Predict The Corrosion Rate

PREDICT
6.0

PROGRAM FOR EVALUATION AND DETERMINATION
OF CORROSION IN STEELS

USERS GUIDE

DOCUMENT VERSION 6.0.2
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2
Honeywell International, Inc.
The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice and does not
represent a commitment by Honeywell International, Inc to serve any specific purpose for any user.
The information contained in this document and the PREDICT 6.0 software is purely advisory in
nature. In no event shall Honeywell or its employees or agents have liability for damages, including
but not limited to, consequential damages arising out of or in connection with any persons use or
inability to use the information in this document. The software described in this manual is furnished
under a license agreement and may be used or copied only in accordance with this agreement. It is
unlawful to copy the accompanying software on any medium except as specifically allowed in the
license agreement. No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, for any purpose without
the expressed written permission of Honeywell International, Inc.
Copyright Honeywell International, Inc., 1995 - 2013. All Rights Reserved.
Windows, Excel and Word are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation
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Table of Contents

1. INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTALLING PREDICT 6.0 ........................................................................................ 5
1.2 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.1 Single User Installation .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.2 Network Installation Procedure ................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 TECHNICAL PRODUCT SUPPORT ............................................................................................................................ 6
2. PREDICT 6.0: DESCRIPTION AND UTILIZATION ................................................................................... 8
2.1 OVERVIEW WHATS NEW IN PREDICT 6.0? ........................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 PREDICT 6.0 Features and Benefits: Detail ............................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Benefits .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.3 Units and Conversions ................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 WORKING WITH PREDICT 6.0 .............................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Important Pointers on Using PREDICT 6.0 ................................................................................................ 19
2.2.2 Cost Analysis in PREDICT 6.0 .................................................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Flow Modeling in PREDICT 6.0 ................................................................................................................. 22
2.2.4 Ionic Strength Calculation in PREDICT 6.0 ............................................................................................... 23
2.2.5 Corrosion Distribution Profile in PREDICT 6.0 ......................................................................................... 24
2.2.6 Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis in PREDICT 6.0 ......................................................................................... 27
2.2.7 Expert Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis in PREDICT 6.0 ............................................................................. 29
2.2.8 Multi-Point Analysis in PREDICT 6.0 ........................................................................................................ 30
2.2.9 Predicted Time to Failure Plot in PREDICT 6.0......................................................................................... 32
2.2.10 Tips and Suggestions in PREDICT 6.0 ................................................................................................... 33
2.2.11 Preferences .......................................................................................................................................... 34
2.2.12 Access to JIP Corrosion Rate Data in PREDICT 6.0 ............................................................................. 35
2.2.13 Working with the PREDICT 6.0 Wizard ................................................................................................. 38
2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS IN CORROSION ASSESSMENT ............................................................................ 39
2.3.1 Hydrogen Sulfide (H
2
S) ............................................................................................................................ 39
2.3.2 Carbon Dioxide ........................................................................................................................................ 40
2.3.3 Chlorides .................................................................................................................................................. 40
2.3.4 Bicarbonates ............................................................................................................................................. 41
2.3.5 Temperature ............................................................................................................................................. 41
2.3.6 Acetate and Ionic Strength ....................................................................................................................... 41
2.3.7 Gas to Oil Ratio ........................................................................................................................................ 42
2.3.8 Water to Gas Ratio ................................................................................................................................... 42
2.3.9 Sulfur/Aeration ......................................................................................................................................... 43
2.3.10 Hydrogen ion Concentration (pH) ....................................................................................................... 43
2.3.11 Wall Shear Stress and Fluid Velocity .................................................................................................. 43
2.3.12 Ratio of Hydrocarbons to Water .......................................................................................................... 44
2.3.13 Corrosion Allowance ........................................................................................................................... 44
2.3.14 Service Life .......................................................................................................................................... 45
2.3.15 Type of Flow ........................................................................................................................................ 45
2.3.16 Method of Inhibition ............................................................................................................................ 45
2.3.17 Inhibition Efficiency ............................................................................................................................ 46
2.3.18 Measured pH ....................................................................................................................................... 46
2.3.19 Custom Wall Shear Stress .................................................................................................................... 47
2.3.20 Gas Flow rate Standard / Actual ...................................................................................................... 47
2.3.21 CO
2
and H
2
S in aqueous phase (ppm) ................................................................................................. 47
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2.3.22 Scale Protection and Water Analyses options ..................................................................................... 47
2.3.23 Dew Point ............................................................................................................................................ 48
2.4 THE PREDICT 6.0 INTERFACE MENUS AND THE TOOLBAR .................................................................................. 49
2.5 GENERAL NOTES ON CONSULTING PREDICT 6.0.................................................................................................. 54
3. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF PREDICT 6.0 MODEL ........................................................................ 55
3.1 SYNOPSIS ............................................................................................................................................................ 55
3.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.3 CO
2
/H
2
S-BASED CORROSION: TECHNICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................ 56
3.4 PREDICT 6.0 MODEL DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................................................... 59
3.4.1 Role of H2S .................................................................................................................................................... 60
3.4.2 Temperature Effects ....................................................................................................................................... 62
3.4.3 Chlorides ....................................................................................................................................................... 63
3.4.4 Bicarbonates .................................................................................................................................................. 63
3.4.5 Wall Shear Stress and Liquid Velocity........................................................................................................... 64
3.4.6 Importance of Water/Gas/Oil ratios .............................................................................................................. 67
3.4.7 Oxygen/Sulfur ................................................................................................................................................ 69
3.4.8 Inhibition/Inhibition Effectiveness ................................................................................................................. 70
3.4.9 Incorporation of H
2
S Corrosion Data from JIP ............................................................................................ 72
3.4.10 Updated pH Prediction Model ..................................................................................................................... 73
3.4.11 Pitting Probability Model ............................................................................................................................ 76
3.4.12 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
4. FLOW MODELING IN PREDICT 6.0 .......................................................................................................... 78
4.1 OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................................................................... 78
4.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................... 78
4.3 VERTICAL FLOW ................................................................................................................................................. 78
4.3.1. Bubbly Flow: ....................................................................................................................................... 79
4.3.2. Slug Flow: ........................................................................................................................................... 80
4.3.3. Churn Flow: ........................................................................................................................................ 80
4.3.4. Annular Flow: ..................................................................................................................................... 81
4.3.5. Shear Stress Calculation .......................................................................................................................... 81
4.4 HORIZONTAL FLOW ............................................................................................................................................ 81
4.4.1. Flow Pattern Prediction ........................................................................................................................... 83
4.4.2. Liquid Hold-up Factor ............................................................................................................................. 84
4.4.3. Pressure Drop Calculation ....................................................................................................................... 85
4.4.4. Shear Stress Calculation .......................................................................................................................... 85
4.5 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR ................................................................................................................................. 86
4.6 INCLINED FLOW ............................................................................................................................................. 86
5. CORROSION DISTRIBUTION PROFILE IN PREDICT 6.0 .................................................................... 88
5.1 OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.2 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 88
5.3 WATER PHASE BEHAVIOR COMPUTATIONAL BACKGROUND .......................................................................... 92
APPENDIX A: BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 94
INDEX ........................................................................................................................................................................ 97
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1. INSTALLATION

1.1 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTALLING PREDICT 6.0
Requirements for using PREDICT 6.0 include:
A Microsoft Windows compatible PC or workstation, with at least 1 GB of RAM.
A display monitor with minimum screen resolution of 1024 X 768 or higher (1024 X 768
recommended)
Microsoft Windows XP / Windows 7 (Windows 7 Recommended)
A CD-ROM drive for software installation or access to internet to download installation
Predict 6.0 utilizes the Microsoft .NET Framework, the installation package will install .NET
Framework if needed
A hard disk with at least 200 MB of available file space

The PREDICT 6.0 system is also available in a network-compatible multi user licensed version.
Installation requirements and additional details are provided separately for multi user network
installations. Please contact Honeywell product support at predict@honeywell.com for additional details.
1.2 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE
The PREDICT 6.0 installation CD includes a setup program that installs relevant files to appropriate
directories and creates icons for end user to access program functionality.
License is enforced through a USB License key which communicates with PREDICT 6.0 installed on user
machine to identify the license. Please do not connect the USB license key prior to software installation.
Insert the Installation Disk and go through the installation steps (you will need administrative rights to
install the software correctly), and consequently connect the USB key (after the installation program
gives a message indicating installation as complete). If you have not received a USB License Key, please
refer to other licensing documentation that may have been provided separately or contact Honeywell
support for further assistance.
1.2.1 Single User Installation
You will need administrative access on the computer to install all the components correctly. Log in as
the administrator or a power user with administrative access before you begin installation.
USING CD-ROM:
Start your computer and insert the PREDICT 6.0 installation CD in the CD/DVD drive. The software is
designed for auto-start; if there is no response, please double-click on the file setup.exe and follow
instructions on individual screens to complete the installation.
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USING DOWNLOAD LINK:
Click on the link provided to you via email, you will be prompted to Save or Open the installation file.
Select Open (or Run from current location) and the installation will begin once the download is
completed. This may take a few minutes depending on your internet connection speed. Follow the
instructions on the individual screens to complete the installation.
PREDICT 6.0 is supplied with a USB license and security key that provides licensing protection and
upgrade capability for your copy. After completing the installation, plug in the USB Key. The new
hardware found wizard comes up in Windows XP/Vista machines; click on Next to install the driver
automatically. Please ensure that the USB key is securely attached to the USB port of the computer when
using PREDICT 6.0. The key will need to be attached to the computer any time you wish to use this
software.
Double click on the PREDICT 6.0 icon on the desktop or the Predict.exe file to begin a consultation.
Attach your USB or hardware key before and during the use of PREDICT.
1.2.2 Network Installation Procedure
Follow the same procedure as described for the single-user installation, but perform the setup on the
server and not on a stand-alone PC or a network client. Separate installation instructions are provided
along with the Network License and a special USB Network Key is required for a multi-user network
license. A single user license will not be correctly installed on a network server. If you would like to
upgrade your single user license to a multi-user network license, please contact your Honeywell sales
contact or send us an email at predict@honeywell.com for details.
1.3 TECHNICAL PRODUCT SUPPORT
Honeywell offers comprehensive technical product support programs to cater to the needs of users in
both the software utilization area as well as in corrosion and material evaluation. Technical support is
classified into two categories:
(a) If you have routine questions about using PREDICT 6.0 or have problems installing or getting the
program to execute properly, please contact support personnel at Honeywell International, Inc. for
immediate assistance:
11201 Greens Crossing Blvd.
Suite 700, Houston, TX, 77067
(281) 444-2282 (Tel.)
(281) 248-0680 (Fax)
predict@honeywell.com

(b) If you have questions about the reasoning in PREDICT 6.0 or the decision-making rules or would
like to have complete access to both the system development and technical expertise at Honeywell,
you may procure annual maintenance and enroll in the PREDICT 6.0 Technical Support Program.
The PREDICT 6.0 Technical Support Program provides several benefits, including:
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- Access to all the rules and decision-making mechanisms in PREDICT 6.0
- Unlimited technical support for a small, one-time fee ensuring expert attention and advise
on all related corrosion evaluation problems
- Free attendance to seminars and users-group workshops conducted by Honeywell
- Members of support program qualify for free upgrades as well as preferred pricing on new
versions of the program. Members also receive information about relevant changes in
technology in the PREDICT 6.0 system.

Please contact Honeywell at predict@honeywell.com if you wish to procure annual maintenance /
technical support. If you have already procured technical support, please contact Honeywell by phone or
email for any questions or problems.
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2. PREDICT 6.0: DESCRIPTION AND UTILIZATION

2.1 OVERVIEW WHATS NEW IN PREDICT 6.0?
PREDICT 6.0 encapsulate state-of-the-art corrosion prediction technologies, and includes critical,
hitherto unavailable data on various aspects of corrosion prediction of carbon steels for production and
transmission applications. PREDICT 6.0, a by-product of years of corrosion research and modeling,
incorporates a completely re-worked and enhanced user interface to provide access to a comprehensive
knowledge base on corrosion decision-making. It is an easy-to-use tool that integrates effects of a
complex set of environmental parameters on carbon steel and low alloy steels to provide corrosion rate
quantification based on extensive JIP data and laboratory evaluation, as well as data from literature and
field experience.
Major aspects of PREDICT 6.0 enhancements include:

- Full compatibility with Windows XP and Windows 7 32-bit & 64-bit operating systems.
- Ability for users to incorporate results (wall shear stress and flow regime) from a third party flow
model.
- New and more accurate pH prediction and ionic strength model that accounts for appropriate
ionic and phase behavior effects of most common acid gas components (H
2
S, CO
2
) as well as
relevant anionic and cationic species.
- Ability for user to choose the balancing ion. User can choose balance type which suites to his
requirements.
- Ability to provide two different water analyses for inlet and outlet conditions (or wellhead and
bottomhole conditions).
- Improvised saturation pH calculations. New results screen helps users understand scaling in
system with details about FeCO
3
and FeS scale formation.
- Enhanced usage and ease of incorporating water production data. Users can now provide liquid
water flow rate in system and get detailed results on predicted dew point temperature and water
condensation at intermediate points in pipeline/tubing.
- Ability to enter gas flow rate at actual conditions (at operating conditions).
- Ability to model liquid only streams without data for gas partial pressures. User can enter CO
2
&
H
2
S aqueous data in ppm and PREDICT 6.0 estimates equilibrium partial pressures from dissolved
gases.
- Ability to evaluate the pitting model saturation calculations for FeCO
3
scaling and saturation pH
calculations for predicting FeCO
3
scaling.
- Graphical view of time to failure based on corrosion rate and corrosion allowance input.
- A more informative cost module with wide coverage of different cost components.
- Enhanced exporting capabilities.
- Improvised analyses capabilities with Multi Point Analysis and Expert Multi Point Sensitivity
Analysis tools that help users identify safe operating envelopes.
- Tips and suggestions to assist users in performing tasks, understanding relationships and
evaluating parametric effects.
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- A completely re-implemented and re-worked software interface, including the ability to automate
analyses for multiphase production systems and flowlines.

2.1.1 PREDICT 6.0 Features and Benefits: Detail
PREDICT 6.0 represents the significant upgrade undertaken by Honeywell for the PREDICT program series.
The upgrade involved a revision of the pH and corrosion prediction model, introduction of new JIP data
into program logic and implementation of a pitting probability module to give end users the ability to
assess potential for pitting in oil / gas production environments.
PREDICT 6.0 incorporates a completely revised corrosion prediction module with improved performance
for prediction of pH, corrosion scaling, persistence determination, high H
2
S concentration effects and
flow modeling analyses, and includes JIP data-based derivation of numerical correlations between wall
shear stress and corrosion rate. PREDICT 6.0 incorporate new data, analyses and field insights to give you
the most accurate pH and corrosion prediction solution ever. PREDICT 6.0 enhancements may be
partitioned into two groups:
1. Technology and model enhancements
2. User interface and automation enhancements

Technology and model enhancements include:
A completely revised and updated pH prediction module that incorporates a rigorous
thermodynamic and phase behavior model to accurately assess pH as a function of ionic
components.
User can specify wall shear stress and flow regime if they have specific data obtained from third
party flow modelers.
Wall wetting predictions have been improved for horizontal and inclined flows when operating
temperature is less than dew point.
Users can now provide separate water analyses data for downhole and wellhead (or inlet and
outlet) conditions.
Enhanced corrosion rate profile plot.
Improvised saturation pH calculations where the end user has a choice to consider scale
protection in system or disregard the scale protection effects.
Ability to accurately determine scaling effects due to formation of iron carbonate and iron sulfide
scales as a function of temperature and pH.
Ease of use for handling water production rate as liquid water makes evaluating corrosion rate
predictions and water phase calculations easier to understand.
Ability to enter gas flow rate at actual conditions.
Process data can be entered for dissolved gases in aqueous phase (in ppm) and converted to
equilibrium partial pressures.
Ability to characterize water phase behavior, accurately predict system dew point, and determine
if the conditions are conducive to condensation for both Gas dominated and Oil dominated
systems.
More accurate calculations for ionic strength including effect of balancing ions on ionic strength.
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Ability to perform corrosion analysis along the length of a pipeline or flow line (consisting of
multiple segments) and view graphically the variation of corrosion rates over length along with
inclination profile and water phase behavior.
Updated cost and economic analysis for integrating economic factors into corrosion analysis and
utilizing annualized cost and present worth analyses to compare various material, inhibition or
monitoring and replacement costs.

User interface and automation enhancements include,
A completely re-designed, Windows 7 based interface for enhanced efficacy and ease of use.
Ability to study and automate corrosion modeling across a whole pipeline consisting of hundreds
of segments.
New, enhanced reporting format, with ability to generate automatic PDF reports.
Module to convert data from field production report into parameters required for corrosion
analysis.
New unit conversion assistant that facilitates conversion of data values amongst different unit
systems.
User level preferences
Tips & suggestions are shown to users based on their expertise level.
Provision to enter water analysis data separately for inlet and outlet conditions.
Provision to enter gas flow rate at standard or actual conditions.
Provision to enter dissolved gas data to convert it to respective partial pressure data.
Ability for user to choose the balancing ion.
Exporting consultations with Cost analysis, MPS and Profile results.
Expert MPS tool to empower analysis capabilities.
New and extremely useful MPA tool for all users.
Ability to export all analysis results into MS Excel.
Enhanced, Windows 7 compatible user-friendly interface and context sensitive help system.
2.1.2 Benefits
Microsoft Windows based tool that can run on most common personal computers, work stations
and networks, and exploits benefits of .Net based software performance
A completely re-designed, easy to use graphical interface makes system utilization for complex tasks
simple. (See Figure 2.2)
A comprehensive tool to effectively characterize and predict the complex issues of CO
2
and H
2
S
corrosion in production / transmission environments.
Extensive on-line help system to assist the user in understanding significance of different corrosion
evaluation parameters and their effects
Easily perform analysis of complete pipelines with corrosion prediction, pH prediction and flow
modeling for horizontal or inclined pipe sections.
Designed to effect significant reduction in time spent assessing corrosion
Access to extensive consulting and development support from Honeywell in using/customizing
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2.1.3 Units and Conversions
PREDICT 6.0 system allows utilization of both English and SI units. While the system performs an
automatic conversion from English to SI and vice versa, typical conversion factors are listed in the table
below for commonly utilized system parameters.

Parameter in
PREDICT 6.0
Unit in SI system
(to convert from)
Conversion To
English
Multiply by
Pressure Bar psia 14.5
Temperature C F 1.8 and add 32
Velocity m/s ft/s 3.28
Length/thickness Mm in 0.039
Gas to Oil Ratio m3/m3 scf/bbl 5.61
Water to Gas Ratio m3/M.m3 bbl/Mscf 0.178
Yield Strength Mpa ksi .145
Corrosion Rate Mmpy mpy 39.37
Note: M.m3 stands for millions of cubic meter and Mscf denotes Millions of standard cubic feet.
Table 2.0: SI Units and Conversion Factors for Corresponding English Units
PREDICT 6.0 also provides a useful tool to convert units of common engineering values such as
flow rates, temperature and pressure into English and Metric units used in the industry. This tool,
Unit Conversion Assistant, is launched from the Tools menu and can be used to perform these
unit conversions. A screen shot of this tool is shown below in Figure 2.1

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Figure 2.1 UNIT CONVERSION ASSISTANT IN PREDICT 6.0
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2.2 WORKING WITH PREDICT 6.0
You can launch PREDICT 6.0 in one of two ways:
1. By double clicking on the PREDICT 6.0 icon on the Desktop
2. By clicking on Start > Programs > Honeywell Software > Predict 6.0

Both options will take you to a program screen similar to one shown in Figure 2.2. From this interface,
you can choose to create a new consultation, launch a saved consultation file, and launch a wizard that
will guide you to create a new consultation or access relevant online resources.

FIGURE 2.2 PREDICT 6.0 START UP SCREEN
Clicking on New Consultation will launch a new consultation with default values filled in. The screen
shot shown in Figure 2.3 depicts a new consultation when launched. The left pane shows consultations
that are currently open and title of the program shows the active consultation.
The main part of the screen contains five tabs for Process Data, Flow Data, Project Data, Predicted
Time to Failure and Tips & Suggestions.
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Process Data: Most of the data can be provided on the Process Data tab and includes data such as
operating conditions, production rates, gas and water analysis etc.
Flow Data: Additional data pertaining to flow modeling, density and viscosity for gas, oil and water
phases, custom roughness or custom GOR, WGR etc. may be specified through the Flow Data tab.
Project Data: The Project Data tab may be used to save project related data such as gas/oil field and well
name, name and contact information of the company or any additional comments and notes. This Project
Data will typically be included on system generated consultation reports.
Predicted Time to Failure: This tab provides users a visual indication of current corrosion rate and
predicted time to failure based on current rate. This plot is helpful tool to easily understand effect of
corrosion rate on thickness of steel for given corrosion allowance.
Tips & Suggestions: User can select from preferences if he wants to receive warnings and tips or just
critical errors. Depending on the selection, user will see tips and warnings related to bicarbonates,
chlorides, H
2
S and CO
2
partial pressures, flow regimes, etc. This tab will be refreshed every time the
results are calculated.
The lower part of the interface (Figure 2.3) shows the calculated results for predicted corrosion rate, pH,
pitting probability, water phase behavior, saturation pH details, and total water in system and relevant
details. Detailed results for flow modeling such as flow regime, wall shear stress and liquid holdup are
presented on the Flow Results tab.

FIGURE 2.3 PREDICT 6.0 DEFAULT CONSULTATION
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Based on the data specified for the different parameters, PREDICT 6.0 will instantaneously display the
following results:
System Bulk pH
Saturation pH and scaling information
Predicted corrosion rate displayed as corrosion index (in mpy or mmpy)
System Dew Point Temperature (for both gas dominated and oil dominated systems)
A Pitting Probability Indicator that indicates the likelihood of pitting corrosion
Yes/No indicator informing the user whether the predicted corrosion rate is within the specified
allowance for the particular system
Total water in the particular system
Predicted phase behavior of water in the system in the form of a pie chart indicating the mole
fraction of water in the vapor and liquid phase

The re-designed interface in PREDICT 6.0 makes consultations and generation of appropriate results an
easy task. The user may specify data for any of the parameters and watch the effect of that parameter on
the corrosion rate in the system. The system starts with a set of default values and calculates a corrosion
rate based on any changes to the displayed values on an as-you-see-it basis.
While PREDICT 6.0 uses a complex computational model for determining the corrosion rate, the ease-of-
use in applying the system to obtain meaningful answers is transparent. However, the answers
displayed produce results consistent with the data input by the user. Hence, it is critical that users
ensure that they provide accurate input data to obtain maximum benefit from the depth of reasoning and
functionality built into PREDICT 6.0.
The steps delineated below describe a typical PREDICT 6.0 Consultation:
1. Specification of Process Data: To begin a PREDICT 6.0 consultation, start with specifying the flow
configuration (Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined), production rates for gas, water and hydrocarbon
phases and the pipe or tube ID. PREDICT 6.0 is a modular and object oriented, and allows a change of
any parameter at any point. It is advisable however to start with the operating conditions and
production rates. The Gas to Oil Ratio (GOR) and the Water to Gas Ratio (WGR) are automatically
computed and displayed.
Predict 6.0 incorporates a change in how users provide water data. In earlier versions (4.0 and 5.0)
users would have to provide the total water in the system (liquid + vapor phase). This was identified
as one of areas of improvement by many of our users who had access to only the liquid phase water
flow rate. Changes have been made to Predict 6.0 where users can provide data either in liquid phase
water flow rate or provide a dew point temperature. Either of this inputs provide enough information
(along with operating conditions and composition) to Predict 6.0 to compute the total system water
which is used in performed water phase behavior calculations in profiles and sensitivity analyses. For
under-saturated gas, users can select the dew point check box and provide the dew point temperature
of the stream. For saturated gas streams, wet gas streams or mixed phase streams users can provide
the liquid water flow rate.
Users can provide gas flow rate either at standard or actual conditions.
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2. Specification of Gas Composition: The primary corrosive species in oil and gas production systems
are CO
2
and H
2
S gases that dissolve in liquid water to produce an acidic system pH and form a
corrosive conductive fluid. Data for CO
2
and H
2
S can be provided for either vapor phase (partial
pressures or mol% vapor phase data) or liquid phase (ppm aqueous). The aqueous data is used to
calculate an equilibrium partial pressure for CO
2
and H
2
S. The partial pressure data is used for the
inlet conditions and the vapor phase mole% values are used to compute the partial pressures at the
outlet conditions. The results are automatically updated and refreshed when any change is made to
CO
2
or H
2
S data.
If user wants the system to consider saturation pH effect while performing calculations then he must
check Scale Protection Applied checkbox. Acid gas partial pressures, temperature, pressure, pH
and ionic strength affect the scaling tendency of iron carbonate and iron sulfide. The results shown
indicate either an FeS Scale, FeCO
3
Scale or. No Scale.
3. Specification of Inhibition Details: The effect of inhibition can also be evaluated by providing the
details about the inhibition type and efficiency. Effect of glycol injection can also be evaluated by
checking the glycol injection box and providing the details. In some cases, the system might provide
no protection due to inhibition because of high velocities or chloride concentrations. PREDICT 6.0
has in-built rules to assess the appropriate method of inhibition for a given set of conditions and can
also determine whether a specified method of inhibition is applicable or not to the specified
conditions.
4. Specification of Application Details: Corrosion Allowance and Service Life are used by PREDICT
6.0 to analyze if the corrosion allowance is sufficient to achieve the desired life based on the
predicted corrosion rate. They are also used to plot graph viz. Predicted Time to Failure on main
screen.
5. Operating Conditions at inlet and outlet: Often, corrosion analyses are required to be performed
across a tubing string or a multiphase pipeline / flow line. In such situations, where there are a
number of points / segments to assess for corrosivity prediction, it can be a tedious task to analyze
each data point. To overcome this difficulty and save substantial time / cost associated with
corrosion prediction analysis, PREDICT 6.0 has a built in corrosion distribution profile generation
module.

Temperature and Pressure at inlet and outlet conditions are used to generate corrosion profiles along
the length of the pipe or tubing. Temperature has a strong effect on system pH and corrosion rates.
Corrosion rates significantly increase with increasing temperature. The inlet temperature and
pressure are used to predict the corrosion rate that is displayed on the screen. This is a single point
corrosion rate predicted based on the operating conditions and process data at inlet conditions. The
profile tool (Analysis Menu) can be used to generate a corrosion profile along the length of pipe or
tool. This profile tool performs the following tasks:
- Generation of water phase and constituent concentration data at each point along the pipeline
- Prediction of corrosion rate for each point
- Graphical representation of corrosion distribution profile
- Graphical representation of liquid water content in relation to pipe or tubing length
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The systems enhanced calculation rules for predicting the water content of natural gas and dew point
calculations enable accurate predictions for water condensation, a critical aspect for accurate
quantification of corrosion rates. A glance at the corrosion profile provides information about
problem spots in the pipe system where there is a high probability of water condensation and
potentially damaging corrosion rates.
6. Water Analysis: Water analysis in the form of ionic concentrations may be provided for accurate pH
and corrosion prediction. Data for Chlorides, Acetates, and Bicarbonates can be provided on the
main screen. PREDICT 6.0 handles ionic data for 15 different ionic species and computes the ionic
strength for accurate pH prediction.
Clicking on the ionic strength button launches a screen that can be used to provide the ionic
concentrations from the water analysis. Presence of elemental sulfur can be evaluated by checking
the box for presence of sulfur. PREDICT 6.0 have enhanced rules to assess corrosion damage due to
oxygen in water (and acidic systems). Users can provide water analyses data for both inlet and outlet
(or downhole and wellhead) conditions a linear interpolation is performed between each species at
these two conditions to evaluate chemistry at intermediate locations.
PREDICT 6.0 also provides access to compelling test data that provides insights into oxygen-related
localized corrosion. A measured pH value can be used instead of the predicted pH value by clicking
the appropriate box. The ionic strength can also be specified instead of using the computed ionic
strength.
A screen shot of a typical well tubing case is shown in Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.8 shows the corrosion
profile along the length of the tubing.
7. Effect of Flow: The effect of flow rate, shear stress and flow regime on predicted corrosion rates can
also be evaluated using PREDICT 6.0. Flow parameters are very critical in both determining and
controlling corrosion effects. Erosion corrosion as well as the protection (or the lack thereof) from
corrosion films is very much a function of wall shear stress, dimensionless parameters correlating
inertial and viscous forces, fluid velocity and other hydrodynamic parameters. Custom data for
performing a flow analyses may be provided on the Flow Data tab. Density and viscosity data for the
water, gas and hydrocarbon may also be specified. Custom roughness options may be selected. Any
changes on the Flow Data tab are automatically updated on the main screen. For more information,
please see the section on flow modeling.
8. Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis: While performing corrosivity analysis, it is very helpful to
understand the effect of a particular parameter or a group of parameters. Using Multipoint
Sensitivity, users can study the effect of a number of parameters on the predicted corrosion rates or
computed pH. For instance, while analyzing a particular well, it makes sense to check the effect of a
change in production rates and how such a change would affect the corrosion rates. Or for instance,
in case of a flow line, one may need to see the effect of pipe diameter on the flow characteristics and
the predicted corrosion rate. Such sensitivity analyses can be easily performed using the Multipoint
Sensitivity Tool from the Analysis menu. Additional details are available in Section 2.2.6.
A screen shot of the Multipoint Sensitivity tool is shown in Figure 2.9
9. Expert Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis: Using MPS you can understand the effect of a particular
parameter on system. Using Expert Multipoint Sensitivity, users can study the effect of a number of
parameters on the predicted corrosion rates or computed pH. You can modify and provide ranges for
certain parameters like bicarbonates, chlorides, CO
2
partial pressure, H
2
S partial pressure and
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temperature, and check the effect on corrosion rates and other results. Such sensitivity analyses can
be easily performed using the Expert MPS Tool from the Analysis menu.
Additional details are available in Section 2.2.7.
10. Multi-Point Analysis: PREDICT 6.0 supports analyses of multiple concurrent data points across
disparate consultations and generates results from input data in MS Excel instantly. This Multi-Point
Analysis (MPA) tool may be accessed by clicking on the MPA button from the Analysis menu.
Additional details are available in Section 2.2.8.

FIGURE 2.4 PREDICT 6.0 TYPICAL CONSULTATION
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2.2.1 Important Pointers on Using PREDICT 6.0
- As you go through a PREDICT 6.0 consultation, you will observe that the effect of a change in the
value of a parameter on the corrosion calculations is seen only when you leave that particular
data slot. For example, if the corrosion rate index for a specific set of input values that includes an
H
2
S value of 10 psia is predicted as 15 mpy, then, if you wish to determine the corrosion index for an
H
2
S value of 2 psia, simply change the value in the data slot and click on any other data slot or use
the TAB Key. PREDICT 6.0 will calculate a corrosion index with the current set of values each time
you leave a data slot and click on another.
- The type of flow specified (horizontal or vertical) will determine the type of inhibition choices
available to you. Obviously, it is not very meaningful to talk of pigging in vertical flow conditions
like tubing. Further, you have to specify an appropriate method of inhibition before specifying an
inhibition efficiency range. If you choose no inhibition or just pigging where continuous inhibition
is required and indicate a high efficiency, the system will ignore your efficiency specification.

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2.2.2 Cost Analysis in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 incorporates a rigorous, present worth cost analysis for a given material through the Cost
icon that is available under the Tools menu. Clicking on the Cost icon displays a screen as shown in
Figure 2.5. The cost analysis module allows you to compare the costs of using different materials for a
given project using a large number of relevant factors that are typically used in performing cost analyses:
- Initial Investment costs (delivery, design, construction) data such as poundage and supply.
- Operating costs.
- Maintenance Costs.
- Taxes, Depreciation and salvage value.
- Recurring annual costs.

FIGURE 2.5 - COST ANALYSIS IN PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 takes into account different elements of project life costing to determine an annualized (per
year cost) using a specific material as well as the total cost over the life time of the project. The user has
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to specify all the input data in the data slots and click on the Calculate button. The program will display
the annualized cost and present worth after taxes based on the life of the project. You can add, edit or
delete a cost case by clicking on the buttons at the top. These cost cases are stored directly into a
database and can be accessed from each PREDICT 6.0 Consultation. This ensures that all cost cases are at
your fingertips while using PREDICT 6.0.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a method that can be applied to any capital investment decision in
which higher initial costs are traded for reduced future operating costs. The ultimate purpose of life cycle
costing and of these guidelines is to provide information for decision-making that more accurately
portrays the cost of a project alternative than first cost alone.
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2.2.3 Flow Modeling in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 facilitates flow regime analysis and flow modeling as well as determination of wall shear
stress and pressure drop using data about the flowing medium. Clicking on the Flow Data tab on the
main screen shows the Flow Modeling screen shown in Figure 2.6. This flow module allows the user to
predict and visualize the flow regime, calculate friction factor, assess pressure drop and the wall shear
stress, based on the flow regime by specifying some commonly available data such as:
- Flow orientation, Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined
- Pipe Diameter and Roughness
- Water production rate, density and viscosity
- Gas production rate, density and viscosity
- Oil production rate, density and viscosity

The user has to specify all the input data and the results are automatically updated on the Flow Results
tab. The calculated wall shear stress, superficial velocities, flow regimes and other details are displayed.
Users can also view an animated visualization of the flow regime by clicking on the View button next to
the calculated flow regime. Additional data in the form of custom roughness, surface tension,
hydrocarbon persistency, and specific GOR and WGR can also be specified on this screen. Any changes
to the parameters on this screen are applied to the consultation as well. The effect of pipe ID, or
gas/oil/water flow rates or other parameters can also be seen on the Results Tab. A screen shot of the
flow module is shown below in Figure 2.6. For more details on Flow Modeling please refer to Chapter 4.

FIGURE 2.6

- FLOW MODELING IN PREDICT 6.0
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2.2.4 Ionic Strength Calculation in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 incorporate an updated, accurate Ionic Strength module to provide the foundation for
accurate pH and corrosion rate predictions. Any change in the concentration of bicarbonates, acetates or
chlorides on the main interface automatically updates the ionic strength computed for the solution. In
addition to these ions, PREDICT 6.0 evaluate a total of 16 different cationic and anionic species for their
effect of bulk system pH. These can be specified by clicking on the summation icon next to the Ionic
Strength field. This launches a screen as shown below in Figure 2.7 where water analysis data may be
provided.
In PREDICT 6.0, users can now see the amount of cation / anion required to electrochemically balance the
system. An option is provided for the user to select the type of balancing ion:
Dominant ion: Ion with largest amount among all of others of same group is selected as balancing
ion by system. This applies to both cations and anions.
Na/Cl: This is the default option and has been used in earlier versions of Predict. Sodium (Na
+
) and
Chloride (Cl
-
) are the default balancing cation and anion selected.
User Choice: User can specify their values for anions/cations using this option. Note that selecting
certain ions (bicarbonates, carbonates or acetates) can create artificially buffered systems that may be
unrealistic and lead to low corrosion rate predictions which can be very non-conservative. Users
must be careful in selecting the balancing ion correctly.

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Figure 2.7 Ionic Strength Calculation in Predict 6.0
2.2.5 Corrosion Distribution Profile in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 provide a useful utility to perform an analysis for corrosion index calculation over the
length of a pipe or tubing in horizontal or vertical configuration. It is available from the toolbar by
clicking on the Profile icon under the Analyses menu.
This provides a tool for calculating the Corrosion Rates, not only at a single point in the piping system,
but over user specified number of points over the entire length of the pipe or production tubing. The
user specifies all the required information in the form of pressure and temperature conditions at pipe
inlet and outlet, the total pipe length and the number of equidistant points for corrosion analysis.
It must be noted that the operating conditions, gas composition and water analysis data need to be
specified on the Process Data Tab. For horizontal or inclined pipe analysis, the gas composition at the
inlet of the pipe is provided along with temperature and pressure at the inlet and the outlet. For tubing in
vertical flow, gas composition and water analysis at the wellhead is provided along with down hole and
wellhead pressure and temperature. Once this data is provided a corrosion distribution profile can be
generated and is shown below in Figure 2.8. Additional details for generating corrosion profiles are
available in Chapter 5.
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FIGURE 2.8 - CORROSION DISTRIBUTION PROFILE IN PREDICT 6.0
The units for corrosion rates and other input parameters are determined by the users choice of units on
the main form, and may be changed at any time during the program. To learn more about compatibility
and conversion of units, please refer to section 2.1.3.
The resulting plot of corrosion index vs. the pipe length generated is displayed along with the phase
distribution of water over the length, as seen in Figure 2.8. Profile facilitates display of a default
corrosion rate Vs segment length and has tabs for showing pH and water fraction vs segment length. For
more details, please refer to Chapter 5 of this users guide.
The inlet conditions, as specified on the main form, are used to estimate the corrosion index at one
specific point. The operating conditions provided for the outlet help in generating a temperature and
pressure profile over the pipe length. These profiles are estimated to be linear. With the actual values for
absolute pressure (hence calculated partial pressures), temperature, and velocity (inlet velocity is
considered as average velocity over the range); Corrosion Rates are calculated at various points the
number of which is determined by the user. These rates are then plotted against the points these were
calculated at.
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Also the system uses the computational methods of Bukacek and Maddox to compute the water content
of sour gas and along with Riedels correlation for vapor pressure of water to compute the phase
distribution of water at any given point in the piping system.
For piping extending over very long distances, or for nonlinear geometry, or very high velocity
differences, it is recommended that users run a distribution for 2 or 3 separate lengths, by providing
corresponding input parameters on the lower part of corrosion profile screen. For more details on
generating a multi-segment corrosion profile please refer to Chapter 5 of this users guide.
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2.2.6 Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 provide an advanced utility to perform Sensitivity Analysis for corrosion rate, Dew Point
and pH calculation with respect to a variety of other parameters. It is available from the toolbar by
clicking on the MPS icon under the Analysis menu.
This option provides a tool for calculating the effect of a variety of different parameters such as H
2
S and
CO
2
mol% or Acetates or Production rates etc. on the predicted corrosion rate and pH. Users can select
the upper and lower bound for the sensitivity analyses and select the number of calculations to be
performed within the limits.
The following screen shown in Figure 2.9 shows the effect of a change in H
2
S mole% on the predicted
corrosion rate. Additional effects of various parameters can be evaluated by choosing the X-axis
parameter from the dropdown. The effect of that parameter on the corrosion rate, pH, and system dew
point is shown in the form of three small plots. Clicking on any of these plots shows the enlarged plot in
the center of the screen.
Parameters that can be selected to be plotted on the X Axis are:
- Gas Production Rate
- Water Production Rate
- Oil Production Rate
- Temperature
- Pressure
- H
2
S mol%
- CO
2
mol%
- Pipe or Tube ID
- Acetates
- Bicarbonates
- Chlorides
- Oxygen

Parameters that can be selected to be plotted on the Y Axis are:
- Calculated pH
- Calculated Corrosion Rate
- Calculated Dew Point

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FIGURE 2.9 MULTIPOINT SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS SELECTION OF PARAMETERS
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2.2.7 Expert Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 now incorporates a very helpful analysis tool called Expert Multi-Point Sensitivity Analysis
(Expert MPS). This tool helps in visualizing effects of critical parameters such as bicarbonates,
chlorides, CO
2
partial pressure, H
2
S partial pressure and temperature on corrosion rate, dew point and
system pH.
Expert MPS is very user friendly as it automatically generates sensitivity analyses plots for most
common variations in these critical parameters and provides users a quick shot look at reasonable worst
cases.
Bicarbonates: Bicarbonates can be varied from 50 % from current value.
Chlorides: Chlorides can be varied from 20 % from current value.
H
2
S partial pressure: H
2
S partial pressure can be varied from 20 % from current value.
CO
2
partial pressure: CO
2
partial pressure can be varied from 20 % from current value.
Temperature: Temperature can be varied from 20 % from current value.

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2.2.8 Multi-Point Analysis in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 supports analyses of multiple concurrent data points across disparate piping systems and
generates results from input data in MS Excel instantly. This Multi-Point Analysis (MPA) tool may be
accessed by clicking on the MPA button on Analysis menu.
To perform a Multi-Point Analysis follow these steps:
1. Click on 'MPA' button under the "Analysis" tab.
2. Make sure you have all data ready in an Excel file generating using the MPA Template. The
MPA Template provides a format which PREDICT 6.0 accepts to import and process input data
this template is included the program installation (<Program Installation Folder>/Template).
Depending on units preferred, copy the template file to your preferred location. Enter all
environmental and flow related inputs.
3. To perform analysis, hit Import button on the tool-bar. See the screenshot below.

4. Once the file is imported successfully, the analysis is performed and results along with the input
data are exported to an Excel file.
5. There is Save button on the toolbar. This button converts each selected row of the grid to valid
Predict 6.0 consultation file and saves it to the path which is specified in Preferences section. On
Grid look for first column which titles Save Consultation. Select records which you want to
save as consultations. Then click on Save button on toolbar. These records will be processed
and saved as consultations at pre-specified location. At the end of this process you will see
message as following:

6. Once imported, you can modify the values again. To see results again, click on Analyze. In this
way, MPA helps you in analyzing multiple cases at a single time.
7. The results can be seen in MS Excel and on Results tab as well. Results are available in Grid and
Chart formats.
The system performs all requisite computations and provides a dynamic update of MPA status, as MPA
is being performed. Once the analysis is completed, the MS Excel file will be displayed to the user. A
sample plot has been created in the template for carbon steel; such plots may easily be created for other
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alloys as needed. Users may also share the Excel Template with other users to request input data or
incorporate the template in their day-to-day reporting so that cases can be run directly using these data in
Excel.

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2.2.9 Predicted Time to Failure Plot in PREDICT 6.0
This plot is a visual representation of maximum allowable corrosion rate at given service life and the
predicted corrosion rate at given process conditions. Output of this plot is the Predicted Time to Failure
(in years) for given set of environmental and flow conditions.
T
wall
.: Total wall thickness
T
min
: Minimum wall thickness needed for safe operation
Every time when input data is changed the predicted corrosion rates are recalculated and this plot is
updated. If predicted time is less than service life then Predicted Time To Failure line is shown in red.
If predicted time is more than service life then Predicted Time To Failure line is shown in green.

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2.2.10 Tips and Suggestions in PREDICT 6.0
In order to be more informative and provide users with details and insight about corrosion assessment
and prediction, Predict 6.0 now provides users with tips and suggestions while working on consultations.
If the entered input is not valid to calculate correct results, PREDICT 6.0 logs proper message on this
view. User can view these tips in the form of tooltips at respective input fields also. Tips & Suggestions
area can be cleared with button Clear Tips and Suggestions available on toolbar. These tips are non-
intrusive and can be customized based on the level of detail needed on the Preferences screen.

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2.2.11 Preferences
PREDICT 6.0 now saves and keeps tracks of user preferences through the Preferences module. This helps
customization the look and feel and provides an more user friendly experience.
User can:
Customize default path for saving consultations.
Customize default path for exporting all documents from PREDICT 6.0.
Customize options whether to export cost analysis, MPS, Profile data.
Set number of recent consultations to be shown on interface.
Set user level to customize the detail level of tips and suggestions that are shown.
Set the default view to either Chart or Grid for MPA
Customize the appearance and theme of the application

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2.2.12 Access to JIP Corrosion Rate Data in PREDICT 6.0
PREDICT 6.0 provides users on-the-fly access to critical JIP data encompassing over 18 flow loop tests
conducted over a period of three years for different materials and environments. These tests were
conducted on OCTG and Pipeline materials to assess corrosivity of CO
2
/H
2
S multiphase systems and to
understand and characterize corrosion in terms of H
2
S corrosion and scaling as well as CO
2
and H
2
S
equilibriums as a function of environmental and flow parameters. The data presented through this tool
indicates significant effect of H
2
S/CO
2
ratio, chloride content and temperature on corrosion behavior.
The data are presented as Corrosion Rate as a function of Shear Stress graphs and may be filtered based
on the range of data requested by the user.
These data may be accessed by clicking on the JIP data icon under the tools menu. From this screen
shown below in Figure 2.10, users may select an individual item and choose to view it as either an Excel
file or an html file.
FIGURE 2.10 CORROSION RATE DATA FROM JOINT INDUSTRY PROGRAM
As shown in the above screen, users can also choose the CO
2
/H
2
S Ratio, Chloride concentration and the
Temperature from the drop down options to filter the data.
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Laboratory tests were conducted during the JIP using both Pipeline and OCTG materials. The materials
used were:
- C-Mn L-80 (Q&T), C4130 (Q&T), C4130 (N), C-Mn N-80 (N) are the OCTG materials used as
laminar flow through electrodes (FTEs).
- API 5L-X65, A106 Gr B, API 5L-X60 are the Pipeline materials used as laminar flow though
electrodes (FTEs).

A summary of the test conditions for all the 18 flow loops is presented in Table 2.13
Steel Identifier Heat Treatment Carbon
percent
Cr
percent
Steel
Grade/Supplier
Carbon Steel 1 Hot Rolled >= 0.1 0.0 ASM A106-Gr. B
Carbon Steel 2 Normalized/TMCP <= 0.1 0.0 API 5L x60
Low alloy steel 1 Hot Rolled >= 0.1 0.5 Siderca 0.5 Cr
X65
FIGURE 2.11 PIPELINE STEELS USED FOR TESTING IN JOINT INDUSTRY PROGRAM

Steel Identifier Heat Treatment Carbon
percent
Cr
percent
Steel
Grade/Supplie
r
C-Mn steel 1 Quenched &
Tempered
0.2 - 0.3 0.0 C-Mn L-80
C-Mn steel 2 Normalized 0.35 - 0.45 0.0 C-Mn N-80
Low Alloy steel 1
Gr. 4130
Quenched &
Tempered
0.2 - 0.3 0.5 - 1.0 L-80 (4130)
Low Alloy steel 2
Gr. 4130
Normalized 0.35 - 0.45 0.5 - 1.0 Siderca SD-70
TABLE 2.12 - OCTG STEELS USED FOR TESTING IN JOINT INDUSTRY PROGRAM
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Test # H
2
S , psia CO
2
, psia CO
2
/ H
2
S Cl
-
Content, ppm Temperature, F pH
Pipeline Material
1 0.4 20 50 2000 80 3.9
2 4 20 5 2000 80 3.9
3 0.4 20 50 150000 80 3.9
OCTG Material
4 0.4 20 50 150000 80 3.9
5 4 20 5 2000 80 3.9
6 0.534 20 50 150000 80 3.9
7 35.0 200 50 2000 250 3.8
8 5.34 200 500 2000 250 3.9
9 35.0 200 5 150000 250 3.9
10 4 200 50 150000 250 3.9
11 0.4 200 500 150000 250 3.9
12

5.45 1500 250 50000 250 3.9
Pipeline Material
13 0.4 200 500 2000 200 3.9
14 0.4 20 50 150000 200 3.9
15 4 200 50 150000 200 3.9
16 4 200 50 2000 80 3.9
17 4 20 5 150000 80 3.9
18 0.4 200 500 5000 80 3.9
TABLE 2.13 - SUMMARY OF TEST CONDITIONS FOR THE JOINT INDUSTRY PROGRAM
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2.2.13 Working with the PREDICT 6.0 Wizard
PREDICT 6.0 incorporate a consultation wizard designed to assist the end user with setting up a
consultation. The user is presented with a series of questions pertaining to corrosion assessment of
oil/gas production and transmission systems. Based on the answers selected by the user and the data
provided, the wizard automatically sets up a consultation with the correct parameters. The wizard may
be launched from the main start-up page. A screenshot of the wizard is shown below in Figure 2.14.
The wizard essentially steps through the various steps of a consultation prompting user input for
operating conditions, flow rates, composition etc. at appropriate times during the process. Based on the
options selected by the user and the data provided, the Wizard will make appropriate decisions as to the
information required to complete the consultation.
Users may use the Next and Back button to navigate between the various steps and change their
responses at any time. Additional details about these questions and how the answers affect the
consultation are provided on the lower part of the screen.
At the end of this process, clicking on the Finish button will create a new consultation file with the data
that was provided to the wizard.

FIGURE 2.14 WORKING WITH THE PREDICT 6.0 WIZARD
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2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS IN CORROSION ASSESSMENT
As the user specifies environmental data, the program calculates and displays a corrosion rate index, a
direct measure of corrosion rate in the system based on a large number of parameters listed below:
- Acid gasesH
2
S and CO
2

- HCO
3
-

- Chlorides
- Temperatures
- Acetate and Ionic Strength
- Gas to Oil Ratio
- Water to Gas Ratio/Water cut
- Presence of elemental sulfur/aeration
- Fluid velocity
- Type of flow
- Inhibition and inhibition efficiency
- Dew point
PREDICT 6.0 determine the system pH based on acid gas partial pressures, buffering and temperature.
The system also includes the effect of saturation
53, 54
of FeCO
3
and FeS scale into the corrosion index
calculation. The pH is dynamically displayed on the screen as the user specifies environmental data.
2.3.1 Hydrogen Sulfide (H
2
S)
Hydrogen Sulfide (H
2
S), like carbon dioxide is an acid gas, which dissolves in aqueous environments to
contribute to a reduction in the system pH. The pH varies with the amount of H
2
S dissolved. Typically,
the pH decreases with increasing amounts of H
2
S in solution. Lower the pH, the more aggressive the
environment from the standpoint of corrosion. Additionally, the severity of hydrogen charging also
increases with the amount of H
2
S. The amount of H
2
S in solution increases with:
1. Increasing total system pressure with the same H
2
S mole% causing an increase in H
2
S partial
pressure.
2. Increasing partial pressure at constant total system pressure if additional souring of the gas occurs
(due to increasing mole % of H
2
S).

Corrosion in steels generally increases with H
2
S partial pressure. H
2
S is an acid gas and the term acid
refers to its ability to depress pH when it is dissolved in an aqueous solution. This increased aggressivity
results from the decrease in the pH of the aqueous phase as the partial pressure of H
2
S increases. An
added effect of H
2
S in CO
2
/brine systems is a reduction in corrosion rate of steel when compared to
corrosion rates under conditions without H
2
S. This reduction in corrosion rate is primarily a low
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temperature effect and dominates system corrosivity at temperatures less than 175 F (80 C) due to the
formation of a meta-stable iron sulfide film. At higher temperatures the combination of H
2
S and
chlorides will usually produce higher corrosion rates than just CO
2
/brine systems, since stable iron
carbonate films usually do not occur as readily in systems with H
2
S as they do in systems without H
2
S.
With additional data from Joint Industry Program on Prediction and Assessment of Corrosivity of
Multiphase CO2/H2S systems and updated corrosion prediction / pH models, PREDICT 6.0 can accurately
predict corrosion rates for H
2
S partial pressure up to 500 psia.
2.3.2 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
), as in the case of hydrogen sulfide, is an acid gas that dissolves in aqueous
environments to produce a reduction in the system pH. Therefore the pH varies with the amount of CO
2

dissolved. Typically, the pH decreases with increasing amounts of CO
2
in solution. Lower the pH, the
more aggressive the environment from the standpoint of corrosion. The amount of CO
2
in solution
increases with increasing mole fraction of CO
2
in the gas phase and with increasing partial pressure of
CO
2
.
Corrosion severity generally increases with CO
2
partial pressure. CO
2
is an acid gas and the term acid
refers to its ability to depress pH when it is dissolved in an aqueous solution. This increased aggressivity
results from the decrease in the pH of the aqueous phase as the partial pressure of CO
2
increases.
CO
2
partial pressures up to 1000 psia can now be analyzed using PREDICT 6.0 with the help of the
updated pH and corrosion prediction model.
2.3.3 Chlorides
Produced water from hydrocarbon formations typically contains varying amounts of chloride salts
dissolved in solution. The chloride concentration in this water can vary considerably, from zero to few
ppms for condensed water to saturation in water having high total dissolved salts/solids (TDS). In many
cases, the water in the system will be a combination of produced and condensed water resulting in
solutions with 1000 to 100,000 ppm chloride. Chlorides are often specified in ppm NaCl. It should be
noted that ppm chlorides can be obtained as 0.63 x ppm NaCl.
Under normal circumstances, the chloride content of the aqueous phase does not directly affect the
hydrogen charging conditions in steel. However, it can have an effect on the effectiveness of chemical
corrosion inhibitors. Therefore, in many cases, more careful selection of inhibitors and inhibition
procedures must be performed where high levels of chlorides (>30,000 ppm) are present.
In naturally deaerated production environments, corrosion rate increases with increasing chloride ion
content over the range 10,000 ppm to 100,000 ppm. The magnitude of this effect increases with
increasing temperature over 150 F (60 C). This combined effect results from the fact that chloride ions in
solution can be incorporated into and penetrate surface corrosion films which can lead to destabilization
of the corrosion film and increased corrosion. This phenomenon of penetration of surface corrosion films
increases in occurrence with both chloride ion concentration and temperature.
Corrosion rates of steel in oil and gas production generally increase with increasing chloride content.
The chloride species in the aqueous phase can work to penetrate and destabilize protective surface films.
Typically, brines with low chloride content (i.e. <10,000 ppm) less aggressive than those having higher
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chloride contents provided that they are compared at the same pH. In some cases, the presence of salts
can reduce the solubility of acid gases or buffer the water therefore affecting the solution pH.
2.3.4 Bicarbonates
The bicarbonate ion is a buffering agent used in aqueous solutions to increase the pH of the solution. Its
presence is typically measured in ppm or mili-equivalents/liter (meq/l). One meq/l represents 0.061
grams of HCO
3
-
in one liter of solution or 61 ppm. The increase in pH in turn decreases the corrosivity
of the environment. Hence, presence of HCO
3
-
is beneficial from the standpoint of corrosion. Typical
quantities of HCO
3
-
in production environments range from 1 meq/l to 100 meq/l.
2.3.5 Temperature
Temperature is a critical parameter in determining the corrosivity of oil and gas production
environments. Changes in temperature affect the corrosion rate of steels in several ways which must be
taken into account for estimation of corrosion severity:
1. Increasing temperature decreases solubility of dissolved gases, which increases the pH of the
environment.
2. Increasing temperature increases the aggressivity of chloride ions in aqueous solutions by thermal
activation.
3. Different levels of temperature have different effects on environmental cracking. Between room
temperature and 250F, increasing temperature decreases susceptibility to Hydrogen Embrittlement
Cracking and SSC. But, above 150F, susceptibility to Stress Corrosion Cracking is increased.
4. Formation of a protective carbonate scale in aqueous CO
2
environments at elevated temperatures.
5. Reduction in CO
2
corrosion rate with addition of H
2
S.

