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Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

The Battle of Actium and the subsequent conquest of Egypt put the entire Roman world in Octavians hands . . . but how could he maintain one man rule without making the mistakes of Julius Caesar?

The Rise of Octavian

Caesars will had adopted 19 year old grandnephew, C. Octavius, as his son and heir
C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus > historians know him as Octavian Heir to Caesars fortune and name

Returned from Apollonia (in Macedonia), where he had been training with Caesars army Cicero initially friendly towards Octavian
Saw him as a counter to Mark Antony, Caesars lieutenant

Built up a faction, challenged Antony

Differed over avenging Caesar Ludi Victoriae Caesaris and the astrum Caesaris: Behold, my father become a god!

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

Actium and the End of Antony

Octavian waits until 31 B.C. to fight
He was elected consul that year for the third time; as consul he had constitutional legitimacy

Naval face-off
Site on the Adriatic coast of Greece Antony stronger on paper
Commanders divided, angry with Cleopatra

Antonys larger fleet bottled up in the mouth of bay Antony and Cleopatra opted for a strategic retreat
Their navy demoralized, many surrendered

Antony and Cleopatra fled to Alexandria

Octavian pursued them in 30 B.C. Their suicides and the annexation of Egypt

Octavian now supreme in the Roman world

At last both the heir and successor of Caesar But how to avoid Caesars fate?
Caesar has been assassinated by fellow-senators for looking and acting like a king

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

Octavian Triumphant
Consul each year from 31 to 23 B.C.
However, his colleagues were not equal, as demonstrated by his holding all the fasces (rods and axes that symbolized authority)

Triple triumph in 29 B.C.: Illyria, Actium, and Egypt

Coupled with restoration of temples, both foreseen in Vergils Shield of Aeneas

In 28 B.C., he and Agrippa held a new census

Lectio senatus (senatorial list) purged opponents from the Senate and stacked it with their own men Augustus princeps Senatus (first man of the senate)

Super-patron
Wealth of Egypt allowed him to outstrip all aristocrats in munificence and patronage

Commanded all the Roman armies and controlled all the provinces
Was still, in actuality, a military dictator with no challengers

Again, the problem: How to avoid the fate of Iulius Caesar?

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

Constitutional Settlement of 27 B.C.

Restored the republic
Turned provinces and armies over to the Senate and People of Rome Resigned all extraordinary powers except for the normal authority of the consulship

Senate protested, voted him new honors and powers

Returned about half of the provinces to Augustus as his provincia and granted him proconsular imperium for ten years
He could govern them through legates (deputies) and remain at Rome as consul These provinces contained almost all of the legions

Bestowed new honors upon him meant to elevate him above all others in the aristocracy

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

The Roman Empire Under Augustus

Augustus provinces in darker brown, the Senates in tan, Italy in purple First Provincial Tour, 27-25 B.C.
Reorganized provinces of Gaul and Spain Removed his dominating presence from Rome, intended perhaps to lessen senatorial jealousy

30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

New Name, Old Virtues

A new name: Imperator Caesar Augustus
Imperator: originally the title of a victorious general, this name stressed his military role
Our word emperor comes from this name/title, but there never was a formal position of emperor in Rome

Caesar: continued to emphasize his connection with Julius Caesar

Modern titles such as Kaiser and Czar (tsar) are derived from this personal name

Augustus: roughly meant holy one and perhaps increaser

indicated his favor with the gods and his more than human status

Additional Honors
Clipeus Virtutis: The Senate decreed that a golden shield listing his virtues be put up in their chamber
justice mercy virtus (valor) pietas (loyalty to family, country, and the gods)

Additional honors included making his house the equivalent of a temple and decorating it with evergreen bay leaves, indicating that he was the source of eternal life

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

Clipeus Virtutis

Left: Marble copy of the clipeus virtutis from Arles (see Zanker fig. 79, page 95); above: coins with laurels (cf. Livias laurel sprigs signifying the prosperity of the imperial house) and the clipeus virtutis between two laurels.

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

The Principate
Declared princeps Senatus in the 28 B.C. census, Augustus was soon known simply as princeps
First citizen, first in everything! The English word prince is derived from princeps This title is the root of the word principate, which describes the kind of government Augustus established

Cumulative position: Imperator Caesar Augustus, princeps

triumphant general, Caesar, the Holy One, the first man of Rome Consul in Rome, proconsul in a massive province, commander of virtually all the armies, wealthiest man, monopolizer of patronage, bearer of extraordinary honors A disguised monarchy

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

A Return to Traditional Values

Some important Roman morals
romanitas (patriotism) gravitas (seriousness) virtus (valour, courage = Greek aret) pietas (loyalty to family, country, and the gods)

Importance of marriage, children, and family

The wealthy had been having smaller and smaller families, divorcing frequently the problem of legislating morality

Revival of religion
Rebuilt temples, revived old cults, tried to strengthen old time religion and values

Veneration of Roman heroes

Figures from Roman myth and legend; leaders and heroes from the early republic; Caesar; and increasingly, Augustus himself!

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature

Augustan Literature
When the rule of Augustus is established, men of letters, a class whose habit it had been to attack the dominant individual or faction, appear to have been fervently on the side of the government. . . . It does not follow that that the poets and historians who lent their talent to the glorification of the new order were merely the paid and compliant apologists of despotism. (R. Syme, Roman Revolution, 459) Many poets and writers patronized by Augustus friend Maecenas
Horace: Golden Age poet
note esp. his Roman odes

Livy: moralizing historian

Propagator of traditional values, legendary and historical heroes as exempla (models of good and bad behavior)

Vergil: author of a nationalistic epic, the Aeneid

Stressed the role of the Julian family

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30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature