University South Carolina (May i967), p. I9. Studies, of The Institute International
25 26

cians.27

24I

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Afairs Pacific
in The presenceof Chinese communities Malaysia and Indonesia and in the Indian community Malaysia, coupled with Pakistan's friendship with China and rivalrywith India in SoutheastAsia, provide another of In complication. Malaysia,the Chineseconstitute percent the popula39 tion with Muslim Malays comprising percent, Indians 9 percentand 50 others2 percent.The wholesale and retail trade is almost entirely in a Chinesehands with Indians controlling much smallersector. Thus, even withoutthe menacing shadow of CommunistChina, the Malays have genuinefearsthat the local Chinese,with theirpoliticalpower reinforced could establishtheirascendancyand make by theireconomicdominance, Under such circustances presence the Malaysia almost a Chinese country, of Indians in a three-community coalitionis necessary the Malays to for maintaintheircontrol. The predominant of majority Indians in Malaysia are fromSouth India, most of them Tamil-speaking. Only a tenthof the is Indian community fromthe Punjab. Indians have attainedhigh rank One of the CabinetMinisters an Indian and some of in the government. is are also of Indian origin.The recenthistory the influential civil servants of Communistactivities supported China, and above all the growing by power of China, have given a built-in advantageto India as comparedto Pakistan which is known to be friendly with China. This identity of betweenMalaysia and India was illustrated i967 when, aftera interest in Tunku Abdul Rahman, meetingbetweenthe Malaysian Prime Minister, Mr. Chagla, it was announcedthat and the thenIndian Foreign Minister, the dangerof Chinese expansionism Southeast both of themrecognized in

Now that diplomaticrelationsbetween Pakistan and Malaysia have can Pakistan hope to increaseits influence a skillful been restored, by combinationof factorslike the Islamic bond and trade? The fact that as Pakistanis not as enthusiastic beforeto undertake ideologicalresponsibilitieson behalf of, or in supportof, China in this part of the world may help Pakistanimproveits image in Malaysia. On the otherhand, it can also be said that Pakistan's continuedfriendship with China could help Pakistan in winning the tacit and quiet support of the Chinese in community Malaysia. the table clearlydemonstrates Turningto traderelations, accompanying thatthe value of tradebetweenPakistanand Southeast Asia duringI962-64 was less than that between Pakistan and the Middle East. But during was reversed. i964-66,thissituation After the formationof the Regional Cooperationfor Development Iran and Turkey,questionswere raisedin East Pakistan betweenPakistan, as to whetherit would forma distanttail-endin this arrangement with
28

Asia.28

The Hindu Weekly Review, May 22, I967.

242

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Asia Southeast in Pakistan's Foreign Policy

PAKISTAN'S TRADE WITH THE MIDDLE EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA, I962-63 TO I965-66

In Lakhs (I00, ooo) ofrupees

i962-63 i963-64
2,I29

i964-65 930 I, 326

i965-66

Imports Exports Balance

MiddleEast
2,o64 I,545

577
I,504 +927

Southeast Asia Imports I,094

-519

-698
964
I,02I

I,43I

+396
I,007

Exports 490 Balance -604

748
I,650 +902

+57

+534

I154I

Middle East includesTurkey, U.A.R., Syria,Lebanon,Saudi Arabia,Aden, Bahrein, Asia includes Kuwait,Iraq, and Iran.Southeast Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam Republic. are The figures derivedfromTable 17 (Balance of Trade By Areas and Countries), of Pakistan EconomicSurvey1966-67 (Rawalpindi:Ministry Finance), pp. 32-35.

to mostof the benefits accruingto West Pakistan.In response such doubts and also because of the politicalcordiality existingbetweenPakistanand called the Indonesian-Pakistan Indonesia,a similararrangement Economic and CulturalCooperation Organization(IPECC) was established i965. in No concreteresultsemerged from this arrangement until February25, i968 when it was announcedthat afterthe first sessionof the Ministerial Council of the IPECC, the two countrieshad agreed in principleto in establish jointventures industries jute,fish, like rubber, metalprocessing, and buildingof small ships and rivercraft. addition,technical In cooperation would cover 22 fieldswhich included textiles, jute, technology, telecommunications, agricultural techniques, airportconstruction, cigar,sugar, cement industries, and post-graduate education.It was also announced that the debt of ten million dollars (U.S.) that Indonesia owed Pakistan and which had been due for repayment i965, would be re-scheduled in over an eleven-year period and the interest rate reducedfrom5 1/2 4 to percent.29 It may be noted thatIndia is also engaged in arriving similartrade at withIndonesia.The terms tradeagreement agreements of reachedbetween Indonesia and India in December, 1966 were of a similar nature. The referred thescopeforjointventures to agreement and to the waysin which the Indian government could help Indonesia in locating fieldsfor such ventures. Indonesianstudents were invitedto India to obtain trainingin accountsand audit,railways, banking, power plants,etc. The communique
29

The Pakistan Times,February I968. 28,

243

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Pacific Affairs

also referred the discussions had takenplace between two to that the countries regarding utilization Indonesia Rs. ioo million the credit by of offered India.30 by At thesametime, private the so sector Pakistan become strong in has that industrialists leading are trade missions various to countries, including thoseof Southeast Asia. Perhaps establishment closerelations the of between Pakistan Southeast and on Asiancountries partly will depend how successful trademissions in forging such are additional tradelinkswith thesecountries. Pakistani The dominated entrepreneurial is largely class of all by members the Memon, Khoja, and the Bohracommunities, the of whomhavehad extensive experience thefieldof foreign in tradeand someof whomhavebranches subsidiaries their or in of firms East Africa andparts Southeast of Asia. East Pakistanis As suggested have becomeincreasingly earlier, conorientation Pakistan's of cerned withthe westward foreign policy, with great on of emphasis thecountries theMiddleEast and inadequate attenof tionto thecountries Southeast Asia. An East Pakistani member the of observed long ago thatif West Pakistan not NationalAssembly was a was a partof the Far East and partof the MiddleEast,East Pakistan the should equalattention both that to consequently country pay regions:
But, Sir, when we look and analyse our events, we find that there had always been to an attitude,an effort, be more closely related with the Middle East countries,but was made to increase our relationswith Far Eastern countries,except very littleefforts

withIndonesiawhichhave latelyimproved greatextent.31 to our relations

role Southeast playsin theforeign The secondary which Asia policy of in Pakistan explained partby the geopolitical is compulsions considered also perhaps the small number East above,but to some extent by of of Pakistanis theForeign in Service Pakistan involved thehigher in levels ofdecision-making.
and Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Centre Developing-Area McGill University for Studies, MarchI968
80 The Hindu Weekly Review,January I967. 2, 81 NationalAssembly Pakistan of Debates,Vol. i (I966),

p. 384.

244

This content downloaded on Tue, 18 Dec 2012 05:16:47 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions