AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Semester I Review Chapters to know: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 22, 23,

24, 25, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 (bold/italic are not in this review) Table of Contents Chapter 2.....................................................................................................................................................2 Chapter 3.....................................................................................................................................................3 Chapter 4 (Abbreviated)..............................................................................................................................4 Chapter 5 (Abbreviated)..............................................................................................................................5 Chapter 6.....................................................................................................................................................6 Chapter 9.....................................................................................................................................................9 Chapter 10.................................................................................................................................................10 Chapter 12.................................................................................................................................................13 Chapter 13.................................................................................................................................................16 Chapter 14.................................................................................................................................................18 Chapter 15.................................................................................................................................................21 Chapter 22.................................................................................................................................................22 Chapter 23.................................................................................................................................................24 Chapter 24.................................................................................................................................................27 Chapter 25.................................................................................................................................................29 Chapter 35.................................................................................................................................................30 Chapter 36.................................................................................................................................................34 Chapter 40.................................................................................................................................................36 Chapter 41.................................................................................................................................................38 Chapter 42.................................................................................................................................................42

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 02: The Chemical Context of Life Chemistry - matter = an object that takes up space and has mass - element = a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reaction - compound = substance consisting of two or more different elements in a fixed ratio - atom = smallest unit having properties of its element; measured in dalton (or atomic mass unit) o neutrons = electrically neutral; in atomic nucleus o protons = positively charged; in nucleus o electrons = negatively charged quantized energy levels valence electrons (outer electrons) determines chemical properties of element found in orbital = probability of finding electron in space o atomic number = number of protons (ex. 2He means He has 2 protons) o mass number = sum of protons and neutrons (ex. 4He means He has 2 neutrons) o atomic mass = total mass of an atom (includes mass of electrons) - isotope = a form element with varying number of neutrons Bonds Chemical bonds = interactions of valence electrons causes two atoms to bond, or stay together - covalent bond = sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms, forming a molecule o bonding capacity of an atom is its valence (ex. carbon has a valence of four) o electronegativity = the tendency to attract electrons from other atoms equal electronegativity leads to nonpolar covalent bond one atom significantly more electronegative leads to polar covalent bond - ionic bond = two oppositely charged ions attract, forming an ionic compound (a.k.a. salt) o cation = positive ion; anion = negative ion o high electronegativity differences Intermolecular forces = interaction between two molecules - van der Waals interaction = asymmetric electron distribution causes dipole moment, inducing more dipole moments; weak attraction between nonpolar molecules - hydrogen bond = dipole-dipole interaction that occurs when hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative element (ex. O or F) Matter in Life - trace element = required by an organism in minute quantities (ex. Fe or I)

Naturally Occurring Elements in the Human Body Symbol Element % of Human Body O Oxygen 65.0 C Carbon 18.5 H Hydrogen 9.5 N Nitrogen 3.3 Ca Calcium 1.5 P Phosphorus 1.0 K Potassium 0.4 S Sulfur 0.3 Na Sodium 0.2 Cl Chlorine 0.2 Mg Magnesium 0.1

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 03: Water and the Fitness of the Environment Water is a major reason for Earths hospitability - polar molecule: water is a polar molecule, bent, and thus has a properties: o cohesion = hydrogen bonds due to polarity results in high self-attraction o adhesion = hydrogen bonds due to polarity results in high attraction to other molecules o surface tension = how difficult to stretch/break surface of a liquid o high specific heat = a relatively high amount energy needed to change the temperature kinetic energy = energy of motion heat = measure of total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion temperature = measure the intensity of heat due to the average kinetic energy of the molecules 1cal (calorie) = 4.184J (joule) - evaporative cooling = a liquid cools as molecules of that liquid evaporate o heat of vaporization = energy required to convert 1g of H2O (l) to H2O (s) - ice floats because solid water is less dense than liquid water - solvent of life = solvent is an agent in which solutes are dissolved, forming an aqueous solution o dissolved solutes are surrounded by hydration shell molarity is used to measure the concentration of a solution (moles of solute/liters of solvent) o hydrophilic substances dissolve some large hydrophilic substances do not completely dissolve; they form colloids o hydrophobic substances do not dissolve- they can form suspensions - autoionization of water- water naturally self-ionizes into a hydrogen ion (hydronium ion) H+ (H3O+) and hydroxide ion (OH-) o acid = a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution o base = a substance that increases the hydroxide ion concentration in a solution o pH scale (p is an operator; thus, pH is a function of [H+]) = - log H+; a logarithmic scale of hydrogen ion concentration pH < 7 is acidic; pH > 7 is basic; pH = 7 is neutral buffers = substances that minimize changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH ex. H2CO3 is a buffer: [H+][HCO3-] pKa = 6.37 = -log [H2CO3] If an acid is added, the equilibrium will shift to accommodate change, and vice versa with a base Acid Precipitation = precipitation whose pH is lower than 5.6

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 04: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Organic chemistry = study of carbon compounds - vitalism = belief that organic compounds could only arise from living organisms (Jns Jakob Berzelius) - Friedrich Whler synthesized urea from NH4+ and CNO- 1828 - Hermann Kolbe synthesized acetic acid from inorganic substances - Stanley Miller used laboratory to create a primordial soup, spontaneous synthesis of amino acids and other organic compounds 1953 Hydrocarbons = organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen Isomer = compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of elements, but different structures - structural isomer differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms - geometric isomer have the same covalent partnerships, but differ in spatial arrangements o ex. cis-trans isomerism - enantiomers are molecules that are mirror images of each other o asymmetric carbon = middle carbon Functional groups = components of organic molecules most commonly involved in organic reactions - hydroxyl group ( OH); polar; -ol; ex. ethanol - carbonyl group ( C=O); ketone (carbonyl group is in the middle -one, aldehyde (carbonyl group at end) -al; ex. acetone and propanal - carboxylic acids ( COOH); organic acids, carboxylic acids oic acid; ex. acetic acid (ethanoic acid) - amino group ( NH2); amines; ex. glycine; nonionized: NH2, ionized: NH3+ - sulfhydryl ( SH); thiols; ex. ethanethiol; sulfhydryl group can form disulfide bridges between two cysteine - phosphate ( OPO32-); 1 O is bonded to the rest of the molecule, which is connected to the central P, which is double bonded to 1 O, and single-bonded to 2 O, each of which have a -1 charge unless if 2 H attach to each, forming OP(OH)2

Adenosine triphosphate = ATP = three phosphate attached to an adenosine; important to energy

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 05: The Structure and Function of Macromolecules - macromolecules = molecules over 100,000 daltons - polymer = long molecule consisting of many similar/identical building blocks (monomers) liked by covalent bonds o condensation reaction = dehydration reaction links the monomers together: HROH + HROH HRROH + H2O o hydrolysis breaks apart polymers by adding back the water: HRROH + H2O HROH + HROH Carbohydrates = sugars and polymers of sugars - monosaccharide = simple sugar are the simplest carbohydrates; (CnH2nOn) o ex. glucose or fructose (found in fruits) o aldose = monosaccharide with carbonyl group at the end of chain o ketose = monosaccharide with carbonyl group in the middle of chain

disaccharides formed by two monosaccharides joined by dehydration reaction, making a glycosidic linkage (ex. lactose or maltose) oligosaccharides are polymers of 3 to 20 monosaccharides (ex. stick out of red blood cells so that the body can recognize blood as belonging to itself or not) polysaccharides have more than 20 monosaccharides, and up to 26,000 o amylose (starch) is a polymer of glucose linked with 1-4 linkage o glycogen is a polymer of glucose with both 1-4 and 1-6 linkages o cellulose is a polymer of glucose with 1-4 linkages (makes it indigestible to humans)

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 06: A Tour of the Cell Microscopy: magnification = the ratio of an objects image size to its real size resolution = measure of clarity of the distance (minimum distance for two separate points to seem separate) - light microscopes (LMs) = visible light is passed through the specimen, then through glass lenses o resolving power is about 0.2 m - electron microscope (EM)= beam of electrons passed through specimen or onto surface used to see organelles method kills the cell reveals cell ultrastructure = cells anatomy revealed by EM resolving power of 0.002 nm o scanning electron microscope (SEM) = electron beam scans surface of the sample, usually coated with thin layer of gold; produces great depth field o transmission electron microscope (TEM) = aims electron through thin section of specimen, stained with atoms of heavy metals cell fractionation = take cells apart with an ultracentrifuge to isolate organelles Prokaryotic Cell has a nucleoid = region where DNA is concentrated (no membrane); cytosol = fluid within cell Eukaryotic Cell has true nucleus with nuclear envelope; cytoplasm = region between nucleus and plasma membrane; organelles can be compartmentalized - nucleus = contains genes o nuclear envelope = lipid bilayer that encloses nucleus pore complex (protein structure that regulates entry and exit of particles) nuclear lamina (protein filaments that maintains shape of nucleus) o chromosomes = organized DNA in discrete units; made up of chromatin = complex of proteins and DNA during cell division, chromatin fibers condense into chromosomes o nucleolus synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which assembles proteins into ribosomal subunits ribosomes = organelles that carry out protein synthesis free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol bound ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope; synthesizes proteins for membranes or export from cell - endomembrane system = different membranes that can synthesize and transport proteins in vesicles = sacs made of membrane that transport molecules o nuclear envelope o endoplasmic reticulum (ER) consists of cisternae (membranous tubules and sacs); continuous with nuclear envelope smooth ER synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, detoxifies drugs/poisons, stores Ca2+ most detoxification includes adding OH groups to drug, increases solubility, ease to flush out rough ER (ribosomes attached to surface roughens appearance) secrete proteins and their derivatives (e.g. glycoproteins = proteins with carbohydrates attached covalently), transported by transport vesicles 6

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Golgi apparatus stores, modifies, and send products of the ER; composed of cisternae (flattened membranous sacs, like pita bread!) cis face receives transport vesicles from ER trans face give rise to vesicles; ships stuff cisternae maturation model = cisternae of Golgi moves with the protein cargo from the cis to trans face Golgi tags products to target them to certain organelles/places o lysosome contains hydrolytic enzymes (break down macromolecules) enzymes work best in low pH; thus, if lysosome breaks open, enzymes ineffective in neutral pH of cytoplasm some lysosome bud off of Golgi apparatus phagocytosis = cell engulfs smaller organisms/food molecules, forming a food vacuole food vacuole merges with and is digested by lysosome autophagy = hydrolysis of cells own material o vacuoles food vacuoles contractile vacuole pump excess water out of cell central vacuole (in plants), enclosed in tonoplast (membrane), stores molecules such as proteins, inorganic ions, dangerous metabolic byproducts, pigments, poisons mitochondria = sites of cellular respiration (creates ATP from sugars); not part of endomembrane system, but has two lipid bilayer membranes o outer membrane is smooth o inner membrane is convoluted; infoldings = cristae o intermembrane space = space between outer and inner membrane o mitochondrial matrix = space enclosed with inner membrane chloroplasts = sites of photosynthesis (in plants and algae); not part of endomembrane system o member of plastid family (which also includes amyloplasts, chromoplasts, etc.) o contains chlorophyll, two membranes with intermembrane space o thylakoids = interconnected membranous sacs (looks like poker chips) that forms grana (stacks; granum singular) o stroma = fluid outside of thylakoid peroxisomes break down fatty acids, detoxifies alcohols, etc.; forms H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) as byproduct, which is toxic (but breaks it down to water) o plant seeds have specialized peroxisomes = glyoxysomes that convert fatty acids to sugars cytoskeleton = network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm; mechanical support to cell, cell motility (movement), forms monorails to transport vesicles; made up of three fibers: o microtubules = thickest fiber- hollow rods in cytoplasm made of tubulin (globular protein, a dimer of -tubulin and -tubulin); shape and support cell, form tracks on which mobile organelles can move; resist compression centrosome = microtubule-organizing center; contains two centrioles (which are each composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring) flagella and cilia = locomotor appendages that protrude from cell flagella generates force in the same direction as its axis (like snake in water) o

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So composed of 9 pairs of microtubules arranged in circle, with 2 single microtubules in the center (9 x 2 pattern) o dynein = motor protein that connects adjacent doublets (responsible for bending motion) o surrounded by plasma membrane o anchored to cell by basal body (like centriole) cilia generates force perpendicular to its axis (like oars); microfilaments = thinnest fiber; solid rods = actin filaments (composed of actin, a globular protein); forms linear or branched structure; resist tension cortex = outer cytoplasm; gel-consistency with actin network inner cytoplasm has fluid-consistency (sol) with actin subunits found in core of microvilli contraction: actin forms the track on which the motor protein, myosin, walks toward each other, shortening the whole unit o seen in muscle contraction, and cleavage furrow that divides two daughter cells o pseudopodia = cellular extensions found on some single-cell organisms (ex. amoeba) and white blood cells for motility cell extends pseudopodia, then flows into it (by changing from sol to gel and vice versa) to move o cytoplasmic streaming (plants) = circular flow of cytoplasm in cell to distribute material intermediate filaments = intermediate diameter; bears tension; permanent fixtures (even after cell dies); supports cell shape o

Extracellular Components - cell wall (plants) = extracellular structure that protects cell, maintain shape, prevent too much water flowing in o composed of microfibrils (cellulose) in a matrix of other polysaccharides and proteins o primary cell wall = thin and flexible wall o middle lamella = thin layer of pectin (a polysaccharide) that glues two adjacent cells together o secondary cell wall = wall between plasma membrane and primary wall for protection and support - extracellular matrix (ECM) = stuff outside of the cell; composed of: o glycoproteins = proteins covalently bonded carbohydrate collagen forms strong fibers proteoglycans = small core protein will many carbohydrate chains fibronectin binds to cell surface receptor proteins (integrins) to transmit changes between ECM and cytoskeleton (to regulate cell behavior) - plasmodesmata = channels that connect chemical environment of adjacent plant cells; allow water & nutrients to pass freely - intercellular junctions in animals: o tight junctions prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across layer of epithelial cells o desmosomes = anchoring junctions fasten cells together into strong sheets o gap junctions = communicating junctions = cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells, like plant plasmodesmata; ex. heart muscle gap junction allows unified contraction 8

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy Overview Glycolysis - inputs glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+ - outputs 4 ATP, 2NADH, 2 pyruvate, 2H2O - net: 2 Pyruvate, 2H2O, 2ATP, 2NADH, 2H+

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 10: Photosynthesis Photosynthesis = process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy Autotrophs = organisms that sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms - photoautotrophs = autotrophs that derive energy from sunlight Heterotrophs = organisms that obtain their organic material from products of other organisms Sites of Photosynthesis - stomata = microscopic pores through which CO2 enters leaves - mesophyll = tissue in the interior of the leaf o chloroplasts = site of photosynthesis in plants chlorophyll = green pigment in chloroplast stroma = dense fluid within chloroplast enclosed by two membranes thylakoid = membranous sacs that segregates the stroma from the thylakoid space Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O - light reactions uses solar energy to drive transfer of electrons and hydrogen to reduce NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) from water, which is split in the process to release O2, and forms NADPH; also uses light energy to add a phosphate group to ADP (photophosphorylation) o occurs in thylakoids - Calvin cycle incorporates CO2 from air into organic molecules (carbon fixation), uses NADPH and ATP to make sugar o occurs in the stroma Sunlight - wavelength = distance between crests of electromagnetic waves - electromagnetic (EM) spectrum = entire range of radiation - visible light = portion of EM spectrum detectable by human eye (380nm to 750nm) - spectrophotometer measures the ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelengths o absorption spectrum = a graph plotting a pigments light absorption versus wavelength o action spectrum = relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in photosynthesis Chlorophyll - chlorophyll a absorbs most from violet-blue and red light; looks blue-green - chlorophyll b is an accessory pigment to chlorophyll a; looks yellow-green - carotenoids are accessory pigments that absorb violet and blue-green light o photoprotection = absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen (and forming dangerous oxidative molecules) Photosystem composed of a reaction center surrounded by a number of light-harvesting complexes - light-harvesting complex consists of pigment molecule (can include chlorophyll a, b, or carotenoids) bound to proteins, transfer energy to the reaction center - reaction center = protein complex that includes two chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor; o chlorophyll uses light energy to boost electrons to higher energy level - photosystem II (PS II) has a reaction center called P680- it absorbs light best at 680nm - photosystem I (PS I) has reaction center = P700 o both reaction center are chlorophyll a, but different proteins changes electron distribution 10

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Noncyclic electron flow in the thylakoid membrane Photosystem II 1. Photon hit pigment molecules, energy transferred to P680 core, excites electron 2. Electron captured by primary electron acceptor 3. Enzyme splits water, produces O2 and 2H+, electron from water replaces captured e4. Primary electron acceptor passes e- to plastoquinone (Pq) 5. Pq passes through a cytochrome complex, which produces 1 ATP due to the fall of e- to lower energy level; e- passed to plastocyanin (Pc), passes to PS I Photosystem I 1. Photon excites electron from P700 chlorophyll 2. e- captured by primary electron acceptor 3. e- from PS II fills hole in the reaction center 4. Primary electron acceptor passes e- to ferredoxin (Fd) 5. Fd passes 2e- to NADP+ reductase which reduces NADP+ to produce 1 NADPH Cyclic electron flow utilizes only photosystem I; important because Calvin cycle consumes more ATP than NADPH; cyclic electron flows supplies ATP without NADPH 1. Steps 1 4 same 2. Fd passes electron to cytochrome complex, produces 1 ATP 3. e- passed to Pc, and back to PS I Chemiosmosis = mechanism that produces ATP from proton gradient and ADP and Pi - in mitochondria o phosphorylation energy from organic molecules o produces ATP and NADH o proton gradient between matrix (low H+) and intermembrane space (high H+) - in chloroplasts o photophosphorylation energy from light energy o produces ATP and NADPH o proton gradient between stroma (low H+) and thylakoid space (high H+) Calvin cycle- anabolic process - carbon enters as CO2, leaves as sugar = glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P = PGAL) 1. carbon fixation = incorporates CO2 to 5 carbon sugar, ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) a. through enzyme, riublose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (rubisco) b. product splits apart into two 3-phosphoglycerate c. 3CO2 enters, forms total of six 3-phosphoglycerate 2. reduction = each 3-phosphoglycerate receives phosphate group from ATP, reduced by NADPH a. forms 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate b. electrons from NADPH reduces 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to six G3P c. only one G3P (3 carbon sugar) to be used to make glucose 3. regeneration = five G3P used to reform three RuBP To make one molecule of glucose, must cycle twice to form two G3P to combine into glucose Net Reaction: 6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH C6H12O6 + 18ADP + 12NADP+ C3 plants = plants that fix carbon through rubisco to RuBP (ex. rice, wheat, soybean) - problem: on hot days, stomata closes to prevent water loss, trapping O2 from leaving o Rubisco then adds O2 to Calvin cycle instead of CO2 o product oxidized in peroxisome = photorespiration but uses ATP

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So C4 plants avoid photorespiration by separating spatially location of carbon fixation and Calvin cycle ex. sugarcane and corn - kranz anatomy = wreath-like structure (two layers of cells arranged in a ring) - bundle-sheath cells wrapped around veins of cells; location of Calvin cycle - mesophyll cells surround bundle-sheath cells; location of carbon fixation o phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) carboxylase fixes CO2 to PEP, forming oxaloacetate PEP carboxylase has no affinity to O2 o oxaloacetate (OAA) forms malate, transported into bundle-sheath cells, releases CO2, forming pyruvate, which regenerates back into PEP CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants avoid photorespiration by temporal separation of carbon fixation and Calvin cycle - stomata open during night to collect CO2 through PEP carboxylase and stored in vacuoles - during the day, stomata close, and the light reactions produce ATP and NADPH for Calvin cycle

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle Cell division = cell reproduction - part of cell cycle = life of a cell from formation to division Genome = a cells collection of DNA with its genetic information - chromosomes = packaged DNA; composed of chromatin = complex of DNA and proteins chromatin fibers coil up to form two sister chromatids after DNA duplication two chromatids join at narrow waist, called the centromere, forming a chromosome (once sister chromatids separate during mitosis, each are considered as individual chromosomes) o somatic cells (all body cells except reproductive cells) in humans contain 46 chromosomes, two sets of 23 o gametes (reproductive cells- sperm and egg cells) in humans contain 23 chromosomes, one set of 23 - mitosis = division of the nucleus o followed by cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm o mitotic spindle = fiber of microtubules and proteins that assist mitosis elongates by addition of protein, tubulin centrosome = organelle that organizes cells microtubules; assembly of spindle microtubules centrosome nonessential; in fact, plant lack centrosome aster = radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome kinetochore = protein structure on each chromatids to which kinetochore microtubules (from spindle) attach - meiosis = variation of cell division, produces gametes; reduces chromosome number to 23 Cell Cycle (about 24 hours) Interphase = growth of cell and duplication of chromosome; 90% of cell cycle; produces proteins, cytoplasmic organelles - G1 phase = first gap phase; growth of cell (about 56 hours) - S phase = synthesis phase; duplication of chromosomes (about 1012 hours) - G2 phase = second gap phase; finish preparations for mitosis (about 46 hours) o two centrosomes are formed Mitotic phase = division of cell (about 1 hour) - prophase o chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes duplicated chromosome appears; identical sister chromatids joined together o nucleoli disappear o mitotic spindle begin to form; composed of centrosome, microtubules, and asters (shorter microtubules); centrosome move away from each other - prometaphase o nuclear envelope fragments; microtubules begin to interact with chromosomes o microtubules attach to kinetochores (become kinetochore microtubules); begin moving toward centromere, until other centromere attaches, leads to tug-of-war o nonkinetochore microtubules interact with each other - metaphase (about 20 minutes; longest stage of mitosis)

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So centrosomes are at opposite ends of cells; chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane that is equidistant between the spindles two poles - anaphase (shortest stage of mitosis; few minutes) o two sister chromatids separate when proteins joining chromatids inactivates; each becomes a chromosome; each move to different poles of the cell o nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen elongates cell - telophase o two daughter nuclei begin to form; nuclear envelope arises; chromosome becomes less condensed o mitosis is complete - cytokinesis o animal cells: cleavage furrow forms from a contractile ring of actin microfilaments, pinches, and separates a cell in two o plant cells: vesicles from Golgi apparatus move to the middle of cell, coalesce, and form a cell plate cell plate enlarges and fuses with plasma membrane Regulation of Cell Cycle Cell cycle control system = cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle - checkpoint = critical points in cell cycle in which signals can regulate the cell cycle o G1 checkpoint = restriction point- at G1 checkpoint, if it receives go-ahead signal, it enters S, G2, and M; if it does not receive go-ahead, it enters G0 phase (non-dividing) most cells are in G0 phase- ex. nerve and muscle cells cannot divide; liver cells can be recalled from G0 to divide o protein kinases = enzymes that (in)activates other proteins by phosphorylating them cyclin = protein that binds to cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) to activate them cyclin concentrations fluctuates cyclically in cells; activity of Cdks follows maturation/mitosis-promoting factor (MPF) = cyclin-Cdk complex o triggers cells passage from G2 into M phase o MPF activates proteins and other kinases; promotes fragmentation of nuclear envelope o anaphase destroys cyclin, inactivates Cdk o internal checkpoints- ex. kinetochores without attached spindle makes molecular signal that prevents sister chromatids from separating- ensures no missing chromosomes - external factors o growth factor = protein that stimulates cell division platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) required for division of fibroblasts PDGF binds to receptor that allows cell to pass G1 checkpoint density-dependent inhibition = phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing; depends on the amount of growth factor and nutrients available anchorage dependence = in order to divide, must be attached to a substratum Cancer Cells Cancer cells do not heed bodys control mechanism ex. do not follow density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence - they might be able to synthesize growth factors themselves - they might transduce signal of growth factors even in absence of factors - transformation = process that converts a normal cell into a cancer cell o benign tumor = abnormal cells remain at original site o 14

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So o o malignant tumor = invasive, impairs function; cancer metastasis = proliferation of cancer cells in distant locations (cancer cells travel through blood and lymph vessels)

Binary Fission Binary fission = prokaryotic reproduction by dividing in half - origin of replication = place on chromosome where DNA begins to replicate; forms two origins o one origin moves to opposite end of cell o replication moves along to the opposite end of cell o cell elongates during replication o plasma membrane grows inward, and forms two daughter cells

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Heredity = inheritance; transmission of traits from one generation to the next - variation in offspring - genetics = study of heredity and variation - genes = hereditary units; passed through generations in reproductive cells (gametes) Asexual reproduction = single individual is sole parent and passes copies of all genes to offspring; produces a clone Sexual reproduction = two parents give rise to offspring - life cycle = generation-to-generation sequence of stages in reproductive history of an organism - zygote = fertilized egg Somatic cell = any cell other than a gamete Karyotype = resulting ordered display of chromosomes - homologous chromosomes = chromosomes with same length, centromere position, staining pattern - sex chromosomes = X and Y chromosomes that determines the sex of the offspring - autosomes = chromosomes other than sex chromosomes Diploid cell = cell with two chromosome sets; abbreviated 2n- in somatic cells Haploid cell = cells with one chromosome set; abbreviated n- in gametes Sexual Life Cycles Animals: - gametes are the only haploid cells, formed by meiosis - zygotes reform diploid cells from fertilization; no multicellular haploid organism Plants and some algae: - Alternation of generation = life cycle that lead to both diploid and haploid multicellular stages o sporophyte = multicellular diploid stage spores = haploid cells produced by sporophytes by meiosis o gametophyte = multicellular haploid stage produced by mitosis of spores fertilization leads to formation of zygote; back to sporophyte Most fungi and some protists: - after zygote formation, meiosis occurs, with no multicellular diploid organism Meiosis Interphase - chromosome and centrosome replicate; each contains 2 genetically identical sister chromatids Meiosis I: separates homologous chromosomes - prophase I: 90% of time needed for meiosis; chromosome condense; formation of spindle microtubules; breakdown of nuclear envelope; homologous chromosomes pair up o crossing over = DNA molecules in nonsister chromatids break at corresponding places and rejoin to others DNA o synapsis = the formation of synaptonemal complex (a protein structure between homologues that hold them together) the synaptonemal complex disassembles in late prophase, forming a tetrad (a group of four chromatids) chiasmata = regions in the tetrad where crossing over had occurred; hold homologues together until anaphase I 16

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So o in later prophase I, kinetochores attach to microtubules metaphase I: pairs of homologous chromosomes (in tetrads) arranged on the metaphase plate anaphase I: chromosomes move toward poles (separation of homologues), but sister chromatids remain attached together - telophase I: each half of cell has complete haploid set of chromosomes, but composed of two sister chromatids o cytokinesis occurs with telophase; cell splits in two Meiosis II: separates sister chromatids - prophase II: spindle apparatus forms; chromosomes attach to spindles - metaphase II: chromosomes positioned on metaphase plate (sister chromatids are not identical due to crossing over) - anaphase II: centromeres of each chromosome separate; sister chromatids move to opposite poles of cell - telophase II & cytokinesis: formation of two haploid daughter cells from each haploid cell (formed from meiosis I); chromosomes decondense; each four daughter cell distinct Origins of Genetic Variation 1. Independent assortment of chromosomes a. in metaphase I, lining up of tetrads are random; 50% chance daughter cell will get maternal/paternal chromosomes (some can be from father, some from mother) i. 2n combinations of chromosomes where n is the haploid number (23 in humans) 2. Crossing over a. gametes produced by offspring differ genetically from parents; produces recombinant chromosomes (genes from two different parents) i. average of 1-3 crossing over events per chromosome in humans 3. Random fertilization a. each parent produces about 8 million unique gametes; 8 million x 8 million = over 70 trillion possibilities for offspring

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 14: Mendel and the Gene Gregor Mendel- monk who worked with peas- with an either-or not more-or-less (traits are either one or the other, not a blending of both) - Mendelism = Mendelian genetics Character = heritable feature (ex. Flower color), varies among individuals Traits = each variant for a character (ex. white vs. red) True-breeding = all offspring have the same traits; homozygous Hybridization = mating/crossing of two true breeds - True-breeding generation = P generation - Hybrid generations = F1, F2, generation (filial) Mendels Model 1. Alternate versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters a. Alternative genes are each called alleles 2. For each character, an organism inherits two alleles (one from each parent) 3. If the two alleles at a locus differ, then one, the dominant allele, determines the organisms appearance; the other has no noticeable effect on the appearance 4. Law of Segregation: two alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation and ends up in two different gametes Punnett Square = diagram that predicts the allele composition of offspring - Dominant traits in CAPITAL letters - Recessive traits in lowercase letters Vocabulary: Homozygous = having a pair of identical alleles for a character (ex. PP or pp) Heterozygous = having two different alleles for a gene (ex. Pp) - Heterozygotes are not true-breeding types Phenotype = an organisms traits, appearance Genotype = an organisms genetic makeup Testcross = method to determine homozygosity/heterozygosity - Unknown genotype crossed with known recessive genotype o ? x pp All dominant if ? = PP dominant, recessive if ? = Pp Law of Independent Assortment = each pair of alleles segregate independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation traits are inherited independently of each other (color does not affect size) Monohybrids = (organisms that are) heterozygous in one character P p monohybrid cross: o 3:1 phenotype P PP Pp p Pp pp monohybrid cross 18 P p P PP Pp p Pp pp

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Dihybrids = (organisms that are) heterozygous in two characters dihybrid cross: o f1 generation (YYRR x yyrr) produces all YyRr gamete formation leads to all possible combinations: YR, Yr, yR, yr o 9:3:3:1 phenotype

Probabilities: monohybrid cross: Pp x Pp o P(at least 1 P) = binomialcdf(2, .5, 1) = .75 o binomialcdf(how many tries, probability of success, up to how what is success) complex crossing o list all cases that are true ex. PpYyRr x Ppyyrr: what is P(at least 2 recessive)? o list separate probabilities 1. cases for which this is true: o add total ppyyRr, ppYyrr, Ppyyrr, ppyyrr, Ppyyrr 2. probability of each: Extending Mendelian Genetics ppyyRr x x = 1/16 ppYyrr x x = 1/16 Spectrum of Dominance = range of Ppyyrr x x = 1/8 different degrees of dominance and ppyyrr x x = 1/16 recessiveness in relation to each other + PPyyrr x x = 1/16 complete dominance = P(at least 2 recessive) = 3/8 phenotypes of heterozygotes and dominant homozygotes indistinguishable o ex. pea color codominance = both alleles are expressed (heterozygotes) o ex. human MN blood group (expressed = MM, or NN, or MN) incomplete dominance = phenotypes are blended, because both are expressed o ex. flower color- red x white = 1 red, 2 pink, 1 white (if this were codominant, would be spotted red & white) Note: dominance stems from a pathway, rather than the recessive being subdued ex. pea seed shape- dominant = round; recessive = wrinkled o dominant codes for enzyme that converts sugar to starch o recessive codes a defective form of enzyme sugar accumulated osmotic uptake of water, after seed dries, becomes wrinkled in a heterozygote, phenotype is like homozygote dominant because 1 correct allele is enough dominance also depends on perspective: phenotype of whole organism or biochemical level o ex. Tay-Sachs disease caused by homozygous recessive of alleles that code defective lipid enzyme if heterozygote, organism will appear normal because lipid is metabolized but at a biochemical level, half of enzyme appears compared to normal multiple alleles are possible to code for a characteristic ex. blood type: IAIA or IAi = type A; IBIB or IBi = type B; IAIB = type AB; ii = type O

YR Yr yR yr YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr dihybrid cross (f2) note: that there are 6 new phenotypes prove the law of independent assortment

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So

pleiotropy = multiple phenotypic effects of one gene (one gene codes for more than one trait) epistasis = a gene at one locus affects the expression of a different gene ex. mice fur color coded by gene for black or brown o a separate gene codes whether there is color in fur if the recessive homozygote (for no color), then the fur will be white, regardless of dominant phenotype (black) or recessive phenotype (brown) polygenic inheritance = an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character creates a continuum (in gradations) = quantitative characters o ex. skin color- different gene codes for skin color, more expressed = darker skin environmental factors normal distribution rather than a histogram environmental influences causes a range of phenotype of a specific genotype = norm of reaction characters affected by many factors such as genotype, environment, etc. = multifactorial

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 15: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Chromosome theory of inheritance - Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) on chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment Thomas Hunt Morgans Experiments Wild type = most common phenotype in a natural population (denoted by a superscript plus sign (+) - in Morgans work- flies with red-eyes, gray bodies, normal-sized wings were wild type Mutant phenotypes refer to traits alternative to the wild type - in Morgans work- flies with white-eyes, black bodies, vestigial wings were mutant type Morgan crossed red-eyed fly with white-eyed fly; 3:1 ratio in F2 generation red : white - white was only in males; thus, eye-color was linked to sex o linked genes = genes located on the same chromosome usually inherited together Morgan crossed (b+ b+ vg+ vg+) with (b b vg vg) [gray, normal with black, vestigial] - results showed that body-color and wing-size were usually inherited together (but not alwaysmeans that body-color and wing-size were only partially linked) o explained by crossing over Genetic recombination = production of offspring with combinations of traits differing from those found in either parent o parental types = offspring whose phenotypes match one parent o recombinant types = recombinants = new combinations of phenotypes - crossing over accounts for recombination of linked genes; forms new combination Genetic map = an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome - the farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability that crossing over will occur between them (and resulting in a higher recombinant frequency) o if there is greater distance between two genes, more room between for crossing over to occur - linkage map = genetic map based on recombination frequencies o map unit = distance between genes; equal to 1% recombination frequency - cytogenetic map = map of chromosome with genes located through stained bands

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 22: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life Natural Selection- a population can change over generations if individuals that possess certain heritable traits leave more offspring than other individuals Evolutionary Adaptation- an accumulation of inherited characteristics Evolution Paleontology- Georges Cuvier noticed different strata had new fossils, and lack of some old fossils- he called Catastrophism = the boundary between each strata is caused by a great catastrophe, and areas were repopulated by other animals Gradualism- James Hutton (geologist) explained that profound changes in the Earths geology could take place in a slow but continuous process Uniformitarianism- Charles Lyell incorporated Huttons gradualism to say that the same geologic process operating today were the same in the past, and at the same rate Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck suggested that life evolved through use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics - Use and Disuse = parts of the body used extensively grew, those unused deteriorated - Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics = acquired characteristics could be passed on (ex. Giraffes stretching their necks then got longer necks would pass on to offspring) [this idea was looked down upon, Lamarck remembered more by his failure, rather than a revolutionary idea] Charles Darwin developed the ideas that evolution explains lifes unity and diversity, and that natural selection is its mechanism - Descent with Modification = descendants of an ancestral organism split off, like a tree, adapting; many are dead ends (99% of all species that have lived are now extinct) - Natural Selection & Adaptation: o Observation 1: For any species, population would increase exponentially if all are successful o Observation 2: Populations tend to remain stable o Observation 3: Resources are limited o Inference 1: Production of more individuals leads to struggle, with only some offspring surviving o Observation 4: No two individuals are alike (great variations within species) o Inference 2: Survival depends on inherited traits; those with traits that benefit them have a greater chance of surviving than less fit o Inference 3: Unequal ability of the ability to survive will lead to accumulation of traits - Thomas Malthus wrote essay on population- humans overreproduce, but disease, famine, homelessness, and war caused population stability o Darwin applied this concept to all species - Artificial Selection = humans chose to breed plants/animals with certain traits (ex. Wild Mustard created broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, kale, kohlrabi) Examples of Evolution Guppies size had a correlation with type of predator- switching the type of predator in 11 years, guppy size average 14% heavier than the ones not switched Drug Resistant HIV developed due to the ability of a drug to kill specific HIV

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Homology = similarities resulting from common ancestry - Homologous structures = structures that represent variations on a structural theme in a common ancestor - Vestigial organs = organs now useless that was once useful for an ancestor - Molecular homologies = similarity in DNA/RNA Biogeography = geographic distribution of species - Endemic species = species that live only in a specific place - Convergent Evolution = tendency to adapt to a similar structure, but not of the same ancestor (such structures are analogous structures)

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 23: The Evolution of Populations Microevolution is the smallest scale of evolution (in a population) - individuals do not evolve - population genetics = study of how populations change genetically over time - modern synthesis = an amalgamation of many different branches of science with evolution Population = a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring - gene pool = the aggregate of genes in a population o a fixed allele is an allele in a population that is the only form for a character; all are homozygous for that allele Hardy-Weinberg Theorem states that the frequency of alleles and genotypes in a populations gene pool remain constant from generation to generation - Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: o populations will have the same allele frequencies, based on the formula: p2+2pq+q2 = 1 from the gene frequencies of different alleles multiplied together to find the probability of such combination o based on the conditions of: extremely large population size (larger sampling size reduces extremes) no gene flow (no genetic flow between populations) no mutations (genes are not changed by mutations) random mating (individuals have no preference for mating) no natural selection (no evolution) Genetic Variation Methods of variation: - mutations o point mutations = 1 base change (ex. sickle-cell anemia) o frameshift = (adding/removing 1 base shifts reading frame for transcription) o transposable elements = transposons, virus (new segments of DNA) ex. jumping genes - sexual recombination o genetic drift = changes in gene frequency bottleneck effect = sudden reduction of population ex. fire kills most of a population, leaving a few to regenerate founder effect = a part of a population moves and starts a new population o gene flow = moving genes from one population to another Phenotypic Polymorphism = a property of a population if two or more distinct morphs are each represented in high enough frequencies to be readily noticeable (note: the morphs must be discrete, thus, human height (qualitative) is not phenotypic polymorphism, but flower color (discrete) is) Measuring Variations - average heterozygosity = the average percent of loci that are heterozygous - nucleotide variability = a comparison of nucleotide sequence of DNA samples - average heterozygosity tends to be greater than nucleotide variability because 1 change in DNA base can change the whole gene

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Geographic Variation = differences between gene pools of (sub)populations - clines are graded change in a trait along a geographic axis (ex. average body size increases with latitude) Natural Selection reproductive success dependent on adaptive advantages of survival and fitness - relative fitness = the contribution of a genotype to the next generation compared to the contribution of alternative genotypes for the same loci o the most reproductively successful variant set as 1 if variant a = 1, and variant b reproduces 80% as many, then variant b = 0.8 sterile plants/animals = 0

Sexual Selection natural selection for mating success (can cause sexual dimorphism = differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics) - intrasexual selection = direct competition among individuals for mate - intersexual selection = mate choice leads to success of an individual over another the enigma of sexual reproduction: asexual reproduction doubles population faster than sexual reproduction (in asexual rep., following generations all can reproduce); genetic variation offsets benefits of rapid reproduction Shifting of Variation - directional selection = changes In environment favors individuals that deviate from the average, shifting the frequency curve of a phenotypic character - disruptive selection= changes in conditions favor individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range rather than those with intermediate type - stabilizing selection = changes in conditions favor individuals with intermediate phenotypes, reducing variation, maintaining status quo Preservation from Variation - diploidity- recessive genes are hidden from selection (the rarer, the more protected) - balancing selection = maintaining of two or more phenotypic forms (balanced polymorphism) o heterozygote advantage = if heterozygotes are more successful, tends to be maintained ex. sickle cell anemia- protection from malaria beneficial even though it accounts for 20% of alleles of some tribes, q2 (or recessive homozygous) is only 0.04 (4% of population) o frequency-dependent selection = predator-prey interaction (ex.) causes a morph that becomes too common to decline - neutral variation = genetic variations that do not benefit/harm individuals o pseudogenes = genes inactivated by mutations- genetic noise Constraints of Natural Selection 1. Evolution is limited by historical constraints a. structures are adapted from old ones, not from scratch 2. Adaptations are often compromises a. adaptations compromises other aspects 3. Chance and natural selection interact 25

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So a. chance events (such as storm blowing animals to new island) is pure chance 4. Selection can edit only existing variations a. variations are not on demand

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 24: The Origin of Species Speciation is the origin of new species (note: speciation is at the boundary of micro and macroevolution) - adaptations evolve in a population is microevolution - evolutionary changes above the species level is macroevolution Definitions of Species - biological species concept (Ernst Mayr) a species = a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring, but are unable to produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other populations o reproductive isolation (what prevents species from hybridizing?) prezygotic barriers = impediments to the fertilization of an ova habitat isolation (different locations) temporal isolation (breeding at different times) behavioral isolation (different courtship rituals) mechanical isolation (morphological differences) gametic isolation (inability for sperm to meet with egg) postzygotic barriers = impediments to the developing of zygote into a viable, fertile adult reduced hybrid viability (hybrid development impaired weak/frail) reduced hybrid fertility (hybrid may be sterile) ex. mules hybrid breakdown (hybrids cannot mate with parent species effectively) o offspring can interbreed, but next generation cannot (f2 inviable/infertile) morphological species concept a species determined by body shape, size, etc. (subjective) paleontological species concept morphology used to determine species from fossil records ecological species concept species determined by ecological niche (ex. what it eats) phylogenetic species concept species determined from phylogenetic history

Methods of Speciation - allopatric speciation (allo = other; patra = homeland) gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulation o genetic changes can cause speciation when interbreeding is no longer possible ex. Ammospermophilus harrisi and A. leucurus are squirrels isolated by the grand canyon that diverged from the same species sympatric speciation (sym = same) speciation takes place geographically overlapping populations (can be due to biological factors- nonrandom mating, chromosomal changes, etc.) o polyploidy = accidents during cell division results in extra sets of chromosomes autopolyploid = individual with more than two chromosome sets autopolyploidy can generate reproductive isolation (in plants, through self-pollination, etc.; in animals, through parthenogenesis) hybrids can speciate; asexual reproduction can change sterile hybrid to a fertile polyploidy = allopolyploid (fertile with each other only) ex. wheat is an allohexaploid o habitual differentiation 27

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So changes of genetic factors allow subpopulation to exploit a resource not previously useable changes in environment affect sexual selection Adaptive Radiation = evolution of many diversely adapted species from a common ancestor due to new environmental opportunities/challenges o ex. extinction of dinosaurs led to adaptive radiation of small mammals Anagenesis (phyletic evolution) = gradual transformation of one species to another Cladogenesis (branching evolution) = budding of a bunch of new species- like adaptive radiation Punctuated Equilibrium = sudden changes in fossil records look like a new species after a long period of stability o fossil records give a large period of time between strata; some evolution may not be present in fossil records Exaptations = structures evolved in one aspect, but useful in another o ex. birds feathers may have evolved for warmth/mating, but now for flight o ex. swim bladders were modified lungs that help control some species of fish buoyancy

Genes that Control Development Changes in development can affect evolution - heterochrony = evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events o measured by allometric growth o ex. axolotl- paedomorphosis (maintain juvenile characteristics) different from ancestor because of developmental differences - homeotic genes = genes that determine placement and spatial organization of body o ex. Hox genes regulate position and number of limbs in humans, birds, fish, etc.

axolotl ex. of paedomorphosis allometric growth different growth rates for different parts of the body determine body proportions

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 25: Phylogeny and Systematics Phylogeny = evolutionary history of species based on common ancestors - homologies = similarities because of common ancestors - analogies = homoplasies = similarities because of convergent evolution Taxonomy = categorical system by Linnaeus based on characteristics - Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species - the more shared taxons (levels of classification), the greater the similarities

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 35: Plant Structure, Growth, and Development Plasticity = an organisms ability to alter or mold itself in response to local environmental conditions Morphology = external form of a species Organ = several types of tissue (a group of cells with common function, structure) that carry out particular functions - root system: roots o root = an organ that anchors a vascular plant, absorbs mineral and water, stores nutrient; root hair is an extension of a root epidermal cell to increase surface area taproot system has a main vertical root (the taproot) and lateral roots (branch roots); generally penetrates deep into soil (most eudicot and gymnosperms) fibrous root system has a mat of generally thin roots spreading out in the soil adventitious root = roots that arise from stem (adventitious refers to plant parts that grow in unusual locations) o modified roots: prop root = adventitious aerial root- supports tall, top-heavy plants (ex. maize) storage root = use roots to store food and water (ex. sweet potato) strangling aerial root = roots wrap around host (ex. strangler fig) buttress root = buttress-like aerial roots; supports tall trunks (ex. ceiba tree) pneumatophores (air roots) = roots of trees in tidal swamps projecting above surface of water to obtain oxygen (ex. mangrove) - shoot system: stems and leaves o stem = an organ consisting of alternating system of nodes (points at which leaves are attached) and internodes (segment between nodes) axillary bud = structure that can form lateral shoot (branch) at the axil (angle formed by leaf and stem); mostly dormant terminal bud = shoot apex that develops leaves and elongates shoot apical dominance = concentration of resources toward elongation o suppresses axillary growth (thus, pruning trees makes it bushy) o leaf = main photosynthetic organ in most vascular plants generally consist of flattened blade and petiole (stalk); leaf attached at a node of the stem monocots: veins (vascular tissue of leaves) run parallel along leaf blade eudicots: veins have a multibranched network of major veins leaf morphology: o simple leaf = single, undivided bade o compound leaf = blade consists of multiple leaflets (each leaflet does not have an axillary bud at its base) o doubly compound leaf = each leaflet divided into more leaflets modified leaves: o tendrils support plant like a lasso (ex. pea); some are stems o spines protect plants like cacti o storage leaves store water, most succulents (ex. ice plant) o bracts are brightly colored leaves that surround a flower to attract pollinator (ex. poinsettia) o reproductive leaves produce adventitious plantlets that fall off and take root in soil (ex. K. daigremontiana, and ice plant) 30

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Tissue system consists of tissues organized into a functional unit connecting the organs of a plant - dermal tissue system = outer protective covering; composed of: o epidermis = single layer of tightly packed cells in roots: root hairs increase surface area in leaves and stems: cuticle = waxy coating to prevent water loss; leaf trichome = outgrowths on epidermis (ex. can secrete oils to protect plant) in woody plants: periderm replaces epidermis in older regions of stems/roots - vascular tissue system = long distance transport between roots and shoots; stele is the collective vascular tissue of root/stem, divided into vascular bundles (strands of xylem/phloem) o xylem carries water and dissolved minerals up from roots into shoots o phloem carries organic nutrients from where they are made to where they are needed - ground tissue system = tissue neither dermal nor vascular o pith = ground tissue internal to vascular tissue o cortex = ground tissue external to vascular tissue Plant cells type can be determined by protoplast = the cells content exclusive of cell wall - parenchyma cells = typical plant cell (least specialized structurally) o thin, flexible primary walls; generally lack secondary wall; large central vacuole o performs most metabolic function of plant; photosynthesis; storage o can differentiate into other types of plant cells - collenchyma cells support young parts of plant shoot; grouped in strands/cylinders o thicker primary walls than parenchyma, without lignin (hardening agent); no secondary wall; elongates with stem and eaves they support - sclerenchyma cells are specialized for support; rigid o thick secondary walls strengthened by lignin; cannot elongate (occur in plants that have stopped growing in length) o many cells are dead at maturity (only provide support) sclereids provide support and strength; irregular shape; thick, lignified secondary wall (ex. hardness of nutshell, gritty texture of pears) fibers provide support and strength; longer, thread-like (ex. celery fibers) - water conducting cells (xylem); dead at maturity- protoplast disintegrates, leaving walls behind; lateral movement through pits o tracheids = tubular, elongated cells o vessel elements = wider, shorter, more thinly walled, less tapered than tracheids; found in most angiosperms, some gymnosperms, and some seedless vascular plants - sugar-conducting cells (phloem); alive and functional at maturity o sieve tube = vessel through which nutrients are transported; composed of: sieve-tube members = lack organelles to allow nutrients to pass; connected to adjacent members through sieve plates (pores at the ends of cell) companion cell = non-conducting cell along each sieve-tube member; connect to each other by plasmodesmata Plant Growth Types of Growth: - Indeterminate growth = growth that occurs throughout the plants life o meristem = perpetually embryonic tissues; composed of initials (cells that remain as source of new cells), forms derivatives (cells that divide until they become specialized) apical meristem is located at the tips of roots and in buds of shoots 31

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So leads to growth in length= primary growth herbaceous (non-woody) plants uses mainly primary growth lateral meristem = cylinders of dividing cells along the length of roots and stems vascular cambium adds layers of vascular tissue (secondary xylem/phloem) cork cambium replaces epidermis with periderm (thicker/tougher) woody plants use secondary growth to growth in thickness - Determinate growth = growth that ceases after reaching a certain size (ex. leaves) Length of life: - Annuals = plants that complete their life cycle in less than one year - Biennials generally live two years; often split into vegetative growth and flowering - Perennials live many years; many perennials due to infection/trauma instead of old age Primary Growth Primary plant body = parts of root and shoot systems produced by apical meristem (primary growth) Roots: - zone of division incudes root apical meristem and its derivatives (ex. new root cells) o root cap = thimble-like structure covering root tip to protect apical meristem; coated with a polysaccharide slime for lubrication - zone of elongation = root cells elongate (up to 10x original length) - zone of maturation = cells complete their differentiation; become functionally mature - many monocot roots: o vascular tissue consist of central core = pith (parenchyma cells surrounded by alternating rings of xylem and phloem)- not the same as stem pith - most roots: o stele is vascular cylinder, solid core of xylem and phloem; xylem radiates from center like spokes - all roots: o cortex = region between the vascular cylinder and epidermis composed of mostly parenchyma; store organic nutrients endodermis = cylinder one cell thick that surrounds vascular cylinder pericycle = outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder, from which lateral roots can arise Shoots: - leaf primordial = finger-like projections that flank the apical meristem (dome-shaped mass) o axillary bud meristem can be left by the apical meristem- lead to axillary buds - shoot elongation occur by growth in length in older internodes below apex of shoot o intercalary meristem = meristem region in some plants (ex. grass) that elongates along whole shoot (thus, mowed grass continues to grow) - stems: o lateral shoots arise from axillary buds at the surface of stem o converges with roots in the zone of transition (at soil surface) o in eudicots and gymnosperms: vascular bundles arranged in ring; xylem faces the pith, phloem faces the cortex o in monocots: bundles scattered throughout ground tissue (vascular bundles look like Mickey Mouse) o all stems: 32

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So ground tissue is mostly parenchyma; collenchyma under epidermis can give strength as well as sclerenchyma leaves: o stomata allow CO2 exchange; interrupts epidermal barrier; flanked by two guard cells that opens/closes pore o mesophyll =region specialized for photosynthesis (parenchymal cells) palisade mesophyll = palisade parenchyma = elongated cells- upper part of leaf spongy mesophyll = spongy parenchyma is below palisade mesophyll, with air spaces so that CO2 can reach palisade mesophyll o leaf traces = vascular bundle connections from leaf to stem; pass through petioles vascular bundles branch- veins surrounded by a protective bundle sheath brings xylem/phloem close to photosynthetic tissue

Secondary Growth Secondary plant body = tissue produced by vascular cambium and cork cambium (secondary growth) - vascular cambium = cylinder of meristematic cells 1 cell thick; dormant in winter o adds secondary xylem to its interior o adds secondary phloem to its exterior o fusiform initials = regions of cells within vascular cambium that produces elongated cells (ex. tracheids); parallel to axis o ray initials = regions of cells within vascular cambium that produces vascular rays that move nutrients between secondary xylem/phloem; xylem ray = portion of ray initial in xylem (phloem ray in phloem) perpendicular to axis early wood = wood produced in early growing season o large diameter; thin cell wall late wood = wood produced in late growing season o thick-walled cells *because vascular cambium is dormant in winter, the boundary between late and early wood marks new growing season in temperate places heart wood = old layers of secondary xylem that no longer conducts water sap wood = outer layers of xylem that can still transport xylem sap (water and minerals) - cork cambium produces thick covering (cork cells) o phelloderm = thin layer of parenchyma cells, interior to cork cambium o cork cells are exterior to cork cambium; deposit suberin (waxy material) on walls then die periderm = cork cambium and its derivatives; continually falls off (bark = area outside of vascular cambium) o lenticels = small, raised area in periderm for air exchange 33

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 36: Transport in Vascular Plants Proton pumps = an active transport protein in plasma membrane that pumps H+ out of cell - uptake of K+ by root cells by membrane potential (separation of charges) Water Osmosis = passive transport of water across a membrane - water potential () = a measurement of the effects of pressure and solute concentration o water moves from regions of higher water potential to lower water potential o low solute concentration and high pressure = high water potential o high solute concentration and low pressure = low water potential o water potential equation: = s + p = water potential s = solute potential/osmotic potential (proportional to solute concentration) s of pure water = 0 p = pressure potential turgor pressure = pressure due to cell contents against cell membrane turgor loss in plants leads to wilting Aquaporin = membrane proteins that act as channels for water; changes the rate of diffusion Transport Vacuolar membrane = tonoplast regulates molecular traffic between the cytosol and vacuolar contents Lateral transport = short-distance transport (usually along radial axis of plant organ- not up/down) - transmembrane route = transport of substance out of cell, into cell wall, back into cell, so on o crosses plasma membrane repeatedly - symplast = cytoplasmic continuum of multiple cells connected by plasmodesmata o substances only need to cross membrane once (to enter continuum) - apoplast = continuum of cell walls in addition to the extracellular spaces o substances do not need to pass through plasma membrane o includes protoplast-lacking tracheids and vessel elements of xylem Bulk flow = long-distance transport; driven by pressure (through xylem/phloem) - xylem: negative pressure (water is pulled up because transpiration draws water out) Roots: soil solution (minerals/water in soil) flow freely through hydrophilic epidermal cells near root tips - mycorrhizae = symbiotic structures between plant and fungi; plant roots unite with fungal hyphae (filament); mycelium = network of hyphae o hyphae absorb water and some minerals; increase surface area; can enable old roots - endodermis = innermost layer of cells in the root cortex; selective passage of minerals from cortex into vascular tissue o Casparian strip = a belt made of suberin (impervious to dissolved minerals) minerals must past through plasma membrane; selective barrier prevents nutrients from leaking out of vascular tissue - passage into tracheids/vessel elements: once the mineral passes through the Casparian strip, it is part of the symplast- diffusion and active transport move material into xylem (apoplast) Movement through xylem Root pressure = upward push of xylem sap - at night, root continues to absorb water/minerals - guttation = the exudation of water droplets that can be seen in the morning because water intake is greater than transpiration 34

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Transpiration = loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of plants - rate of transpiration greatest on sunny, warm, dry, and windy day - evaporative cooling keep leaves at a lower temperature to prevent denaturation Transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism: Transpirational pull = the negative pressure that causes water to be pulled up into the leaves by the loss of water through transpiration 1. water diffuses out of leaf through stomata 2. air-water interface retreats into cell wall, increasing the curvature; water films pressure becomes more negative 3. negative pressure pulls water from the xylem - cohesion relays pull of water from the transpirational pull (water sticks together) - adhesion offsets force of gravity- hydrogen bonding with hydrophilic wall (water sticks to stuff) - cavitation = formation of a water vapor pocket in a vessel (breaking the chain( o blocks the water channel Stomata - 90% of water lost through stomata - stomatal density (number of stomata per square centimeter) depends on environment and genetics (ex. concentration of CO2 in air) - guard cell = 2 cells that flank opening o increased water concentration in guard cell cause cell to bow; stomata opened o decreased water concentration leads to flaccidity; guard cells collapse, stomata closed o turgor pressure of guard cell controlled by K+ ions increased K+ decreases water potential water flows into cell; stomata open light stimulates K+ pumps (opens stomata with sunlight for photosynthesis) depletion of CO2 (caused by photosynthesis) opens stomata circadian rhythm (internal clock of plant) opens stomata during the day - xerophytes = plants adapted to arid climates o small, thick leaves (reduces surface area for water loss) o thick cuticle, reflective leaves, hairy leaves (trap water) o absorbs CO2 at night, stored in organic molecules (CAM plants) Translocation = transport of nutrients in plants - sugar source = plant organ that is a net producer of sugar - sugar sink = organ that is a net consumer/storage of sugar (ex. roots, fruits) - direction of flow depends on location of sugar source/sink o travels through sieve-tube member o enters sieve-tube member through: symplast route apoplast route can enter directly into sieve-tube member or through transfer cell (companion cell has many ingrowths that increases surface area to promote transfer from apoplast to symplast) - pressure flow = bulk flow driven by positive pressure; high pressure at sugar source

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function Bioenergetics = flow of energy through an animal - determines its behavior, growth, reproduction, and food needs - food digested by enzymatic hydrolysis, energy used to produce ATP - metabolic rate = sum of all energy-requiring biochemical reactions occurring a given time, measured by: o heat produced by organism (rate of heat loss) by calorimeter o rate of food consumption - endothermic = bodies warmed mostly by metabolism o allows intense, long duration activity in a large range of temperature - ectothermic = bodies gain heat mostly from external sources o use less energy, lower metabolic rates o less capable to exert for long periods of time Metabolic Rate - the amount of energy to maintain each gram of body weight is inversely related to body size - basal metabolic rate (BMR) = metabolic rate for a non-growing endotherm at rest, with empty stomach, and no stress (1,600-1,800 kcal/day for males; 1,300-1,500 kcal/day for females) - standard metabolic rate (SMR) = minimum metabolic rate of an ectotherm at a specific temperature Homeostasis = internal balance (of internal environment) of an animal - regulator = an animal that uses internal control mechanisms in face of external fluctuations o ex. fish can regulate internal solute concentration - conformer = allow internal condition to vary with certain external changes o ex. Libinia (spider crabs) allow internal solute concentration to change with external - homeostasis functions through o receptor = detect change in animals internal environment o control center = processes information o effector = responds to change - types of homeostasis o negative feedback = a change in a variable triggers mechanism to counteract change prevents small changes from becoming too large o positive feedback = a change in a variable that amplifies the change ex. childbirth Thermoregulation = process animals use to maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range - homeotherm = animal whose internal temperature is relatively stable - poikilotherm = animal whose internal temperature has large fluctuations Modes of Heat Exchange: - radiation = emission of electromagnetic waves (by all objects above 0K = -273oC) - evaporation = removal of heat from the surface of a liquid as energy is used to vaporize some - convection = transfer of heat by movement of air - conduction = direct transfer of heat between molecules of two objects Balancing Heat Exchange: - insulation (ex. hair, feathers, fat) - circulatory adaptations

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So blood vessels near skin undergoes vasodilation = elevated blood flow; allow heat to transfer to environment o blood vessels near skin vasoconstrict to reduce heat loss countercurrent heat exchanger = heat exchange between arteries and veins especially in extremities to prevent sudden temperature changes (ex. duck feet utilize this so that the blood in the vein is warmed up before continuing through the rest of the body) evaporative cooling uses energy to vaporize liquid on surface to reduce overall temperature behavioral responses (ex. moving to hotter/cooler areas) nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) = hormones cause mitochondria to increase metabolic activity to produce heat rather than ATP o

Acclimatization = physiological response to adjust to new range of environmental temperatures - in endotherms, acclimatization is generally done by growing thicker fur, etc. and varying metabolic heat production - in ectotherms, change is often cellular; ex. change type of enzyme produced to function at a different optimal temperature, producing cryoprotectants (antifreeze) - stress-induced proteins = proteins created by cells in response to stress, such as: o heat-shock proteins = proteins that help maintain the integrity of other proteins that would otherwise be denatured in severe heat Torpor = a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases - hibernation = long-term torpor during the winter to combat low temperatures and food scarcity - estivation = summer torpor to survive high temperatures and scarce water supplies - daily torpor = torpor adapted to feeding patterns (ex. bats go into torpor in day, feed at night)

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition Feeding mechanisms: - suspension feeders sift small food particles from the water (ex. humpback whales use baleen) - substrate feeders live in or on their food source (ex. maggots burrow in animal carcasses) - fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host (ex. mosquito feed on blood) - bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food (ex. snakes, most animals are bulk feeders) Glucose regulation: 1. When blood glucose level rises, the pancreas secretes insulin into the blood 2. Insulin enhances transport of glucose into cells and storage of glucose as glycogen 3. When blood glucose level drops, pancreas secretes glucagon into the blood 4. Glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose into the blood Appetite regulation: - leptin, produced by adipose tissue, suppresses appetite as body fat increases - PPY, secreted by small intestine after meal, suppresses appetite - ghrelin, secreted by the stomach wall, triggers feeling of hunger - insulin, secreted by pancreas, suppresses appetite Diet Essential nutrients = materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animals cells cannot synthesize; animals who lack one or more essential nutrients are malnourished (undernourished refers to caloric deficiency) - essential amino acids must be obtained from food (8 for adult humans) o ex. protein malnutrition is kwashiorkor, caused by severe deficiency of proteins due to osmotic pressure- low blood proteins decreases ability to take up water, edema forms - essential fatty acids include some unsaturated fatty acids (ex. linoleic acid) - vitamins = organic molecules required in diet in relatively small amounts o B1 (thiamine)- coenzyme used in removing CO2 from organic compounds o B2 (riboflavin)- component of coenzymes FAD and FMN o Niacin- components of coenzymes NAD+ and NADP+ o Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)- coenzyme in amino acid metabolism o Pantothenic acid- component of coenzyme A o Folic acid (folacin)- coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism o Vitamin B12- coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism, maturation of erythrocytes o Biotin- coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, amino acids o C (ascorbic acid)- collagen synthesis, antioxidant, detoxification, iron absorption o A (retinol)- component of visual pigments, maintenance of epithelial tissue, antioxidant o D- absorption and use of calcium and phosphorus; bone growth o E (tocopherol)- antioxidant, prevent damage to cell membranes o K (phylloquinone)- blood clotting - minerals = simple inorganic nutrients required in small amounts (ex:) o Ca- bone, blood clotting, muscle function o P- bone, acid-base balance, nucleotide synthesis o S- part of some amino acids o K- acid-base balance, water balance, nerve function o Cl- acid-base balance, gastric juice, nerve function, osmotic balance o Na- acid-base balance, water balance, nerve function o Mg- cofactor, ATP bioenergetics 38