In the PREDICT 6.0 program, each of these effects is handled separately through the various parameters.
However, directly incorporated into the temperature effect is No. 4 in the list above (i.e. formation of a
protective iron carbonate scale in CO
2
brine systems at temperatures above 150 F (60 C). This has the
effect of decreasing the corrosion rate at temperatures above 150 F (60 C) to values lower than those
usually predicted based on aqueous CO
2
corrosion. However formation of iron carbonate scale itself
requires a substantial metal loss that can cause a failure. Also, the scale formation effect is not found
when H
2
S is present in amounts above 0.05 psia. Here, corrosion rate will normally continue to increase
with increasing temperature.
2.3.6 Acetate and Ionic Strength
The acetate ion concentration is an important parameter in calculating the bulk pH of the solution as well
as the saturation pH calculation (for FeCO
3
, FeS scale formation). Presence of acetate is typically
measured in ppm or mili-equivalents/liter (meq/l). One meq/l represents 0.059 grams of CH
3
COO
-
in
one liter of solution or 59 ppm. Its presence increases the pH, which in turn decreases the corrosivity of
the environment. Hence, presence of CH3COO
-
is beneficial from the standpoint of corrosion. The
presence of formate (HCOO-) ions in the environment can also be interpreted as acetate ions, since both
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the acids have similar dissociation constants. Typical quantities of CH3COO
-
in production
environments range from 1 ppm to 200 ppm.
The Ionic Strength of a solution is an important parameter in calculating accurate pH and saturation pH
data. The ionic strength of the solution, typically represented in Molar units, can be calculated from the
individual ion concentration using:
Where,
Z is the charge of each ion
IS is the ionic strength of the solution
M is the molar concentration of each ion and can be calculated using,

Where,
x is concentration of each ion in ppm
MW is the molecular wt/ atomic wt. of each ion
Note: Predict 6.0 incorporates acetate ion concentration in calculation of in-situ pH of the system the
presence of acetates tends to buffer the in-situ pH higher. Some data has been published that indicates an
adverse effect on corrosion through pitting and cracking in the presence of acetate. However, there have
been reports that contradict these findings as well. Currently Predict 6.0 does not take into consideration
the effects of acetate on pitting/ cracking or corrosion due to acetic acid and the acetate input is used
only to predict the in-situ pH.
2.3.7 Gas to Oil Ratio
In oil and gas production, where the environment has a GOR < 890 m
3
/m
3
(5000 scf/bbl in British units),
the tendency for corrosion and environmental cracking is substantially reduced. This is caused by the
inhibiting effect of the oil film on the metal surface, which effectively reduces the corrosivity of the
environment. However, the inhibiting effect is dependent on the oil phase being persistent and acting as
a barrier between the metal and the corrosive environment. If GOR is not known, it is recommended
that a value greater than 5000 scf/bbl or 890 m3/m3 be used to evaluate conditions for gas producing
systems.
2.3.8 Water to Gas Ratio
To have corrosion in oil and gas systems, presence of aqueous water is required. In many production
applications where essentially dry hydrocarbons are being produced, the full corrosivity of the hydrogen
sulfide and/or carbon dioxide will not be present.
) Z M ( 5 . 0 IS
2
- E =
MW
10 x
M
-3
-
=
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For lower Water to Gas Ratio the corrosive severity is substantially reduced. Care should be taken to
evaluate presence of possible locations where water can separate from the hydrocarbons and form a
continuous water phase. Under such conditions, substantial corrosion can exist. If you do not know the
water to gas ratio or do not wish take its effect into the reasoning, please use a value that shows liquid
water presence for that condition. The presence of liquid water is shown by the pie-chart on the Results
tab and also presented as an output. Providing a low WGR that leads to no liquid water presence will
show no predicted corrosion rates for that condition.
2.3.9 Sulfur/Aeration
In systems containing high levels of H
2
S, elemental sulfur is often found to be present. Its presence can
significantly increase the corrosivity of the production environment with respect to weight loss
corrosion, localized corrosion and susceptibility to sulfide stress cracking.
Aeration in the operating environment significantly increases the corrosivity of the operating
environment. In this program, the acceleration for corrosion of steel in aerated conditions is
approximately ten times that of the rate determined for deaerated conditions. Aeration also increases the
severity of localized corrosion and SCC for susceptible corrosion resistance alloys. The mechanism of
this increased aggressivity is a result of the ease of formation of oxygen concentration cells on the metal
surface, which increases pitting and crevice corrosion. Both these phenomena, in turn, increase the
severity for SCC since pitting and crevice attack can act as locations of SCC initiation.
2.3.10 Hydrogen ion Concentration (pH)
Corrosion rates generally increase with decreasing pH of the aqueous phase. Therefore, corrosivity can
be expected to increase with increasing acid gas (H
2
S and CO
2
) partial pressure. At a particular acid gas
partial pressure, pH will tend to increase with increasing temperature. This affect can result in direct
reduction in corrosion rate with this rise in pH. In many cases however, the decrease in acid gas
solubility in the aqueous phase with increasing temperature can be compensated by increased total
pressures as the well depth increases. This can actually increase acid gas partial pressure and increase the
severity of corrosion.
2.3.11 Wall Shear Stress and Fluid Velocity
In multiphase (i.e. gas, water liquid hydrocarbon) production, the flow rate influences the corrosion rate
of steel in two ways. First, it determines the flow behavior and affects wall wetting. In general terms,
with increasing velocity this is manifested as static conditions (i.e. little or no flow), stratified flow at
intermediate conditions and turbulent flow at higher flow rates. Second, flow can also accelerate
corrosion with increasing velocity through increased mass transport and at still higher flow rates by
removal of protective corrosion films (i.e. corrosion products and inhibitor films). One measure which
can be used to define the flow conditions in multiphase flow systems is the superficial liquid velocity. At
less than about 3 ft/sec (1 meter/sec), conditions are generally considered static.
Under these conditions corrosion rates can actually increase over those observed under moderate flowing
conditions. This occurs because under static conditions, there is no natural turbulence to assist the
mixing and dispersion of protective liquid hydrocarbons or inhibitor species in the aqueous phase.
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Additionally, corrosion products and other deposits can settle out of the liquid phase to promote crevice
attack and under-deposit corrosion.
Between 3 and 10 ft/sec (1 and 3 meter/sec), stratified conditions generally still exist. However, the
increased flow promotes a sweeping away of some deposits and increasing agitation and mixing. At
about 15 ft/sec (5 meter/sec), corrosion rates in non-inhibited applications start to increase rapidly with
increasing velocity. For inhibited applications, corrosion rates of steel increase only slightly between 10
and 30 ft/sec (3 to 10 meter/sec) resulting from mixing of the hydrocarbon and aqueous phases. Above
about 30 ft/sec (10 meter/sec), corrosion rates in inhibited systems start to increase due to the removal of
protective surface films by the high velocity flow.
Vertical flow conditions commonly follow similar relationships as found in horizontal flow. The main
exception is at low flow rate conditions. For vertical flow, static conditions only persist at very low flow
rates (i.e. <1 ft/sec; 0.3 meter/sec). For bottomhole conditions, this is usually only during shut-in of the
well. Above this velocity, there is enough agitation to produce a mixing of hydrocarbon, aqueous phases
and inhibitors. Therefore, between 1 and 30 ft/sec (0.3 to 30 meter/sec) in inhibited systems and 1 and 15
ft/sec (0.3 and 5 meter/sec) in non-inhibited systems corrosion rates and not usually affected greatly by
velocity. Only at flow rates above these ranges to corrosion rates increase rapidly with increasing
velocity due to removal of protective surface films.
2.3.12 Ratio of Hydrocarbons to Water
Conditions where a persistent liquid hydrocarbon phase is present can influence the tendency for
corrosion of steel and also may dictate the type of corrosion inhibition program to be most appropriately
utilized. Typically, conditions where the oil to water ratio (OWR) is > 2 generally result in less corrosion
of steel than those having lower ratios.
When considering this situation, the persistence of the liquid hydrocarbon on the steel surface is an
important factor. If experience shows that little or no oil persistence occurs, then the use of OWR less
than 2 in the program is suggested even though the actual value of OWR may be greater than 2. The
OWR ratio may also be determined as the reciprocal of the product of gas to oil ratio and water to gas
ratio.
2.3.13 Corrosion Allowance
In designing systems from materials such as steel, which can exhibit corrosion, it is common to take into
account an added factor of safety in terms of the Corrosion Allowance. The concept of Corrosion
Allowance involves the use of an increased thickness over that required for mechanical design to allow
for corrosion and metal loss that may take place during the project life or until replacement.
The magnitude of the Corrosion Allowance is dependent on the severity of corrosion expected and the
ability to mitigate corrosion usually by the use of corrosion inhibitors. The Corrosion Allowance in most
cases is < 0.12 inches (3 mm). However, in some particularly severe cases larger Corrosion Allowances
can be utilized.
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2.3.14 Service Life
Service Life is the period of useful service for a particular component. This is usually taken to be the
time required to achieve a corrosion metal loss equal to the Corrosion Allowance. Alternatively, Service
Life may be used to define the required Corrosion Allowance based on the assessment of corrosion
severity and inhibition performance and methods in the particular application.
2.3.15 Type of Flow
The flow conditions (i.e. static, stratified, turbulent, etc.) are dependent on the nature of the produced
gases and fluids and whether the flow is primarily horizontal (surface production) or vertical (subsurface
production). Horizontal flow is usually more prone to static and stratified conditions, which limits the
amount of mixing of oil and water phases at low flow rates. Vertical flow typically exhibits these types
of conditions only during period of shut-in of the well. (See Chapter 5 on Flow Modeling for more
information.)
2.3.16 Method of Inhibition
For horizontal flow systems the following types of inhibition method are commonly used:
No Treatment - The conditions may be essentially non-corrosive. This usually occurs under the
following conditions (a) very low acid gas (CO
2
and H
2
S) partial pressures, (b) low amounts of water or
(c) a very persistent oil phase.
Continuous Inhibition - Inhibitor is continuously injected into the flow stream. This may be conducted
in both bottomhole and surface production systems. It is preferred where the flow velocity is greater than
10 ft/sec (3 meter/sec) or where the amount of water is high.
Batch Inhibition - Inhibitor is added in the flow system periodically in batch treatments usually
between two pigs. A strongly persistent filming inhibitor is usually used which can reduced corrosion
rates effectively during the period between batch treatments. This technique is usually effective where
the chloride concentration is high but the velocity is low. It is commonly used to supplement other
inhibition techniques.
Pigging - Pigging is the use of flowline pigs to assist in (a) application of batch inhibitors and (b)
removal of accumulated water, solids and other deposit in the flow system. In many applications,
pigging is required to get proper distribution of inhibition chemicals through the flow system. In cases
where flow velocity is low, pigging is used to remove water and deposits from the bottom of the pipe,
which can promote corrosion at this location.
For vertical flow systems the following types of inhibition method are commonly used:
No Treatment - The conditions may be essentially non-corrosive. This usually occurs under the
following conditions (a) very low acid gas (CO
2
and H
2
S) partial pressures, (b) low amounts of water or
(c) very persistent oil phase.
Batch Inhibition - Inhibitor is added in the flow system periodically in batch treatments and usually
added to the tubing bore in a process where the fluids in the well bore are displaced with the inhibitor
and its carrier. A strongly persistent filming inhibitor is usually used which can reduce corrosion rates
effectively during the period between batch treatments. This technique is usually effective where the
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chloride concentration is high but the velocity is low. However, conditions of high temperature (>250 F;
120 C) and high flow rate generally limit the use of this technique.
Squeeze Treatment - Squeeze treatments are a modification of batch inhibition used for controlling
bottomhole corrosion. Instead of just displacing the tubing with inhibitor and its carrier fluid, the
squeeze treatments also forces the fluid under pressure into the surrounding formation. This has the
benefit of extending the duration between batch treatments in some wells. However, in other cases,
squeeze treatments can also interfere with the wells production by plugging the formation.
Continuous Inhibition - Inhibitor is continuously injected into the tubing at bottom of the string or
through a subsurface injection valve. The rate of injection is regulated to provide the inhibitor at a
required concentration to mitigate corrosion. While more costly and requiring more equipment than
batch inhibition, continuous inhibition has been shown to be more effective particularly in deeper high
temperature wells and at more severely corrosive conditions. At high flow rates, continuous inhibitor
injection may become costly and possibly ineffective.
2.3.17 Inhibition Efficiency
Inhibition Efficiency (IE) is a term that describes the efficacy of an inhibitor treatment in mitigating
weight loss corrosion. It is based on either laboratory or field data where inhibited and non-inhibited
corrosion rates are compared using the following equation:
IE = 100[(CR
n
- CR
i
)/CR
n
]
where
CR
n
= non-inhibited corrosion rate,
CR
i
= inhibited corrosion rate.
Values of IE near 100 percent represent conditions with maximum efficacy of the inhibitor treatment.
Conditions that affect IE include:
- Inhibitor concentration.
- Severity of corrosive environment.
- Service temperature.
- Solubility of inhibitor in aqueous phase.
- Phase behavior of inhibitor and carrier fluid in service environment.
- Persistence of inhibitor on metal surface.
Inhibitor screening is often used to compare the IE of different inhibitors formulations.
2.3.18 Measured pH
The PREDICT 6.0 system is enabled with a way to assess corrosion using the measured pH and the acid
gasses as input parameters. However, given the accurate, ionic pH prediction model built into PREDICT
6.0, it is recommended that users utilize the highly accurate pH predictions from PREDICT 6.0.
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2.3.19 Custom Wall Shear Stress
PREDICT 6.0 provides the incorporation of third party flow modeling results in the form of wall shear
stress and flow regime. As shown in the below screen shot, users can check the box for providing third
party results the program will then override the in-built flow model and use these input parameters to
calculate corrosion rate predictions.

2.3.20 Gas Flow rate Standard / Actual
In earlier versions of Predict, gas flow rate input data was limited to standard conditions, but now user
can provide gas flow rate data at standard as well as at actual conditions.

2.3.21 CO
2
and H
2
S in aqueous phase (ppm)
In earlier versions of Predict, user was limited to provided acid gas data in the form of partial pressures
(as either vapor phase partial pressures or mol% concentration in vapor phase). Users can now provide
data in aqueous phase (ppm) as well and PREDICT 6.0 will estimate the equilibrium partial pressures for
given values of CO
2
and H
2
S.

2.3.22 Scale Protection and Water Analyses options
Corrosion rate predictions can now be calculated based on users preference of considering scale
protection. For more conservative predictions and analyses of high flowing conditions where scale
protection may not be relevant, users can choose to ignore the protective effect of scale products. Results
screen now shows whether system has FeS Scale,FeCO
3
Scale or No Scale with saturation pH data.
Water analysis data can now be provided for both inlet and outlet conditions. Users can select the check
box to use the same water analyses data for both inlet and outlet. When this option is not checked the
system performs linear interpolation on data for each species to estimate concentration data at
intermediate points.
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2.3.23 Dew Point
PREDICT 6.0 provides users with the ability to provided the water data either in the form of an actual
liquid water flow rate at operating conditions or the system dew point. This data is used to estimate the
total water flow rate in the system (liquid + vapor) and this total water is then used to performed water
phase behavior predictions across the tubing/pipe length,.

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2.4 THE PREDICT 6.0 INTERFACE MENUS AND THE TOOLBAR
PREDICT 6.0 is equipped with an intuitive graphical interface that facilitates easy access to the
functionality of the program. The primary objective of the PREDICT 6.0 interface to give the user an easy-
to-use and powerful way of accessing the significant amount of information embodied in the program.
The user can perform a variety of tasks just at the click of a toolbar icon. The Toolbar appears minimized
by default and clicking on any of the options available shows a toolbar with a series of buttons as shown
in Figure 2.15

Figure 2.15 - PREDICT 6.0 Menu and Tool Bar Home Menu
Most of the file operations, actions and utilities can be accessed from the Home menu.
Under the Home menu, the following list of buttons is available.
The New command allows the user to start a new PREDICT 6.0 consultation. You can work on
multiple consultations at a time. The panel on the left indicated the number of open consultations
and you can select the one you want to work with. The active consultation will be highlighted
and the name of consultation will appear on the title bar.
The Wizard command allows users to launch a wizard that guides the user through the various
steps of creating a consultation. PREDICT 6.0 Wizard will ask the user a series of questions to
setup a consultation.
The Import Socrates command allows user to import consultations saved using Socrates 9.0.
The Open command allows the user to open other stored consultations of PREDICT 6.0. The
default extension for stored PREDICT 6.0 files is .prd.
The Close command closes the currently active consultation. Users will be prompted to save to
save consultations that have unsaved changes..
The Close All command closes all open consultations. Users will be prompted to save each
consultation that has changed since last opened.
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The Save command saves the current consultation to a file name provided by the user. It saves
the current environment configuration as well as the predicted corrosion rate and the pH and all
associated data provided.
The Save All command saves all the current consultations.
The Save As command saves the current consultation as a different file. The user is prompted to
provide a new file name.
The Save Copy As command saves a copy of the current consultation as a different file. The user
is prompted to provide a new file name.
The Save As Template command saves the current consultation as a template that can be used to
start the new consultation with the values of template instead of the default values.
The British toolbar icon lets the user switch back from Metric/SI units if the units have been
changed to SI. The default units in PREDICT 6.0 are British units.
The Metric toolbar icon lets the user switch from British units to Metric/SI. Please note that
Metric and SI systems of units are used interchangeably to refer to the same system of units in
PREDICT 6.0 and in this manual.

FIGURE 2.16 - PREDICT 6.0 MENU AND TOOL BAR REPORTS MENU
The Reports menu provides access to the following options:
The Print button helps print reports of the consultation. Clicking on this button directly sends to
report to the default printer.
The Page Setup buttons helps configure the printer settings.
The Print Preview button shows print preview of consultation.
The Excel button provides the ability to export all the data to MS-Excel.
The PDF button provides the ability to save the report in PDF format so that it can be sent out
via email or saved for future reference.

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FIGURE 2.17 - PREDICT 6.0 MENU AND TOOL BAR ANALYSIS MENU
The Analysis menu provides access to the following options:
The Profile icon provides a tool for calculating the Corrosion Rates & Estimating Water phase
behavior, not only at a single point in the piping system, but over user specified number of points
over the entire length of the pipe. Chapter 5 has more details about using this utility.
The MPA icon allows the user to perform concurrent multipoint analysis for parametric
perturbation effects for any of the relevant input parameters. For more details, refer Section 2.2.8.
The Expert MPS icon allows user to perform MPS by varying some critical parameters like
bicarbonates, chlorides, H
2
S partial pressure, CO
2
partial pressure and temperature. For more
details, refer Section 2.2.7.
The MPS toolbar icon launches the Multipoint Sensitivity Analysis tool as described in Section
2.2.6.

FIGURE 2.18 - PREDICT 6.0 MENU AND TOOL BAR TOOLS MENU
The Tools menu provides access to the following options:
The Cost toolbar icon lets the user perform a cost analysis for assessment of costs in using a
specific steel or evaluating the economics of an inhibitor program. The program determines an
annualized cost as well as an overall project cost based on present worth analysis.
The JIP Data icon provides the user access to real lab corrosion rate data obtained from 18 flow
loop tests. More details can be found in Section 2.2.12
The Preferences icon provides the user options to customize PREDICT 6.0 in terms of application
color theme, default file saving locations, template settings and default views. More details can
be found in Section 2.2.11.
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The Units Assistant icon allows the user to convert between British and Metric Units for most
commonly used flow and operational parameters.

Figure 2.18 - Predict 6.0 Menu and Tool Bar Help Menu
The Help menu provides access to the following options:
The Contents, Search and Index toolbar icons provides the user access to various parts of the
extensive Help System. Users can either view the contents, search for a particular keyword or
navigate to the index. The Help system is shown below in Figure 2.17
The User Manual icon provides the user access to this User Guide in PDF Format. This user
guide is provided as a hard copy and a PDF version is also provided that can be launched by
using this toolbar button.
The About and Disclaimer icons provide additional details about the version, program
disclaimer and other pertinent information about PREDICT 6.0.
The License Information button provides one click access to license information, expiration
date, etc.

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Figure 2.17 - PREDICT 6.0 Help Window
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2.5 GENERAL NOTES ON CONSULTING PREDICT 6.0

- PREDICT 6.0 has been completely re-designed to promote ease of use and provide advanced
analytical capabilities. The best approach to learning the PREDICT 6.0 interface is to explore the
program and its commands. The graphical interface is designed to be intuitive and can be
customized according to user preferences.
- PREDICT 6.0 estimates in-situ pH and corrosion rate through utilization of a complex numerical
and heuristic model that incorporates data from extensive JIP data, literature, lab and field
experience spanning over 30 years of corrosion research. The model itself captures the
synergistic effects of different corrosive parameters and has been tested extensively on real-time
cases in order to calibrate the results of the program.
- You can exit the program through choosing exit from the file menu or by choosing close after
clicking on the control-menu box on the left hand corner of every window.
The PREDICT 6.0 knowledge base embodies significant expertise in steel evaluation and corrosion
assessment. We believe that the program provides accurate results and consistent reasoning. However,
this program is advisory in nature and its conclusions, ought to be construed as such and nothing more.
The knowledge and rules are continually evolving entities and Honeywell will be updating the program
regularly to enhance its utility and accuracy.
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3. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF PREDICT 6.0 MODEL

3.1 SYNOPSIS
One of the most fundamental issues in current day corrosion research is assessment of corrosion rates in
steels and determination of corrosivity of typical operating environments in oil and gas production. Such
an assessment requires an understanding of the role of primary environmental and metallurgical
variables and underlying mechanisms of corrosion. The PREDICT 6.0 system presents a novel
hierarchical approach to assess system corrosivity and prediction of corrosion rates in carbon steels in
production environments containing CO
2
and/or H
2
S. In this Chapter, critical environmental parameters
that influence system corrosivity are identified and the effects of these parameters on corrosion are
examined. Modeling for synergistic assessment of system corrosivity as a function of relevant operating
parameters is presented and is accompanied by a description of the PREDICT 6.0 model.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
CO
2
/H
2
S corrosion in oil and gas production environments represents one of the most important areas of
corrosion research. It is so because of the criticality of the need to assess corrosive severity as a means
to ensure safe utilization of steels, which have wide application in just about every sphere of oil and gas
production and refining. Even though CO
2
/H
2
S corrosion and concomitant mechanisms have been areas
of significant work over the last thirty years, there still exists a need to accurately predict corrosivity of
CO
2
/H
2
S environments from a stand point of defining limits of use for carbon steels. Even though
numerous predictive models have been developed and are being developed
1,2
, most of the available
predictive models tend to be either very conservative
3
in their interpretation of results or focus on a
narrow range of parametric effects, thereby limiting the scope of the models application in realistic
assessment of corrosivity and corrosion rates. Often times, data required by the models are often not
easily accessible or available to the operators who need to employ the model, thereby limiting the
applicability of the models to situations of reduced practical importance
4,5
. In this context, the issue of
corrosivity assessment for carbon steels can be re-stated in terms of the following critical requirements
that formed the basis for the PREDICT 6.0 system development:

- Develop a predictive model that utilizes commonly available operational parameters while
accounting for significant new insights from JIP data
- Incorporate the effect of actual data from lab tests for H
2
S and CO
2
corrosion in flowing conditions
- Utilize existing lab/field data and theoretical models to obtain realistic assessments of corrosivity
and corrosion rates
- Develop an ionic model to accurately characterize in-situ system pH
- Develop a computational approach that integrates both numerical (JIP data) and mechanistic models
(first principles) with heuristic (field data and experience) information and knowledge about
corrosivity prediction.

