1 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION I. Definitions of Public Administration A.

Political Definitions of Public Administration Public administration is what government does. As a profession, public administration has developed values and ethical standards, but as an activity it merely reflects the cultural norms, beliefs, and power realities of its society. Public administration is the totality of the working day activities of all the worlds bureaucrats whether they are legal or illegal, competent or incompetent, decent or despicable. Public administration is both direct and indirect. Direct provision of services like mortgage insurance, mail delivery, and electricity. Indirect when the government pays private contractors to provide goods and services to citizens (space shuttle, dams). Public administration is a phase in the policy-making cycle. Decisions and nondecisions are public policy. Administration does not end with implementation because someone will always think it can be done better. Public administration is implementing the public interest. The public interest is the universal label in which political actors wrap the policies and programs that they advocate. The public interest is a commonly accepted good. The rise of administrative discretion in the face of legislative vagueness means that the job of the anonymous administrator is to define the public interest. Public administration is doing collectively that which cannot be done so well individually. The legitimate object of government [is] to do for a community of people, whatever they need to have done, but cannot do, at all, or cannot, so well do, for themselves in their separate, and individual capacities Abraham Lincoln. Twentieth century communications has given rise to a revolution of rising expectations. B. Legal Definitions of Public Administration Because public administration is what a state does, it is both created and bound by an instrument of the law. Public administration is the law in action. Public administration is inherently the execution of a public law. Every application of a general law is necessarily an act of administration. In the United States, the Constitution of 1787 is the law of the land. All legislation must conform. Public administration is regulation. It is government telling citizens and businesses what they may or may not do. Regulation is one of the oldest functions of government. Code of Hammurabi The mason who builds a house which falls down and kills the inmate shall be put to death. Driving to McDonalds regulation. Public administration is the kings largesse. It is whatever goods, services, or honors the ruling authority decides to bestow (monarchy). Plaques and political machines.

Public administration is theft. The primary culprit is redistribution. Ayn Rand the only proper function of the government of a free country is to act as an agency which protects the individuals rights. John Kenneth Galbraith It is a simple matter of arithmetic that change may be costly to the man who has something; it cannot be so to the man who has nothing. C. Managerial Definitions of Public Administration Public administration is so much a branch of management that many graduate schools of management (or business or administration) are divided into public and private and now increasingly nonprofit programs. Managerial Definitions of Public Administration Public administration is so much a branch of management that many graduate schools of management (or business or administration) are divided into public and private and now increasingly nonprofit programs. Public administration is the executive function of government. Government agencies put into practice legislative acts that represent the will of the people. Public administration is a management specialty. Top managers make the big decisions and are responsible for the overall success of the organization. Public administrators are found in middle management, the group responsible for the execution and interpretation of top management policies and the day-to-day operation of an organizational unit. Public administration is Mickey Mouse. Anything that requires considerable effort with few results. Often used to mean red tape, excessive formality and attention to routine. Red ribbon that official used to use to tie up public documents. o Use because they promote efficiency and equity overall, although not always in individual cases. Public administration is art, not science or vice versa. Public administration is actually both. It requires judgment, panache, and common sense. It also requires technical skills that allow for the digestion and transference of information. Just because you have the academic credentials does not mean that you can function as a high level administrator. D. Occupational Definition of Public Administration Public administration is an occupational category. It is whatever public employees in the world do. Most of the 18,000,000 public employees in the U.S. would not describe themselves as administrators, but they are. Public administration is an essay contest.

3 People in bureaucratic careers tend to rise and fall on how well they can write. In a game of shuffling paper, the person whose memorandum ends up on top wins. Oral presentations are also useful, but writing is more decisive. Public administration is idealism in action. Many people enter public service careers because they are idealists; they believe in and seek to advance noble principles. Idealism draws people into public administration because it provides them with worthwhile and exciting things to do with their lives. Public administration is an academic field. The study of the art and science of management and incorporates as its subject matter all of the political, social, cultural, and legal environments that affect the running of public institutions. Cross-disciplinary political science, sociology, business administration, psychology, law, anthropology, medicine, forestry, and so on. Public administration is a profession. A body of academic and practical knowledge that is applied to the service of society. A standard of success theoretically measured by serving the needs of society rather than seeking purely personal gain. A system of control over the professional practice that regulates the education of new members and maintains both a code of ethics and appropriate sanctions. II. Two Types of Theories of Administration Organization A. Universal Design Theory 1.Scientific Management Theory a. Frederick Winslow Taylor: Father of Modern Management In - 1911, Frederick Winslow Taylor published his work, The Principles of Scientific Management, in which he described how the application of the scientific method to the management of workers greatly could improve productivity. Scientific management methods called for optimizing the way that tasks were performed and simplifying the jobs enough so that workers could be trained to perform their specialized sequence of motions in the one "best" way. Taylor became interested in improving worker productivity early in his career when he observed gross inefficiencies during his contact with steel workers. Soldiering Working in the steel industry, Taylor had observed the phenomenon of workers' purposely operating well below their capacity that is, soldiering. He attributed soldiering to three causes: 1. The almost universally held belief among workers that if they became more productive, fewer of them would be needed and jobs would be eliminated. 2. Non-incentive wage systems encourage low productivity if the employee will receive the same pay regardless of how much is produced, assuming the employee can

4 convince the employer that the slow pace really is a good pace for the job. Employees take great care never to work at a good pace for fear that this faster pace would become the new standard. If employees are paid by the quantity they produce, they fear that management will decrease their per-unit pay if the quantity increases. 3. Workers waste much of their effort by relying on rule-of-thumb methods rather than on optimal work methods that can be determined by scientific study of the task. To counter soldiering and to improve efficiency, Taylor began to conduct experiments to determine the best level of performance for certain jobs, and what was necessary to achieve this performance. Time Studies Taylor argued that even the most basic, mindless tasks could be planned in a way that dramatically would increase productivity, and that scientific management of the work was more effective than the "initiative and incentive" method of motivating workers. The initiative and incentive method offered an incentive to increase productivity but placed the responsibility on the worker to figure out how to do it. To scientifically determine the optimal way to perform a job, Taylor performed experiments that he called time studies, (also known as time and motion studies). These studies were characterized by the use of a stopwatch to time a worker's sequence of motions, with the goal of determining the one best way to perform a job. Taylor advocated: 1. Systematic analysis of each distinct operation 'Create an elaborate set of rules to regulate every aspect of worker behaviour at the workplace' instead of relying on rule of thumb. Subdividing production processes into individual tasks to achieve task specialization, using time and motion studies to determine the most efficient method for performing each work task and providing necessary rest periods were part of his analysis. Taylor's famous phrase 'Time is Money' relates to such studies. 2. Uncoupling direct and indirect activities Stripping all preparation and servicing tasks from unskilled operator jobs and grouping them into service jobs that are executed by higher skilled maintenance workers. 3. Carefully designing wage payments to maximize employee work effort Providing a piece-rate system of compensation of meritorious bonuses. Taylor hated "soldiering", a term describing the group process in which workers slow their pace of work to suit the average worker's needs. "Pay the Worker, Not the Job". 4. Adopting formal training activities

5 Selecting and training employees by thoroughly investigating personalities and skills so individual workers could not acquire unique knowledge that could raise their position of power.

5. Centralized planning Uncoupling planning and operations. Workers execute the will of the managers rather than exercise their own judgement. Workers were seen as replaceable gears in a larger machinery, or in Taylor's words: "In the past the man has been first; in the future the system must be first". 6. Provision of clear instruction Readdressing the foreman's role as overseer over all aspects of production, and subdividing the function of the shop-floor inspector into four areas: setting-up boss, speed boss, quality inspector, and repair boss, each controlled by a planning department to coordinate and integrate the instructions required to run large and complex organisations. Subjecting the foremen and their staff to the rule of administrative clerks through systems of abstract rules and hierarchal power. b.Henry Laurence Gantt is famous for his work related to Gantt Charts, which have been named after him and are used widely across the world. Henry Gantt worked as a management consultant and also had a background in mechanical engineering. Henry Gantt is known for creating scheduling and monitoring projections with the help of charts which are used for calculating details, making calendars and future projections. Gantt Charts are formed to help you find out planned and actual project progress by entering your current requirements and data, the future will be predicted with the chart. Gantt charts are one of the most widely accepted project management tools these days being used by scientists, management students, operations people and many more. It was an innovation of immense consequence in the year 1920 when Mr. Gantt founded while he was building a ship during the First World War times. Their invention changed history because ever since they were introduced they have been widely and successfully used. Gantt charts have consequently been used to schedule and monitor large construction projects like the Hoover Dam and Eisenhower highway network launched in the years 1931 and 1956 respectively. "Whatever we do must be in accord with human nature. We cannot drive people; we must direct their developmentthe general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the future will be to teach and lead, to the advantage of all concerned." (Henry Gantt) Key Work Henry Gantt's legacy to management profession is the following:

The Gantt chart: Accepted as a the most important project management tool until today. It provides a graphic mechanism of planning, controlling work and recording the progress of workers toward the task standard. The Chart also led to its modern variation - PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique). Industrial Efficiency: Industrial efficiency can Only be produce by the application of scientific analysis to every aspect of work. and industrial management role is to improve the system by eliminating chance and accidents. The Task And Bonus System: He linked the a manager bonus to how well he teaches his employees to perform better. The social responsibility of business: He believed that the business had obligations to the welfare of society that it operates in.

c. Frank and Lilian Gilbreth Lillian Gilbreth was the mother of modern management. Together with her husband Frank, she pioneered industrial management techniques still in use today. She was one of the first "superwomen" to combine a career with her home life. She was a prolific author, the recipient of many honorary degrees, and the mother of 12. She is perhaps best remembered for motherhood. Her children wrote the popular books Cheaper by the Dozen and Belles on Their Toes about their experiences growing up with such a large and famous family. But Lillian Moller Gilbreth was not only a mother; she was an engineer and an industrial psychologist. Lillian excelled in high school and decided that she wanted to study literature and music. Her father did not believe in higher education for women. He felt they needed only enough knowledge to manage a home gracefully. But Lillian persuaded him to let her attend the University of California at Berkeley while living at home and maintaining her family duties. When she obtained her B.A. in literature in 1900, she was the first woman to speak at a University of California commencement. She went to Columbia, but illness forced a return to California after her first year. Undaunted, she went back to Berkeley and received a master's degree in literature in 1902. She celebrated by planning a vacation. She spent some time in Boston before embarking, and there she met her future husband. Frank Gilbreth, who never went to college, was interested in efficiency in the workplace. His enthusiasm for the subject was contagious. He proposed to Lillian Moller three weeks after her return from Europe, and together they began their study of scientific management principles. Frank started a consulting business and Lillian worked at his side. They began their family and in 1910 moved to Rhode Island, where Gilbreth took her doctorate in psychology at Brown University in 1915--with four young children in tow at the ceremony. But where Frank was concerned with the technical aspects of worker efficiency, Lillian was concerned with the human aspects of time management. Her ideas were not widely adopted during her lifetime, but they indicated the direction that modern management would take. She recognized that workers are motivated by indirect incentives (among which she included money) and direct incentives, such as job satisfaction. Her work with Frank helped create job standardization, incentive wage-plans, and job simplification. Finally, she was among the first to recognize the effects of fatigue and stress on time management.

7 Lillian Gilbreth continued her work alone after Frank's death in 1924. In 1926, she became the first woman member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. She went to Purdue in 1935 as a professor of management and the first female professor in the engineering school. In her consulting business, she worked with GE and other firms to improve the design of kitchens and household appliances. She even created new techniques to help disabled women accomplish common household tasks. She did not retire from professional work until she was in her 80s. She traveled widely, speaking and writing about management issues. In 1966, she won the Hoover Medal of the American Society of Civil Engineers. She died at the age of 92, the recipient of more than a dozen honorary degrees. Her ability to combine a career and family led to her being called, by the California Monthly in 1944, "a genius in the art of living." 2. Classical Theory a. Henry Fayol 14 Management Principles developed by Henri Fayol: Division of Work: Work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure that effort and attention are focused on special portions of the task. Fayol presented work specialization as the best way to use the human resources of the organization. Authority: The concepts of Authority and responsibility are closely related. Authority was defined by Fayol as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility involves being accountable, and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever assumes authority also assumes responsibility. Discipline: A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Penalties should be applied judiciously to encourage this common effort. Unity of Command: Workers should receive orders from only one manager. Unity of Direction: The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common direction. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interests: The interests of one person should not take priority over the interests of the organization as a whole. Remuneration: Many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in determining a workers rate of pay. Centralization: Fayol defined centralization as lowering the importance of the subordinate role. Decentralization is increasing the importance. The degree to which centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific organization in which the manager is working. Scalar Chain: Managers in hierarchies are part of a chain like authority scale. Each manager, from the first line supervisor to the president, possess certain amounts of authority. The President possesses the most authority; the first line supervisor the least. Lower level managers should always keep upper level managers informed of their work activities. The existence of a scalar chain and adherence to it are necessary if the organization is to be successful. Order: For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to a specific kind of work should be treated as equally as possible. Equity: All employees should be treated as equally as possible.

8 Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management. Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-reject rates are usually associated with hiring new workers. Initiative: Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through self direction. Espirit De Corps: Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings among employees. b. Luther Gulick - is a well known member of the classical school. He developed POSDCORB. POSDCORB is a word composed of the initials includes seven functions of the executives. POSDCORB model the seven functions of executives are as follows: Planning, that is working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise; Organizing, that is the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and co-ordinated for the defined objective; Staffing, that is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work; Directing, that is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise; Co-Ordinating, that is the all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work; Reporting, that is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through records, research, and inspection; Budgeting, with all that goes with budgeting in the form of planning, accounting and control. c. Lyndall Urwick (10 Principles of Organization ) According to Urwick (Notes on the Theory of Organization, 1952), an organization is built on ten principles: 1. The principle of the objective - Every organization and every part of the organization must be an expression of the purpose of the undertaking concerned, or it is meaningless and therefore redundant. 2. The principle of specialization - The activities of every member of any organized group should be confined, as far as possible, to the performance of a single function. 3. The principle of co-ordination - The purpose of organizing per se, as distinguished from the purpose of the undertaking, is to facilitate co-ordination: unity of effort.

9 4. The principle of authority - In every organized group the supreme authority must rest somewhere. There should be a clear line of authority to every individual in the group 5. The principle of responsibility - The responsibility of the superior for the acts of the subordinate is absolute. 6. The principle of definition - The content of each position, both the duties involved, the authority and responsibility contemplated and the relationships with other positions should be clearly defined in writing and published to all concerned. 7. The principle of correspondence - In every position, the responsibility and the authority should correspond. 8. The principle of span of control - No person should supervise more than five, or at most, six direct subordinates whose work interlocks. 9. The principle of balance - It is essential that the various units of an organization should be kept in balance. 10. The principle of continuity - Re-organization is a continuous process: in every undertaking specific provision should be made for it." 3.Bureaucratic Theory a. Max Weber Legitimate Types of Authority by Max Weber Weber made a distinction between authority and power. According to Weber power educes obedience through force or the threat of force which induces individuals to adhere to regulations. In contrast, legitimate authority entails that individuals acquiesce that authority is exercised upon them by their superiors. Weber goes on to identify three types of legitimate authority: Traditional authority Traditional authority is readily accepted and unquestioned by individuals since it emanates from deeply set customs and tradition. Traditional authority is found in tribes and monarchies. Charismatic authority Charismatic authority is gained by those individuals who have gained the respect and trust of their followers. This type of authority is exercised by a charismatic leader in small and large groups alike. Rational-legal authority Rational-legal authority stems from the setup of an organization and the position held by the person in authority. Rational-legal authority is exercised within the stipulated rules and procedures of an organization. The Key Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Weber coined this last type of authority with the name of a bureaucracy. The term bureaucracy in terms of an organization and management functions refers to the following six characteristics:

10 Management by rules. A bureaucracy follows a consistent set of rules that control the functions of the organization. Management controls the lower levels of the organization's hierarchy by applying established rules in a consistent and predictable manner. Division of labor. Authority and responsibility are clearly defined and officially sanctioned. Job descriptions are specified with responsibilities and line of authority. All employees have thus clearly defined rules in a system of authority and subordination. Formal hierarchical structure. An organization is organized into a hierarchy of authority and follows a clear chain of command. The hierarchical structure effectively delineates the lines of authority and the subordination of the lower levels to the upper levels of the hierarchical structure. Personnel hired on grounds of technical competence. Appointment to a position within the organization is made on the grounds of technical competence. Work is assigned based on the experience and competence of the individual. Managers are salaried officials. A manager is a salaried official and does own the administered unit. All elements of a bureaucracy are defined with clearly defined roles and responsibilities and are managed by trained and experienced specialists. Written documents. All decisions, rules and actions taken by the organization are formulated and recorded in writing. Written documents ensure that there is continuity of the organizations policies and procedures. B. Situational Design Theory 1. Behavioral Approach "BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT APPROACH" From the work of group dynamics developed by Kurt Lewin, still in its early booster of the Theory of Human Relations with the release of the book of Chester Barnard, and later studies of George Homans Sabreinstitutional sociology Group, culminating in the book by Herbert Simon on administrative behavior, a new configuration comes to dominate the administrative theory. Although the roots of this new approach can be traced much further, is from the 50s which develops initially in the U.S., a new conception of Directors, bringing new concepts, new variables and, above all, a new vision of theory management based on human behavior in organizations. The behavioral approach marks the strongest emphasis on the behavioral sciences in management theory and the pursuit of democratic and flexible solutions to organizational problems. The behavioral approach grew out of behavioral science, particularly organizational psychology. The behavioral sciences have toasted the administrative theory with a variety of conclusions about the nature and characteristics of human beings, namely: 1. the human being is endowed with a social animal needs. Among these needs emerge gregarious needs, ie, tends to develop cooperative and interdependent relationships that lead to living in groups or social organizations,

11 2. man is an animal endowed with a psychic system, ie, is able to organize their perceptions in an integrated manner that allows a perceptual and cognitive organization common to all human beings, 3. human being has the ability to articulate language with abstract reasoning, in other words, has communication skills 4. man is an animal with a willingness to learn, ie to change their behavior and attitudes toward higher standards and effective; 5. human being has his goal-oriented behavior, very complex and changeable. Hence the importance of understanding the goals of basic human society in order to clearly understand their behavior 6. humans characterized pair a dual pattern of behavior: both can cooperate to compete with others. Cooperates when their individual goals can only be achieved through the joint efforts and collective responsibility when their goals are pursued and contested by others. The conflict becomes a virtual part of all aspects of human life. It is with the behavioral approach that the concern shifts from structure to processes and organizational dynamics, ie with the organizational behavior. Although the predominant emphasis on people, opened to the Theory of Human Relations, but within an organizational context. BEHAVIORAL THEORY OF MANAGEMENT Although the emphasis remains on people, the Behavioral Theory (or Theory Behaviorist) Administration came to signify a new direction and a new focus within the management theory: the incorporation of the behavioral sciences, the abandonment of prescriptive and normative positions of previous theories and the adoption Positions explanatory and descriptive. A Behavioral Theory of the Administration has its greatest exponents in HerbertA. Simon, Chester Barnard, Douglas McGregor, Chris Argyris and Likert Rensis. Strictly within the field of human motivation are emphasized Abraham Maslow, Frederick Herzberg and David McClelland. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORAL THEORY The origins of the Behavioral Theory of Directors are as follows: 1. The fierce opposition of the Theory of Human Relations (with its strong emphasis on the people) in relation to classical theory (with its strong emphasis on the tasks and organizational structure) walked slowly to a second stage: a Behavioral Theory. This now represents a new attempt to synthesize the theory of formal organization with the focus of human relations. 2. A Behavioral Theory is, at bottom, an offshoot of the Theory of Human Relations, with which it shares some fundamental concepts, using them as starting points or reference and recasting them deeply. It also rejects the naive and romantic conceptions of the Theory of Human Relations. 3. A Behavioral Theory criticizes the Classical Theory, the theory of formal organization, the general principles of management, the concept of formal authority, and the position of the rigid and mechanistic classical authors. 4. With the Behavioral Theory came the incorporation of Sociology of Bureaucracy, broadening the field of management theory. Also with regard to the Theory of Bureaucracy, the Behavioral Theory proves to be much criticism, especially with regard to the "machine model" that one adopts as a representative of the organization. 5. In 1947 the United States comes a book that marks the beginning of the Behavioral Theory in Administration: The Administrative Behavior, Herbert A. Simon. This book, which

12 achieved great effect, constitutes an indiscriminate attack the principles of the Classical Theory and acceptance - with necessary repairs and fixes - the main ideasof the Theory of Human Relations. The book is also the beginning of the so called Theory of Decisions. Thus, the Behavioral Theory appears in the late 40's witha total redefinition of administrative concepts: to criticize previous theories, behaviorism in the Administration not only reschedule the approaches, but rather expands and diversifies its content to its nature. To explain the organizational behavior, the Behavioral Theory is based on the individual behavior of people. To explain coma people behave, it is necessary to the study of human motivation. Thus, a key theme of the Behavioral Theory of Directors is human motivation, in which the field theory has received voluminous administrative assistance. During the Theory of Human Relations, found that the man is considered a complex animal endowed with complex needs and differentiated. These needs guide and strengthen the human behavior toward some personal goals. Once a need is satisfied, then comes another in its place within an ongoing process that has no end, from birth to death of people. The authors found that the behaviorists administrator needs to know the human need to better understand human behavior and use of human motivation as a powerful means to improve the quality of life within organizations and thereby gain the membership of those who work there. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Maslow, a psychologist and an American consultant presented a theory of motivation, according to which human needs are organized and arranged in levels, a hierarchy of importance and influence. This hierarchy of needs can be visualized as a pyramid. At the base of the pyramid are the most primitive needs (physiological needs) and the top, needs more refined (the need for self-realization), each with the following meanings: 1. Physiological needs: they are the lowest of all human needs, but of vital importance. At this level are the need for food, rest, shelter, sex, etc.. The physiological needs are linked to the survival of the individual and the preservation of the species. They are instinctual needs, which are born with the individual. Are the most pressing of all human needs: When some of these needs are not met, it strongly dominates the direction of behavior. A person with an empty stomach has no greater concern than food. But when you eat regularly and adequately, hunger remains an important motivation. When all human needs are unmet, the greater motivation is the satisfaction of physiological needs, and the individual's behavior is intended to find relief from the pressure that produce these needs saber body. 2. Safety Needs: They are the second level of human needs. Are the needs of security and stability, for protection against the threat or deprivation, to escape danger. Arise in the behavior when the physiological needs are relatively satisfied. When the individual is dominated by security needs, your body is strongly oriented towards the search for satisfaction of that need. Security needs are of great importance inhuman behavior, since every employee is always in a dependent relationship with the company, in which arbitrary administrative actions may cause uncertainty or insecurity in the employee about their job retention. If these actions or decisions reflect discrimination or favoritism or any administrative policy unpredictable and can become powerful activators of insecurity at all levels of the company. 3. Social needs: the behavior arise when the lower needs (physiological and safety) are relatively satisfied. Among the social needs are the need of association, participation, acceptance from peers, exchange of friendship, affection and love. When social needs are not adequately met, the individual becomes resistant, antagonistic and even hostile about the people around you. In our society, the frustration of needs for love and affection leads to a lack of social adjustment and loneliness.

13 4. Needs of self-esteem: the needs are related to the way the individual sees and evaluates. Involve self-assessment, self-confidence, the need for social approval and respect, status, prestige and respect, of confidence before the world, independence and autonomy. The satisfaction of these needs leads to feelings of self-confidence, value, power, prestige, power, capability and utility. Their frustration may produce feelings of inferiority, weakness, dependence and helplessness which, in turn, can lead to discouragement or compensatory activities. 5. Need for self-realization: human needs are higher and those at the top of the hierarchy. Are the needs of each person performs their own potential and self-development continually. This tendency usually expresses itself through the impulse of the person taking up ever more of what is and to become all that it can be. Finally, these requirements take the form and terms vary greatly from person to person. Their intensity or expression are also extremely varied, according to individual differences among people. The theory of Maslow's hierarchy of needs assumes the following: 1. Only when a lower level needs are satisfied or adequately answered is that the immediate higher level emerges in behavior. In other words, when a lower level need is satisfied, it ceases to be motivating, providing opportunity for a higher level can develop. 2. Not everyone can get to the top of the pyramid of needs. Some people - thanks to the circumstances of life - come to care greatly in need of self-realization, others parked on the needs of esteem, even in other social needs, while many others are occupied exclusively with physiological and safety needs, they can not respond to them appropriately. They are called "excluded." 3. When lower needs are reasonably satisfied, the needs located at the highest levels begin to dominate the behavior. However, while some lower-level need no longer be satisfied, she returns to dominate behavior while generating tension in the body. The need for more important or more urgent monopolizes the individual automatically organize the mobilization of the various faculties of the body to meet it. 4. Each person always has more than one motivation. All levels work together in the body, dominating the higher needs of the lowest, provided they are sufficiently satisfied or satisfied. Every need is closely related to the state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of other needs. Its effect saber body is always global and set and never isolated. 5. Any motivated behavior is like a channel through which many basic needs may be expressed or met together. 6. Any possibility of frustration or frustration of satisfaction of certain needs is considered a psychological threat. This threat is what produces the general emergency reactions in human behavior. Several researches have not come to scientifically confirm Maslow's theory and some even overturned. However, Maslow's theory is sufficiently well structured to offer a framework and useful for guiding the action of the business executive 2. Systems Approach (Organization Theory) Aims of a General System Theory While in the past, science tried to explain observable phenomena by reducing them to an interplay of elementary units investigable independently of each other, conceptions appear in contemporary science that are concerned with what is somewhat vaguely termed 'wholeness', i.e. problems of organization, phenomena not resolvable into local events,

14 dynamic interactions manifest in difference of behaviour of parts when isolated or in a higher configuration, etc.; in short, 'systems' of various order not understandable by investigation of their respective parts in isolation. Conceptions and problems of this nature have appeared in all branches of science, irrespective of whether inanimate things, living organisms, or social phenomena are the object of study. Not only are general aspects and viewpoints alike in different sciences; frequently we find formally identical or isomorphic laws in different fields. In many cases, isomorphic laws hold for certain classes or subclasses of 'systems', irrespective of the nature of the entities involved. There appear to exist general system laws which apply to any system of a certain type, irrespective if the particular properties of the system and of the elements involved. General System Theory, therefore, is a general science of 'wholeness'. (1) There is a general tendency towards integration in the various sciences, natural and social. (2) Such integration seems to be centered in a general theory of systems. (3) Such theory may be an important means of aiming at exact theory in the nonphysical fields of science. (4) Developing unifying principles running 'vertically' through the universe of the individual sciences, this theory brings us nearer to the goal of the unity of science. (5) This can lead to a much-needed integration in scientific education. Closed and Open Systems Conventional physics deals only with closed systems, i.e. systems which are considered to be isolated from their environment. However, we find systems which by their very nature and definition are not closed systems. Every living organism is essentially an open system. It maintains itself in a continuous inflow and outflow, a building up and breaking down of components, never being, so long as it is alive, in a state of chemical and thermodynamic equilibrium but maintained in a so-called steady state which is distinct from the latter. It is only in recent years that an expansion of physics, in order to include open systems, has taken place. This theory has shed light on many obscure phenomena in physics and biology and has also led to important general conclusions of which I will mention only two. The first is the principle of equifinality. In any closed system, the final state is unequivocally determined by the initial conditions: e.g. the motion in a planetary system where the positions of the planets at a time t are unequivocally determined by their positions

15 at a time t. This is not so in open systems. Here, the same final state may be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways. This is what is called equifinality. Another apparent contrast between inanimate and animate nature is what sometimes was called the violent contradiction between Lord Kelvin's degradation and Darwin's evolution, between the law of dissipation in physics and the law of evolution in biology. According to the second principle of thermodynamics, the general trend of events in physical nature is towards states of maximum disorder and levelling down of differences, with the socalled heat death of the universe as the final outlook, when all energy is degraded into evenly distributed heat of low temperature, and the world process comes to a stop. In contrast, the living world shows, in embryonic development and in evolution, a transition towards higher order, heterogeneity, and organization. But on the basis of the theory of open systems, the apparent contradiction between entropy and evolution disappears. In all irreversible processes, entropy must increase. Therefore, the change of entropy in closed systems is always positive; order is continually destroyed. In open systems, however, we have not only production of entropy due to irreversible processes, but also import of entropy which may well be negative. This is the case in the living organism which imports complex molecules high in free energy. Thus, living systems, maintaining themselves in a steady state, can avoid the increase of entropy, and may even develop towards states of increased order and organization. Information and Feedback Another development which is closely connected with system theory is that of the modern theory of communication The general notion in communication theory is that of information. In many cases, the flow of information corresponds to a flow of energy, e.g. if light waves emitted by some objects reach the eye or a photoelectric cell, elicit some reaction of the organism or some machinery, and thus convey information. There is, however, another way to measure information, namely, in terms of decisions. A second central concept of the theory of communication and control is that of feedback. Feedback arrangements are widely used in modern technology for the stabilization of a certain action, as in thermostats or in radio receivers; or for the direction of actions towards a goal where the aberration from that goal is fed back, as information, till the goal or target is reached. There is indeed a large number of biological phenomena which correspond to the feedback model. First, there is the phenomenon of so-called homeostasis, or maintenance of balance in the living organism, the prototype of which is thermoregulation in warm-blooded animals.

16 Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972) has been on of the most acute minds of the XX century. Here are miscellanea of passages from his General System Theory. The first part of the text focuses on the function of the theory of systems and on the main features of closed and open systems. The second part presents a conception of the human being not as a robot or a moron aiming at reducing tensions by satisfying biological needs, but as an active personality system creating his own universe, who revels in accepting challenges, solving problems and expressing his artistic inclinations. These passages have been recently translated into Belorussian and this shows the wide appeal of von Bertalanffy's ideas. Chester Irving Barnard (18861961) president of the new Jersey Bell Telephone Company, help advance thinking about organizations when he published The Functions of the Executive in 1938 - an influential 20th century management book.
.

His importance lies in creating a new theory around organizational structures, focusing on the organization as communication system. He looked at organizations as systems of cooperation of human activity, and was worried about the fact that they are typically rather short-lived. This happens because organizations do not meet the two criteria necessary for survival: effectiveness and efficiency. He give us a much more realistic view of what really goes on in formal organization. According to Barnard individual have only a limited amount of power. A person can do only so much when acting alone. Barnards key concepts: Importance of an Individual's behaviour Compliance Concept of "zone of indifference". Communication Focused on importance of communication in informal organization. What else in Barnards theory in the Classics of P.A. Civil society organizations Learning the organization ropes in most organizations is chiefly learning whos who. Whats what, whys why of its informal society. (107) it is undeniable that major executives and even entire executive organizations are often unaware of wide-spread influences, attitudes, and agitations within their organizations. 3. Human Relations Theory (Neo-Classical Theory)

17 Hawthorne effect The central idea behind the Hawthorne effect, a term used as early as 1950 by Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger, is that changes in participants' behavior during the course of a study may be "related only to the special social situation and social treatment they received." French applied the term in reference to a set of studies begun in 1924 at the former Hawthorne (Cicero, Illinois) Works of the Western Electric Company, the manufacturing arm of AT&T. The term gets its name from a factory called the Hawthorne Works, where a series of experiments on factory workers was carried out between 1924 and 1932. This effect was observed for minute increases in illumination. Evaluation of the Hawthorne effect continues in the present day.
Most industrial/occupational psychology and organizational behavior textbooks refer to the illumination studies. Only occasionally are the rest of the studies mentioned. In the lighting studies, light intensity was altered to examine its effect on worker productivity.

Relay assembly experiments

In one of the studies, experimenters chose two women as test subjects and asked them to choose four other workers to join the test group. Together the women worked in a separate room over the course of five years (19271932) assembling telephone relays. Output was measured mechanically by counting how many finished relays each worker dropped down a chute. This measuring began in secret two weeks before moving the women to an experiment room and continued throughout the study. In the experiment room, they had a supervisor who discussed changes with them and at times used their suggestions. Then the researchers spent five years measuring how different variables impacted the group's and individuals' productivity. Some of the variables were: giving two 5-minute breaks (after a discussion with them on the best length of time), and then changing to two 10-minute breaks (not their preference). Productivity increased, but when they received six 5-minute rests, they disliked it and reduced output. providing food during the breaks shortening the day by 30 minutes (output went up); shortening it more (output per hour went up, but overall output decreased); returning to the first condition (where output peaked).

Changing a variable usually increased productivity, even if the variable was just a change back to the original condition. However it is said that this is the natural process of the human being to adapt to the environment without knowing the objective of the experiment occurring. Researchers concluded that the workers worked harder because they thought that they were being monitored individually.

Bank wiring room experiments

The purpose of the next study was to find out how payment incentives would affect productivity. The surprising result was that productivity actually decreased. Workers apparently had become suspicious that their productivity may have been boosted to justify firing some of the workers later on. [9] The study was conducted by Elton Mayo and W. Lloyd Warner between 1931 and 1932 on a group of fourteen men who put together telephone switching equipment. The researchers found that although

18
the workers were paid according to individual productivity, productivity decreased because the men were afraid that the company would lower the base rate. Detailed observation between the men revealed the existence of informal groups or "cliques" within the formal groups. These cliques developed informal rules of behavior as well as mechanisms to enforce them. The cliques served to control group members and to manage bosses; when bosses asked questions, clique members gave the same responses, even if they were untrue. These results show that workers were more responsive to the social force of their peer groups than to the control and incentives of management.

III. Sub-fields of Public Administration A. Organization of Management

What is Organization Management ?

Organization management refers to the art of getting people together on a common platform to make them work towards a common predefined goal. Organization management enables the optimum use of resources through meticulous planning and control at the workplace. Organization management gives a sense of direction to the employees. The individuals are well aware of their roles and responsibilities and know what they are supposed to do in the organization.

An effective management ensures profitability for the organization. In a laymans language organization management refers to efficient handling of the organization as well as its employees. Need for Organization Management Organization management gives a sense of security and oneness to the employees. An effective management is required for better coordination among various departments. Employees accomplish tasks within the stipulated time frame as a result of effective organization management. Employees stay loyal towards their job and do not treat work as a burden. Effective organization management leads to a peaceful and positive ambience at the workplace. B. Public Personnel Administration

Public administration consists of administrative processes. It involves people, its most important element, therefore public personnel administration is an equally important field. In here, the definition of personnel management as the recruitment, selection, development, utilization of, and accommodation to human resources by organizations (French 1990) is explored. Specifically, it discusses on the evolution of public personnel administration, arrangements of the personnel system, and general attributes of personnel functions in the public sector. It is also concerned with the developments and current trends in personnel administration. C. Local Government Administration

19 This is another distinct subfield of public administration. In studying local government administration, the concepts of decentralization are taken into account. Decentralization, as a process, is one of the widely researched topics in promoting development and democratic governance. Administrative organizations and operations of local governments; the structure and processes of regional administration are likewise discussed. In particular, local government administration may also include topics on theoretical and empirical perspectives of local government and regional administration, community and institutional development, local government systems/procedure, intergovernmental dynamics, local public finance or local fiscal administration, local economic promotion, local and regional development planning, local government innovations and many others. D. Public Fiscal Administration Public finance belongs to the branch of economics but that was during the earlier times. With the emergence of the field of public administration, much interest has been directed towards fiscal administration. Again, this subfield of public administration covers a wide range of issues and topics affecting government operations like taxation, public expenditures and borrowing, resource allocation, revenue administration, auditing and intergovernmental relations. As Briones (1996) puts it, public fiscal administration embraces the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of policies and decisions on taxation and revenue administration; resource allocation, budgeting, and public expenditure; public borrowing and debt management; and accounting and auditing. Through the years, many researches were devoted on these topics and issues; the government has also introduced reforms like reforms in tax administration, value added tax (VAT), expanded value added tax (E-VAT), procurement reforms, the medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF), accounting reforms, re-engineering the bureaucracy program (REBP), transforming local finance, and many others. E. Policy Analysis and Program Administration The post-war years saw the emergence of public policy as a subfield of public administration. In the US, interest in policy studies started in 1950s. In the Philippines, however, it started not to long ago, in 1970s in the then Institute of Public Administration in the University of the Philippines. Generally, policy studies can focus on the content of public policy, its processes, models, theories and approaches of public policy its impact as well as evaluation of public programs and projects. Other significant concepts, principles and techniques for systematic analysis and decision - making in public policy and management are also considered in policy analysis. Dye (1995) said that certain theoretical approaches and models have been introduced in studying public policy which include institutional, process, group, elite, rational, incremental, game theory, public choice and systems model. As the field evolved, and in response to the changing demands of the time, new sub-fields emerged. These included the following: Public Enterprise Management and Voluntary Sector Management Voluntary Sector Management F. Public Enterprise Management

20 Public enterprise, more commonly known as Government-Owned and-Controlled Corporations are public or governmental institutions which are performing functions or engaged in activities which are commercial in nature but with socially relevant goals. Public enterprises produce goods and services from which return of investment and profit may be realized. Privatization is one of the foci of this area of public administration. Other topics include the nature and processes of public enterprises; the relationship between the government and the public enterprise sector; issues on managerial autonomy, public accountability, corporate social responsibility and the role of the state in the economy. In the graduate level, courses include financial management of public enterprise and management of public enterprises. G. Voluntary Sector Management and Spatial Information Management Voluntary sector management can be referred to similar terms such as voluntary sector, third sector, non-profit organizations, non-governmental organizations, and civil society organizations. Spatial Information Management In delivering public goods and services efficiently and effectively, it is very important that we will be aided with support tools enabling the use of all kinds of spatial data/information. With the study and utilization of geographic information system (GIS), data/information can be processed immediately and can be transported easily. This technology is currently used by many government agencies and corporations; thus the introduction and popularization of some technology terms in government such as egovernment, e-commerce, geo-visualization, e-finance, among others. Other systems are also introduced in SIM like global positioning systems and remote sensing. Spatial Information Management Public administration indeed has evolved both as a scholarly discipline and as a profession. It has reached wider dimensions of governance, from political, economic, social, cultural aspects of public management. In the executive branch, for instance, it has retained traditional functions such as O and M (management functions like planning, organizing) and personnel management but explored possibilities in organizational development, fiscal administration (budgeting, accounting, auditing) and public policy and program administration which is concerned with the processes and analysis of public policy. IV. Major Issues/Concerns/Challenges in Philippine Administration Praxis

A. Policy Issues a) Education While the country prides itself with a relatively high literacy rate that reaches up to 95 percent, there has been a perception that the quality of education, particularly at the primary and secondary levels in public schools, is deteriorating. While this is a matter that is difficult to gauge or measure, the impression the product of the Philippine educational system today is not as competitive as they were a generation ago. The reasons advanced for this state of affairs are many. Foremost among them is the limited budget assigned to education which has resulted in unrest among public school teachers who have constantly complained against low salaries. Striking public school teachers have become a prominent issue in the Philippines during the last two or three years. In fact, many teachers have resigned to accept jobs abroad

21 as domestic helpers. This problem is further complicated by the lack of school buildings and other facilities which results in congestion in classrooms. An ordinary class for example in the primary and secondary levels in Philippine public schools may have anywhere from 60 to 70 students as compared to 30 to 40 a decade ago. b) Social Security The problem of social security has been a nagging one in the Philippines owing to the low priority assigned to this area in the distribution and allocation of the national budget. Pensions given to retirees are often not at par or outdistanced by the cost of living. COA Audit Report on SSS Overcharging Members

The Social Security System (SSS) faces another adverse audit observation for allegedly overshooting its loan limits by P11.9 billion and failing to collect some P18.1 billion in delinquent loan payments. The Commission on Audit (COA) asked the SSS to act swiftly in trying to mitigate the problem of delinquency, adding that the government-run insurance firm for private sector workers should limit the use of funds to more viable investments. The state audit agency said delinquency in payment of loans remained high despite the implementation of a penalty condonation program from January 3 to June 2011. In its 2011 audit of the SSS, COA noted that loans extended to members have reached P42.23 billion which is over the limit set under Republic Act 8282. RA 8282 sets the membership loan limit to ten percent of the Investment Reserve Fund. As of 2011, the IRFF amounted to P313.1 billion, thus, ten percent is pegged at only P31.3 billion. State auditors asked the SSS board to direct the concerned department to take a comprehensive approach to address the problem of delinquent accounts to limit member loans at reasonable levels. It was gathered that delinquent accounts increased by P1.4 billion from P38.73 billion in 2010. Some P676.7 million of this amount has been attributed to the increase in delinquent accounts that should have been collected over five years past. A penalty condonation program is usually carried out by the SSS, with the latest such offer implemented during the first half of 2011. According to the SSS Lending and Asset Management Division, it was able to collect P920.2 million, with at least P697.2 million in penalties condoned. As evidenced by the foregoing data, measures adopted to address delinquency in the payment of loans are not efficiently implemented a significant factor contributory to the continuous breach of the 10 percent limit on the IRF that can be invested on member loans, COA stated.

22 The audit agency berated the management for seemingly being contented on the thought that the delinquent loans would be collected when members make their final claims for benefit. This action should be the ultimate and not the immediate solution because large amount exposed to bad loans prevents the System from flowing back the funds for other viable investments, audit examiners stated. The SSS is facing a congressional investigation as a result of the same COA report that assailed the insurance agency for excessive collection of interest on loans by P788.84 million by failing to adopt the loan interest computation prescribed by the BSP, the 10 percent interest imposed by SSS was bloated to over the authorized interest rate, COA said. As a result, the SSS overcharged its members by at least P788.8 million in interest payments for the total P15.79 billion salary loans granted to member-borrowers in 2011. c) Health The problem of health has been a nagging one in the Philippines owing to the low priority assigned to this area in the distribution or allocation of the national budget. There does not exist a comprehensive and satisfactory insurance system in health. Likewise, one critical area that needs to be considered is the problem of access to medical attention by a good number of the population. d) population size and age dynamics Definitely, a population that grows at an average ranging from 2.5 to 3.0 percent will impinge on governmental decisions affecting the polity. This unbridled growth in population levels have witnessed in recent years an increasing young population, generally unemployed or under-employed, and have brought problems of migration to the cities where opportunities are perceived to be better. As a result, there is now a growing problem of congestion in the cities with the attendant problems characteristic of urbanization. Urban decay such as criminality, drug abuse, traffic, transport problems, housing, sanitation and environmental decay have increasingly affected government decisions to focus or channel its energies and resources in the cities to the detriment and neglect of development in the countrysides. Concomitantly, the pressure for government, both at the national and local levels, to address problems of metropolitanization has become acute as widespread deprivation and lack of opportunities become acute. Because it is in the cities where the seats of governance are generally found, government decisions appear to be more prejudice towards addressing conditions in large, thickly populated conurbations. It is also in this are where extraneous influences on government decisions become most prominent for resident in the cities tend to be more vocal, more articulate and more aggressive and vigilant in demanding response from the government against the peripheries which are generally reticent. Reproductive Health Bill

There appears to be three major points of view from which to approach the controversial reproductive health bill now pending with the House of Representatives for plenary deliberations, namely: legal, moral, and scientific. This is so since, the proposed legislative measure once enacted into law will affect society writ large. In short, there are

23 many stakeholders by differing institutional concerns. It then becomes difficult to erect a tripod to hold the issue that has carried so much weight. There are those who think, once legislated, HB 812 or the proposed Reproductive Health Care Act of 2008 will in fact set the stage for other anti-life laws or so-called D.E.A.T.H. bills (acronym for death, euthanasia, abortion, two-child policy, and homosexuality). The problem that has been viciously overlooked in our legislative mill is the fact that legislators themselves violate the rule that a bill should have only one subject matter. Truth is, HB 812 may have to be broken up into separate bills and for that matter into separate laws. An evolving culture of aquarium legislation is tantamount to a constitutional violation of the legislative process. Up until today, there is a serious opposition to a reproductive health bill in whatever form or substance it comes simply because there are such groups or organizations that are against it. For instance, the CBCP is against it and for that matter other like-minded Catholic sub-groups. True enough, from the time it was first filed in the past Congresses, the bill already experienced a string of failures to be passed into law owing to provisions that are questionable legally, morally, and scientifically. It can be said that again, this proposed HB 812 may go through another rough sailing unless it can be railroaded in Congress and Senate. One theory stands in defense of the bill which claims it is necessary in order to curb population growth which is now pegged at 86 million Filipinos as well as for the sake of limited resources such as rice. But the myth of this Malthusian fear has already been settled long ago and it does not anymore hold water. Why a zero population growth as that which was a matter of policy in the whole of the United States and Europe? If we consider the earnings being remitted into our country from OFWs as the single factor that buoys up our fledging if pale economy, then we should have no reason to argue against this bill. That zero population policy practiced by countries in the First Bloc now reached the irreversible scenario of a graying population that depletes their respective economies in heavy state subsidies. Is it then a boon or bane? The National Academy of Science and Technology supports reproductive health bill. The Catholic Church or the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines does not. There are pro-life advocates versus pro-choice advocates. This camp says it involves no abortion, another camp says otherwise. This group claims contraceptives to be abortifacient, another such group claims it is not so. Within the legal community, a wedge divides their sentiments as to whether it is against the Divine Law to allow any room of choice toward abortion or to some extent euthanasia. Cases of abortion do sometimes involve life-boat ethics that Catch 22 of having to choose which person to save the unborn babe or the mother. There are issues at every loop, claims at every turn, and cries in every direction the bill takes for or against. Moralists, legalists, scientists follow their own lines of thinking that are parallel unto one another no lines intersect. There is where the problem lies. Is it then possible to weave from various strands or threads a beautiful tapestry of the proposed bill? Has it become time to curb population growth or corruption? Incidentally, the Secretary of Health announced that an initial amount of P150 billion as start-up fund is intended for this project in terms of the infrastructure to get it going. Fact is, some P2 billion will be so allocated just for condoms or like medicines or drugs. Is this the reason that politicians as legislators incessantly lobby for the reproductive health bill to be legislated into law?

24 e) Environment The Philippines suffers from the lack of a comprehensive policy in arresting environmental decay. The most critical area here is the problem of a declining forest cover brought about by the governments inability to control or curb illegal logging activities. Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (R.A. 9147)

An act providing for the conservation and protection of Wildlife Resources and their Habitats, appropriating funds therefor and for other purposes. In the pursuit of this policy, this Act shall have the following objectives: to conserve and protect wildlife species and their habitats to promote ecological balance and enhance biological diversity; to regulate the collection and trade of wildlife; to pursue, with due regard to the national interest, the Philippine commitment to international conventions, protection of wildlife and their habitats; and to initiate or support scientific studies on the conservation of biological diversity. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) shall have jurisdiction over all terrestrial plant and animal species, all turtles and tortoises and wetland species, including but not limited to crocodiles, waterbirds and all amphibians and dugong. The Department of Agriculture (DA) shall have jurisdiction over all declared aquatic critical habitats, all aquatic resources including but not limited to all fishes, aquatic plants, invertebrates and all marine mammals, except dugong. The secretaries of the DENR and the DA shall review, and by joint administrative order, revise and regularly update the list of species under their respective jurisdiction. In the Province of Palawan, jurisdiction herein conferred is vested to the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development pursuant to Republic Act No. 7611. f) Agriculture A major issue in agriculture is the problematic of land reform and how to sustain farmers who are given lands to till. This issue is also triggered by problems of absorptive capacity on the part of farmers who stand to benefit from the land reform law. g) social dynamics, including migration/refugee movement One feature of the Philippine polity that presently exerts pressure or impacts on government decisions is the increasing trend towards hyper-pluralism. This may be attributed to the experience under martial law regime where policy making had been centralized and consolidated and where a number of protest movements from different sectors emerged to challenge government decisions. It is perhaps also a legacy of the Aquino government which sought to restore democratic institutions and processes and, in its wake, encouraged the legitimization of interest blocs that articulate various demands. The complexion of social dynamics is now thus influenced by inputs of these groups, which sometimes come in conflict with one another. Government decisions affecting any of these groups thus tend to balance to serve various interest so much so that often any firm resolution of social conflict becomes difficult to generate. h) poverty alleviation, massive unemployment

25 While there had been some improvements in the quality of life following the ouster of Marcos in 1986, there had been no dramatic or significant changes in uplifting the quality of life in the country, as a result of factors such as commitments of government to foreign institutions. The effect of this is the continued decline in living conditions in a situation where income generated from employment often do not rise proportionally with costs of essentials such as food, shelter, medicine, etc. i) labor relations issues In recent years, labor organizations have become more agitated and more active, as standards of living become prohibitive especially in the cities. Labor has been restive and has been most vocal about the enactment of legislated wage adjustments. Wage increases, on the other hand, have served mainly to exacerbate inflation so as to aggravate the problems of the purchasing power of the currency. Moreover, mandated salary increases have resulted in the closing of businesses that cannot cope or meet with these increases. As a result, there had been tremendous pressure for government to balance demands from labor for more wages and from employers to hold back any such increases. Ultimately, the effect is a jelling of tension between management and labor which government has to arbitrate. In recent months, however, perhaps as a result of the stabilization of the currency, strikes have declined, although this would seem to be more artificial. The problem of decreasing resources in the Philippines has created severe discontinuities in harnassing the economic potentials of the country in the sense that such items as public investments in infrastructure in terms of building more modernized telecommunication facilities, transport systems and power plants are impeded, retarding in the process the flow of foreign investments. New Rule on Contractual Employment ( Department Order No. 18-A, Series of 2011)

To address the clamor of the labor sector to clarify government policy on contractual employment so that they could be assured this will not be used to circumvent the compliance of employers to labor standards, the Department of Labor and Employment issued DO No. 18-A. Under the DO No. 18-A, contractors, subcontractors and cooperatives are required to provide their workers with benefits similar to their regular counterparts. The new D.O. will promote employment and encourage full compliance with minimum wages and general labor standards, including safe and healthful conditions of work, security of tenure, and selforganization and collective bargaining agreement. Workers also entitled to social security benefits, which includes membership to SSS, Philhealth, and Pag-ibig. The new order also imposes stricter requirements for contractors, subcontractors, and cooperatives to ensure only qualified companies will be able to operate. These include a P3 million paid capital to operate, possession of necessary tools and work premises to deliver their service, an employer-employee relationship with their workers, aPR25,000 registration fees, and the inclusion of a mandatory 10 percent administrative fee in their service contracts. It also require contractors, sub-contractors, and cooperatives to honor the full extent of the

26 service contract with a company, which will prevent them from cutting the services of their workers in short periods per year. These new provisions aim to weed out fly-by-night contractors and subcontractors. It will also end short term employment schemes like endo (end of contract) or 5-5-5 (five-month, five-month duration. j) relations of public service with politicians/ministers The problems impinging on government in terms of deficits, a huge foreign debt, unemployment and similar concerns have served to emasculate administrative capabilities in service delivery systems, and as such have served as issues generally inviting attention by politicians. These politicians often use the breakdown in the delivery of basic services as a what of championing grievances of ordinary citizens. To be sure, relations between public service agencies and politicians have been strained as bureaucrat bashing becomes a common preoccupation in congressional circles. k) growing differentiation and interaction of various spheres in society One of the problems affecting Philippine polity today is the emergence of interest and pressure groups that have varying and often conflicting interests leading to tensions of hyperpluralism which government needs to negotiate tenuously. B. Organization Issues 1. What administrative structure are more effective with the demands of society? a. autonomy versus integration The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 provided the framework for the creation of an autonomous government providing the Filipino people (Filipinos) broader domestic autonomy, though it reserved certain privileges to the United States to protect its sovereign rights and interests. Since American and Filipino governments have deployed educational policy as a tool to mitigate Muslim-Christian conflict on the southern Philippine island of Mindanao. The policy of integration has proved problematic as many Filipino Muslims have resisted it as cultural assimilation, while the more recent policy of autonomy may exacerbate centrifugal tensions in the region. The essay concludes with an argument for a de-centered, multicultural approach to educational policy and practice that could offer a more hopeful approach to mitigating Muslim-Christian conflict in Mindanao. b. decentralization versus centralization Centralized organizational structures rely on one individual to make decisions and provide direction for the company. Small businesses often use this structure since the owner is responsible for the companys business operations. Decentralized organizational structures often have several individuals responsible for making business decisions and running the business. Decentralized organizations rely on a team environment at different levels in the

27 business. Individuals at each level in the business may have some autonomy to make business decisions. The present organizational structure of the Philippines is decentralization, the autonomy of local government units is effective considering our geographical situations. c. public enterprise versus privatization Public Enterprises according to UN definition an incorporated or large unincorporated enterprises in which public authorities hold a majority of the shares and / or can exercise control over management decision. Privatization Describe a situation where a government decides to transfer control of a government and thus public owned, resource to the private business sector either partially or totally. (www.wisegeek.com) Public enterprise because the government or state serve as the owner as well as the regulator and coordinator thus autonomy and if youre the owner of something you must be accountable of any decision or development of public enterprises. This is achieved through state enterprises by controlling and managing the key and strategic industries, service function and agricultural areas. The enterprises are also used to promote economic growth and to supplement inadequacies of the private sector, as most developing nations each a strong and developed marketplace characteristics of developed economics and as seizing the commanding heights of the economy has been a major slogan of many government around the world (Javas, 1978 p.167) 2. Cutting "Red Tape" One common complaint about bureaucracy is that "red tape" the maze of government rules, regulations, and paperwork makes government so overwhelming to citizens that many people try to avoid any contact. Filling out forms, standing in line, and being put on hold on the telephone all have resulted in many people being discouraged from ever applying for benefits they rightfully deserve. In drawing up the list of red tape-prone institutions, studies conducted last year by the American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines, Management Association of the Philippines, Makati Business Club, and the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The following reports of a decline in the countrys competitiveness ranking, they also reported on achievements in the eight priority areas: human resources, management, finance, transportation cost and flows, infrastructure, energy, the judiciary, and legislation. The achievements, it said, include: training on English proficiency for 2,800 teachers; an integrated LGU program for competitiveness aimed at developing model cities or towns; partnerships between the government and private sector to launch energy conservation measures; implementation of a visa upon arrival scheme to accommodate the entry of business persons and reduced costs for exporters and power charges for companies located inside Philippine Economic Zone Authority-run areas.

28 One reason that it is so hard to reform the bureaucracy is that it has three masters the President, Judiciary and Legislative. Especially during periods of divided government, one branch can be suspicious that the other is trying to gain control. As a result, one branch or the other resists reform. Finding the practical solutions that have bipartisan support is a difficult process, largely because the system of checks and balances is not particularly efficient. Nevertheless, bureaucratic reform is often attempted by the President and Congress. Meanwhile, the red tape remains rather sticky.

Books & References:

Work Wages and Profits (Management in History No 41) . New York: Engineering Magazine co. 1910. Defining Public Administration- lecture 1a - INST 275 - Administrative Processes in Government, www.csub.edu/~rdaniels/INST_275_Lecture1a.ppt (http://webhostinggeeks.com/science/ludwig-von-bertalanffy-be) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Barnard ) http://www.wowessays.com/dbase/aa4/dli62.shtml www.coservationinternational.com www.conservation.org/where/asia-pacific/philippines/...resources.aspx www.chanrobles.com/republicactno9147