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Intake of Nutrients Ingestion = act of eating Digestion = process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to be absorbed - enzymatic hydrolysis reverses the process that forms polymers - intracellular digestion = digestion within a cell (ex. phagocytosis) - extracellular digestion = breakdown of food outside of cell o gastrovascular cavity = digestive sac with a single opening in relatively simple organisms that acts as digestion and distribution o alimentary canal = complete digestive tract = a tube through which food moves in a single direction organized into specialized regions Absorption = the animals cell take up of small molecules Elimination = undigested material passes out Mammalian Digestive System Peristalsis = rhythmic contraction by smooth muscle of alimentary canal, pushing food along tract Sphincters = ring-like valves that regulate the passage of food from one region to another 1. food in oral cavity = mouth causes saliva to be delivered to cavity a. saliva contains mucin for lubrication, antibacterial agents, acid-base buffers, and salivary amylase that hydrolyzes starch b. tongue manipulates food into bolus = ball of food; passes bolus to pharynx (throat) c. epiglottis prevents bolus from going down trachea d. esophagus is tube that moves food from pharynx to stomach through cardiac sphincter with peristalsis 2. stomach stores and digests food; turns food into acid chyme; absorbs only alcohol a. secretes gastrin, which stimulates the production of gastric juice b. gastric juice = digestive fluid; pH = 2 by HCl, secreted by parietal cells c. pepsin = enzyme that hydrolyzes proteins (a protease = protein enzyme); inactive form of pepsin, pepsinogen, secreted chief cells d. mucus cells secret mucus which lubricates and protect cells lining the stomach e. acid chyme moves into duodenum through pyloric sphincter 3. small intestine a. duodenum is the first 25cm of small intestine; chyme mixed with digestive juices of pancreas, liver, gallbladder, gland cells of intestines i. secretes secretin to signal the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate ii. secretes cholecystokinin (CCK) to signal release of digestive enzymes from pancreas and gallbladder iii. secretes enterogastrone to inhibit peristalsis and acid secretion in stomach 1. slows digestion for better absorption iv. pancreas raises the pH with a bicarbonate buffer; high pH activates pancreatic proteases 1. pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes starches 2. pancreatic nuclease breaks down nucleotides 3. pancreatic lipase breaks down fats 4. trypsin breaks down polypeptides (chymotrypsin is inactive form) 5. carboxypeptidase takes off amino acids from the C-terminus v. liver produces bile, which emulsifies fats (bile stored in gallbladder) vi. brush border (microvilli) = epithelial lining of duodenum; also produces many enzymes 39

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So 1. aminopeptidase takes off amino acids from the N-terminus 2. carboxypeptidase 3. disacchridase hydrolyzes disaccharides vii. villi (lined with brush border) absorb nutrients into the bloodstream, which is then taken liver through the hepatic portal to be stored and filtered a. insulin secreted by pancreas encourages formation of glucagon from glucose 2. absorb fatty acids into a lacteals (part of lymphatic system) a. fatty acids reassembled into triacylglycerol and form small globules of fat coated with protein, chylomicron, before absorbed into lacteals and sent to liver for storage and modification

b. jejunum and ileum follow the duodenum, and absorb nutrients 4. large intestine = colon is connected to small intestine at a T-shaped junction, where the last arm of the junction is the cecum, through which the appendix is attached (cecum larger in herbivores where digestion of fibers can occur) a. recovers 90% of the water used in digestion b. filled with harmless bacteria, which produce vitamins, compete with harmful bacteria c. solidifies wastes into feces, stored in rectum until disposal Evolutionary Adaptations - dentition = an animals assortment of teeth; dentition can be specialized depending of food - longer GI tract gives more time for herbavores to digest vegetation o cellulose in cell walls of plant slow down digestion (animals do not produce cellulases) symbiotic adaptations such as cecum allow 40

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So for fermentation and digestion by bacteria most absorption is in small intestine (this is why rabbit eat their own feces); more complex herbavores have developed ruminant digestion

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange Diffusion is inefficient over distances more than a few mm (time is proportional to the square distance) - transport and gas exchange by circulatory and respiratory system Invertebrate Circulation Gastrovascular cavities enclosed by body wall 2 cells thick absorbs nutrients from surrounding medium - found in cnidarians and most flatworms Circulatory systems include: o blood = circulatory fluid o blood vessels = tubes through which blood moves o heart = muscular pump, which creates a blood pressure, moving blood through system - open circulatory system = no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid o ex. arthropods o hemolymph = blood + interstitial fluid heart contracting pumps it into sinuses = spaces around the organs heart relaxing draws it into ostia = pores - closed circulatory system = blood confined to vessels, distinct from interstitial fluid o ex. earthworms, squids, octopuses, all vertebrates o one or more hearts pump blood through vessels o more costly energetically, but more efficient in transport (needed in high metabolism) Vertebrate Circulation Cardiovascular system = closed circulatory system found in vertebrates - heart has: o atrium = chamber that receive blood returning to the heart o ventricle = chamber that pumps blood out of the heart - blood vessels: o arteries carry blood away from heart o veins carry blood to the heart o arterioles branch from arteries and bring blood to capillaries o capillaries are microscopic vessels with thin, porous walls capillary beds = network of capillaries o venules merged from capillaries and converge into veins Fishes - two chambers, one atrium, one ventricle o gill circulation = blood from heart pumped to gills, picks up O2, disposes CO2 o systemic circulation = blood move throughout the other parts of the body o because blood has to pass through two capillary beds, blood pressure drops each time body movements aids circulation; O2 delivery is limited Amphibians - three chambers, two atria, one ventricle o pulmocutaneous circuit = path that leads to lungs and skin for gas exchange o systemic circuit = path that delivers O2 to body o ventricle delivers blood to pulmocutaneous circuit and systemic circuit simultaneously mixing of deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood double circulation = blood pumped twice; once to receive O2, second to deliver Reptiles (except birds)

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AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So three chambers, two atria, one ventricle partially divided by a septum (tissue that splits a cavity in two) o crocodilians have a septum that divides ventricle completely - two arteries that leave from heart o allows most blood flow to body rather than lungs Mammals and Birds - four chambers, two atria, two ventricle o left side- receives and pumps only oxygen-rich blood o right side- receives and pumps only oxygen-poor blood - independent circuits allow 10 times the delivery (endotherms use 10 times the energy) Mammalian Heart Cardiac cycle = one complete sequence of pumping and filling - systole = contraction phase of cycle - diastole = relation phase of cycle - cardiac output = volume of blood per minute left ventricle pumps to systemic circuit o heart rate = beats per minute o stroke volume = amount of blood pumped by left ventricle per contraction - valves prevent backflow o atrioventricular (AV) valve = valves between atrium and ventricle recoil of blood against closed AV valve creates lubb sound o semilunar valve = valves at the two exit of heart recoil of blood against semilunar valve causes dupp sound o heart murmur = defect in valve (causes as hissing sound); no need for surgery Maintaining Hearth Rhythm - myogenic heart = heart with pacemaker inside of heart - neurogenic heart = heart with pacemaker outside of heart (found in arthropods) - sinoatrial (SA) node = pacemaker = sets the rate and timing of cardiac muscle contractions o located in wall of right atria; generates electrical impulse that spreads throughout heart (through intercalated discs = gap junctions between cardiac muscle; unifies contraction) - atrioventricular (AV) node receives impulse, located between right atrium and ventricle o delays impulse 0.1 seconds (so atria can empty), transmitted to bundle branches and then to Purkinje fibers Principles Governing Circulation - layers of arteries and veins: o outer layer- connective tissue with elastic fibers; allows vessel to stretch and recoil 43

AP Biology Semester I Review | Geelon So middle layer- smooth muscle and connective tissue; helps direct flow inner layer- endothelium provides smooth surface to minimize resistance in arteries, thicker outer two layers accommodate blood rapid flow and at high pressure in veins, rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle help blood return to heart breathing also helps return blood - layers of capillaries- lack two outer layer so exchange of substances can occur - law of continuity = volume flow per second must remain constant o if small cross-sectional area, then velocity increases flow through capillary slow because cumulative cross-sectional area high - blood pressure- hydrostatic pressure exerted by fluids (healthy 20 yrs. old = 120/70 mmHg) o systolic pressure = blood pressure during ventricular systole peripheral resistance = impedance by arterioles cause blood to enter arteries faster than they can exit during systole (and causes arteries to bulge) o diastolic pressure = blood pressure during diastole o affected by peripheral resistance, gravity Capillary regulation: - smooth muscle in arterioles regulate diameter, decreasing blood flow - precapillary sphincters = rings of smooth muscle at the entrance to capillary beds, controlling flow between arterioles and venules - high blood pressure at arterial end of capillary drives fluid out of capillaries, low blood pressure at venous end of capillary falls under osmotic pressure drives fluid into capillary (85% of fluid that leaves blood reenter like this) Lymphatic system returns 15% - lymph = fluid in lymphatic system - lymph nodes = organs that filter the lymph, attach pathogens, filled with white blood cells o o o o

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