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2 A Data Communications Model

To discuss computer networking, it is necessary to use terms that have special meaning. Even other computer professionals may not be familiar with all the terms in the networking alphabet soup. As is always the case, English and computer-speak are not equivalent (or even necessarily compatible) languages. Although descriptions and examples should make the meaning of the networking jargon more apparent, sometimes terms are ambiguous. A common frame of reference is necessary for understanding data communications terminology. An architectural model developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) is frequently used to describe the structure and function of data communications protocols. This architectural model, which is called the Open Systems Interconnect Reference Model (OSI), provides a common reference for discussing communications. The terms defined by this model are well understood and widely used in the data communications community - so widely used, in fact, that it is difficult to discuss data communications without using OSI's terminology. The OSI Reference Model contains seven layers that define the functions of data communications protocols. Each layer of the OSI model represents a function performed when data is transferred between cooperating applications across an intervening network. Figure 1.1 identifies each layer by name and provides a short functional description for it. Looking at this figure, the protocols are like a pile of building blocks stacked one upon another. Because of this appearance, the structure is often called a stack or protocol stack. Figure 1.1: The OSI Reference Model

A layer does not define a single protocol - it defines a data communications function that may be performed by any number of protocols. Therefore, each layer may contain multiple protocols, each providing a service suitable to the function of that layer. For example, a file transfer protocol and an electronic mail protocol both provide user services, and both are part of the Application Layer. Every protocol communicates with its peer. A peer is an implementation of the same protocol in the equivalent layer on a remote system; i.e., the local file transfer protocol is the peer of a remote file transfer protocol. Peer-level communications must be standardized for successful communications to take place. In the abstract, each protocol is concerned only with communicating to its peer; it does not care about the layer above or below it. However, there must also be agreement on how to pass data between the layers on a single computer, because every layer is involved in sending data from a local application to an equivalent remote application. The upper layers rely on the lower layers to transfer the data over the underlying network. Data is passed down the stack from one layer to the next, until it is transmitted over the network by the Physical Layer protocols. At the remote end, the data is passed up the stack to the receiving application. The individual layers do not need to know how the layers above and below them function; they only need to know how to pass data to them. Isolating network communications functions in different layers minimizes the impact of technological change on the entire protocol suite. New applications can be added without changing the physical network, and new network hardware can be installed without rewriting the application software. Although the OSI model is useful, the TCP/IP protocols don't match its structure exactly. Therefore, in our discussions of TCP/IP, we use the layers of the OSI model in the following way: Application Layer The Application Layer is the level of the protocol hierarchy where user-accessed network processes reside. In this text, a TCP/IP application is any network process that occurs above the Transport Layer. This includes all of the processes that users directly interact with, as well as other processes at this level that users are not necessarily aware of. Presentation Layer For cooperating applications to exchange data, they must agree about how data is represented. In OSI, this layer provides standard data presentation routines. This function is frequently handled within the applications in TCP/IP, though increasingly TCP/IP protocols such as XDR and MIME perform this function. Session Layer

As with the Presentation Layer, the Session Layer is not identifiable as a separate layer in the TCP/IP protocol hierarchy. The OSI Session Layer manages the sessions (connection) between cooperating applications. In TCP/IP, this function largely occurs in the Transport Layer, and the term "session" is not used. For TCP/IP, the terms "socket" and "port" are used to describe the path over which cooperating applications communicate. Transport Layer Much of our discussion of TCP/IP is directed to the protocols that occur in the Transport Layer. The Transport Layer in the OSI reference model guarantees that the receiver gets the data exactly as it was sent. In TCP/IP this function is performed by the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). However, TCP/IP offers a second Transport Layer service, User Datagram Protocol (UDP) that does not perform the end-to-end reliability checks. Network Layer The Network Layer manages connections across the network and isolates the upper layer protocols from the details of the underlying network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which isolates the upper layers from the underlying network and handles the addressing and delivery of data, is usually described as TCP/IP's Network Layer. Data Link Layer The reliable delivery of data across the underlying physical network is handled by the Data Link Layer. TCP/IP rarely creates protocols in the Data Link Layer. Most RFCs that relate to the Data Link Layer discuss how IP can make use of existing data link protocols. Physical Layer The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of the hardware needed to carry the data transmission signal. Features such as voltage levels, and the number and location of interface pins, are defined in this layer. Examples of standards at the Physical Layer are interface connectors such as RS232C and V.35, and standards for local area network wiring such as IEEE 802.3. TCP/IP does not define physical standards - it makes use of existing standards. The terminology of the OSI reference model helps us describe TCP/IP, but to fully understand it, we must use an architectural model that more closely matches the structure of TCP/IP. The next section introduces the protocol model we'll use to describe TCP/IP.

What is Synchronous Transmission?

The term synchronous is used to describe a continuous and consistent timed transfer of data blocks. Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals. Synchronous transmission modes are used when large amounts of data must be transferred very quickly from one location to the other. The speed of the synchronous connection is attained by transferring data in large blocks instead of individual characters. Synchronous transmission synchronizes transmission speeds at both the receiving and sending end of the transmission using clock signals built into each component. A continual stream of data is then sent between the two nodes. The data blocks are grouped and spaced in regular intervals and are preceded by special characters called syn or synchronous idle characters. See the following illustration. Figure 1 Synchronous transmission

After the syn characters are received by the remote device, they are decoded and used to synchronize the connection. After the connection is correctly synchronized, data transmission may begin. An analogy of synchronous transmission would be the transmission of a large text document. Before the document is transferred across the synchronous line, it is first broken into blocks of sentences or paragraphs. The blocks are then sent over the communication link to the remote site. The timing needed for synchronous connections is obtained from the devices located on the communication link. All devices on the synchronous link must be set to the same clocking. The following is a list of characteristics specific to synchronous communication:

There are no gaps between characters being transmitted. Timing is supplied by modems or other devices at each end of the connection. Special syn characters precede the data being transmitted. The syn characters are used between blocks of data for timing purposes.

Due to there being no start and stop bits the data transfer rate is quicker although more errors will occur, as the clocks will eventually get out of sync, and the receiving device would have the wrong time that had been agreed in the protocol for sending/receiving data, so some bytes could become corrupted (by losing bits). Ways to get around this problem include re-synchronization of the clocks and use of check digits to ensure the bytes is correctly interpreted and received. Most network protocols (such as Ethernet, SONET, Token Ring) use synchronous transmission.

>> What is Asynchronous Transmission

In contrast, asynchronous transmission works in spurts and must insert a start bit before each data character and a stop bit at its termination to inform the receiver where it begins and ends. The term asynchronous is used to describe the process where transmitted data is encoded with start and stop bits, specifying the beginning and end of each character. An example of synchronous transmission is shown in the following figure. Figure 2. Asynchronous transmission

These additional bits provide the timing or synchronization for the connection by indicating when a complete character has been sent or received; thus, timing for each character begins with the start bit and ends with the stop bit. When gaps appear between character transmissions, the asynchronous line is said to be in a mark state. A mark is a binary 1 (or negative voltage) that is sent during periods of inactivity on the line as shown in the following figure.

When the mark state is interrupted by a positive voltage (a binary 0), the receiving system knows that data characters are going to follow. It is for this reason that the start bit, which precedes the data character, is always a space bit (binary 0) and that the stop bit, which signals the end of a character, is always a mark bit (binary 1). The following is a list of characteristics specific to asynchronous communication:

Each character is preceded by a start bit and followed by one or more stop bits. Gaps or spaces between characters may exist.

With asynchronous transmission, a large text document is organized into long strings of letters (or characters) that make up the words within the sentences and paragraphs. These characters are sent over the communication link one at a time and reassembled at the remote location. In asynchronous transmission, ASCII character would actually be transmitted using 10 bits. For example, "0100 0001" would become "1 0100 0001 0". The extra one (or zero, depending on parity bit) at the start and end of the transmission tells the receiver first that a character is coming and secondly that the character has ended. This method of transmission is used when data are sent intermittently as opposed to in a solid stream. In the previous example the start and stop bits are in bold. The start and stop bits must be of opposite polarity. This allows the receiver to recognize when the second packet of information is being sent. Asynchronous transmission is used commonly for communications over telephone lines.

Asynchronous Transmission)
Asynchronous communication utilizes a transmitter, a receiver and a wire without coordination about the timing of individual bits. There is no coordination between the two end points on just how long the transmitter leaves the signal at a certain level to represent a single digital bit. Each device uses a clock to measure out the 'length' of a bit. The transmitting device simply transmits. The receiving device has to look at the incoming signal and figure out what it is receiving and coordinate and retime its clock to match the incoming signal. Sending data encoded into your signal requires that the sender and receiver are both using the same encoding/decoding method, and know where to look in the signal to find data. Asynchronous systems do not send separate information to indicate the encoding or clocking information. The receiver must decide the clocking of the signal on it's own. This means that the receiver must decide where to look in the signal stream to find ones and zeroes, and decide for itself where each individual bit stops and starts. This information is not in the data in the signal sent from transmitting unit. When the receiver of a signal carrying information has to derive how that signal is organized without consulting the transmitting device, it is called asynchronous communication. In short, the two ends do not always negotiate or work out the connection parameters before communicating. Asynchronous communication is more efficient when there is low loss and low error rates over the transmission medium because data is not retransmitted and no time is spent setting negotiating the connection parameters at the beginning of transmission. Asynchronous systems just transmit and let the far end station figure it out. Asynchronous is sometimes called "best effort" transmission because one side simply transmits, and the other does it's best to receive and any lost data is recovered by a higher level protocol. EXAMPLES:

Asynchronous communication is used on RS-232 based serial devices such as on an IBMcompatible computer's communication ports (COM 1, 2, 3 & 4) for the following functions: o PS2 ports on your computer use asynchronous serial communication with the keyboard and mouse o The serial port is used to communicate with external devices such as modems. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also uses asynchronous communication.

Think of asynchronous as a faster means of connecting, but less reliable when transmitting.

Synchronous (Synchronous I/O or Synchronous Transmission)

Synchronous systems negotiate the communication parameters at the data link layer before communication begins. Basic synchronous systems will synchronize the signal clocks on both sides before transmission begins, reset their numeric counters and take other steps. More advanced systems may negotiate things like error correction and compression.

It is possible to have both sides try to synchronize the connection at the same time. Usually, there is a process to decide which end should be in control. Both sides in synchronous communication can go through a lengthy negotiation cycle where they exchange communications parameters and status information. With a lengthy connection establishment process, a synchronous system using an unreliable physical connection will spend a great deal of time in negotiating, but not in actual data transfer. Once a connection is established, the transmitter sends out a signal, and the receiver sends back data regarding that transmission, and what it received. This connection negotiation process takes longer on low error-rate lines, but is highly efficient in systems where the transmission medium itself (an electric wire, radio signal or laser beam) is not particularly reliable. MODEM
A modem is a device that enables most computers to transmit data to different networks, such as mobile phones or other computers The basic functions of a GPRS modem include wireless data communication and integration with several applications that require universal serial bus (USB) connections. Between a GPRS cell phone and a stand alone GPRS modem, it is frequently better to use a GPRS modem in data transmission. In terms of sending and receiving SMS or MMS, there is negligible difference between the two devices. They both use the same rates and the same speed in transmitting messages. GPRS modems usually come in the form of an external USB device, some of which include movable external antennas. These external USB devices can be similar in shapes and sizes as the computer mouse or most external USB drives. They also come in the form of cards, usually used for laptops. These types of GPRS modems also usually sport an external antenna, which can be maneuvered to get the maximum wireless signal strength and integrity connection. Using a GPRS modem lets users access several types of online services because of its ability to support several protocols. These protocols include Internet protocol and X.25 connections, among many others. Internet protocols (IP) are methods utilized in the Internet in sending data from one computer to another. The X.25 connection, popularly used in the 1980s, allowed users to access services like wireless payment portals or terminals.