The method adopted in the PREDICT 6.0 model captures both the effect of critical parameters on
corrosion rates and system pH as well as that of parameter interactions.
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The primary variables in corrosivity prediction in the PREDICT 6.0 system are the acid gases CO
2
and
H
2
S that contribute to the typically acidic pH found in production environments. The PREDICT 6.0 model
uses the system pH as a central factor in modeling significant corrosivity mechanisms, including
contribution of multiple anions and cations, as well as in assessing the role of pH in corrosion product
dissolution and / or precipitation.
The model also uses the widely accepted de Waard - Milliams
2
relationship for CO
2
corrosion for a
determination of corrosion rates in CO
2
-based systems. However, the effective CO
2
partial pressure in
the system is not based on the operating partial pressure but one obtained from the system pH. This rate
is further refined to account for the presence of H
2
S, corrosion products, temperature effects etc.
A technical description of different corrosivity modeling parameters and their effects is given in ensuing
sections of this Chapter. The underlying idea here is to capture a prediction model within the PREDICT
6.0 system to accurately represent the state-of-the-art in theoretical analyses as well as parametric
correlations based on lab and field data. The PREDICT 6.0 systems development has been guided by
comparison with data from actual field conditions in an effort to compare system predictions
6
with field
observations.
An important concept in the PREDICT 6.0 model is the role of superposition of different parameters. Such
super-positioning requires a clear understanding of independent parameter effects and also on how
corrosion rate progresses when subjected to the effects of two or more variables. While the current
prediction model is primarily concerned with environmental constituents and their effects of corrosion, it
is also important to recognize the significant role of metallurgy in fashioning appropriate corrosion
behavior. Influence of compositional and alloying elements has been chronicled but has hitherto not
been rigorously studied in assessing resistance to system corrosivity and a brief discussion of
metallurgical factors in corrosivity determination is provided elsewhere in this Chapter.
3.3 CO
2
/H
2
S-BASED CORROSION: TECHNICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
CO
2
-based corrosion has been one of the most active areas of research, with several predictive models
for carbon steel corrosion assessment. These efforts range from a predictive model that begins with CO
2

corrosion
2,3
to models that focus on specific aspects of the corrosion phenomena (such as flow-induced
corrosion or erosion corrosion)
4,5
to models that empirically relate corrosion rates to gas production and
water production rates
7
. Crolet et al.
8
use the physical chemistry of the corrosive medium as the key
notion and take into account ionic strength, pH and specific ionic species as relevant factors. Other
relevant efforts include those by Ikeda et al.
9
that look at the influence of H
2
S and O
2
on CO
2
-based
corrosion as well as those by Adams et al.
10
. Many of these efforts suffer from significant drawbacks in
that,

- They focus on a narrow range of parametric effects, for e.g., there is relatively little published
information on the effects of H
2
S in production systems and on how sulfide scaling can affect the
CO
2
corrosion process
- Some models focus just on one component of corrosivity, such as erosional effects, wall shear stress
effects or flow effects and have opted to ignore effects of chemical species (factors such as pH, H
2
S,
CO
2
etc.)
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57
- Other models totally rely on lab data for predictive modeling, with the consequence that the
simplifying assumptions made in developing laboratory models often lead to results that can be far
removed from what is observed in the field.

The current model integrates lab data and field experience within the framework of relevant controlling
parameters that are most prominent in oil and gas production. It is important to realize that while arcane
theoretical models are interesting from an academic stand point, the controlling parameters in a model
must also represent data easily available to oil and gas production personnel. The current model
attempts to integrate principles hitherto delineated in developing the PREDICT 6.0 model.
While there have been several studies focusing on the exact mechanism of metal dissolution in CO
2

containing waters, the efforts of de Waard and Milliams and others
2,3,9
present a commonly accepted
representation wherein anodic dissolution of iron is a pH dependent mechanism as given by Bockris
2
,
the cathodic process is driven by the direct reduction of undissociated carbonic acid. These reactions
can be represented as
3
,

Fe ----------> Fe
++
+ 2e
-
(Anodic reaction)
H
2
CO
3
+ e
-
----> HCO
3
-
+ H (Cathodic reaction)

The overall corrosion reaction can be represented as,
Fe + 2H2CO3 ---> Fe
++
+ 2 HCO3
-
+ H2
The build up of the bicarbonate ion can lead to an increase in the pH of the solution till conditions
promoting precipitation of iron carbonate are reached, leading to reaction given below:
Fe + 2HCO3
-
---> FeCO3+ H2O+CO2
Iron carbonate solubility, which decreases with increasing temperature, and the consequent precipitation
of iron carbonate is a significant factor in assessing corrosivity. The charge transfer controlled reaction
involving carbonic acid and carbon steel (or Fe) can be represented in terms of the concentration or
partial pressure of dissolved CO
2
in the medium to arrive at a corrosion rate equation that incorporates
the order of the reaction and an exponential function that approximates for Henrys reaction constants
temperature dependence. This corrosion rate equation is given as
2
,
log (V
cor
) = 5.8 - 1710/T + 0.67 log (pCO
2
) ------ (1)
Where,

V
cor
= corrosion rate in mm/yr
T = operating temperature in K
pCO
2
= partial pressure of CO
2
in bar

The corrosion rate obtained by equation (1) has typically been often seen as the maximum possible
corrosion rate without accounting for iron carbonate scaling. A nomogram representing eq. (1) is given
in Figure 3.1
2
, which also includes a scale factor to account for the formation of protective carbonate
films that lead to a reduced corrosion rate at higher temperatures.
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Figure 3.1: CO
2
Corrosion Nomogram

The above correlation describes CO
2
-based corrosion. There have been other significant efforts to
demonstrate the effects of other environmental variables such as pH, H
2
S, chlorides, bicarbonates,
water/gas/oil ratios, velocity etc. Effects of H
2
S on corrosion rates in the laboratory have been studied
and presented by Videm
11
et al., and Ikeda
9
et al. Ikedas work indicates that the preferential formation
of an Iron sulfide film can decelerate the corrosion rate, especially at temperatures above 20 C and
extending up to 60 C. Above 150 C, the corrosion reaction falls back to the standard CO
2
-based
corrosion with an FeCO
3
film that is more stable than the FeS film. Videms work supports the theory
that even small amounts of H
2
S can provide instantaneous protection at temperatures in the range 70-80
C.
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Lotz et al.
12
have chronicled the role of the hydrocarbon condensate in providing corrosion mitigation in
specific production systems. The role of the type of oil or gas condensate is important from the stand
point of accurate assessment as reported by Choi et al
13,14
. Other studies evaluating effects of critical
parameters such as pH and velocity on CO
2
corrosion include those by Dugstad
15
as well as Lotz
16
.
Other predictive models also include those by Gunatlun
17
and Bonis et al
18
wherein a combination of the
parameters discussed herein along with electro-chemical considerations have been utilized to arrive at
the corrosion rate.
The primary objective of the corrosivity prediction model described in this Chapter is to address the need
of developing a predictive method that would synthesize different parametric relationships based on
information from literature, lab research/data and practical experience/expertise. It has often been
observed that lab data and the ensuing models represent poor and often inadequate simulation of field
conditions
19
. It is also necessary to understand that field data is typically sparse and can be negated by
other production data. The need to integrate field data/experience and laboratory models stems from the
fact that the lab data can provide significant pointers and trends that can be used in conjunction with
field data and experience. The idea is to develop a methodology that can integrate analytical and
heuristic models.
To this end, this PREDICT 6.0 system mirrors other successful development efforts undertaken by
Honeywell in the areas of evaluation of CRAs and cracking in steels
20,21
. The central theme is to
develop a computer program that can bring together different types of modeling knowledge to provide a
realistic solution to the significant question of predicting corrosion rates in typical production
environments.
3.4 PREDICT 6.0 MODEL DESCRIPTION
The first step in corrosivity determination is computation of the system pH, since it is the hydrogen ion
concentration that drives the anodic dissolution. Further, the role of pH in promoting or mitigating CO
2
-
based corrosion has been extensively chronicled
22,19
. For production environments, where it is the
dissolved CO
2
or H
2
S that contribute significantly to a suppressed pH, the pH can be determined as a
function of acid gas partial pressures, bicarbonates, organic acids and temperature, as well as relevant
anions and cations. A detailed description of the PREDICT 6.0 pH prediction model is given Section
3.4.10.
Once the system pH is determined, the effective CO
2
partial pressure can be determined from as,

Log(pCO
2-eff
) = (C1 - pH) / 2 ---------------- (2)

where pCO
2-eff
is the effective partial pressure of CO
2
in a production system that can produce the
prevalent level of hydrogen ion concentration.
The effective CO
2
partial pressure from (2) can be used in Equation (1) to determine an initial corrosion
rate for CO
2
-based corrosion. The corrosion rate so obtained is modified to account for the formation of
a FeCO
3
film (Fe
3
O
4
at higher temperatures) whose stability varies as a function of the operating
temperature. The scale correction factor shown in Figure 3.1 is used to determine the initial corrosion
rate from the nomogram in Figure 3.1
2
. It is generally estimated that this corrosion rate presents a
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60
maximum corrosion rate even though it has been reported that the rate computed by the nomogram are
reached or exceeded in systems with high flow rates. It is important to recognize that this corrosion rate
has to be modified to account for the effect of other critical variables in the system. Further, this rate
does not indicate modality (general or localized) but rather, represents the maximum rate of attack.
PREDICT 6.0 also calculates the saturation pH (pH
Sat
) of FeCO
3
and FeS using the electroneutrality
equations given by Crolet & Bonis. The calculation of pH
Sat
is important in that ApH, pH
Sat
- pH
Bulk
,
can be used to determine if an environment is corroding or scaling. A positive value in ApH, i.e., the
saturation pH of a particular compound is greater than the bulk pH, is an indication that the system is
corroding. A negative value in ApH, i.e., the saturation pH of a particular compound is lesser than the
bulk pH, is an indication that the system is scaling.
As mentioned earlier, it is necessary to superposition the effects of other critical system parameters. In
addition to the system pH, these include,

H
2
S partial pressure
Maximum operating temperature
Dissolved chlorides
Gas to oil ratio
Water to gas ratio/water cut
Oil type and its persistence
Elemental sulfur/aeration
Type of flow and flow regime
Wall Shear Stress and fluid velocity
Inhibition type and efficiency

The following sections discuss the effects of these parameters on corrosivity and provide information as
to how it is critical to examine the parameter interactions prior to capturing the synergistic effects of
these parameters on corrosion.
3.4.1 Role of H2S
Oilfield production environments, in recent years, have been characterized by increasing presence of H
2
S
and related corrosion considerations. Even though H
2
S is probably the most significant concern in
current day corrosion and cracking evaluation, the role of H
2
S in corrosion in steels has received much
less attention when compared to the widely studied CO
2
corrosion.
26
However, H
2
S related corrosion
and cracking has remained one of the biggest concerns for operators involved in production because of
the significance of H
2
S related damage
27
.

The current modeling effort, in addition to its contribution in pH reduction, H
2
S has a threefold role:

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61
At very low levels of H
2
S (< 0.01 psia), CO
2
is the dominant corrosive species, and at temperatures
above 60 C, corrosion and any passivity is a function of FeCO
3
formation related phenomenon and the
presence of H
2
S has no realistic significance.
In CO
2
dominated systems
26,28
, presence of even small amounts of H
2
S (ratio of pCO
2
/pH
2
S > 200),
can lead to the formation of an iron sulfide scale called mackinawite at temperatures below 120 C.
However, this particular form of scaling, which is produced on the metal surface directly as a function of
a reaction between Fe
++
and S
is influenced by pH and temperature

27
. This surface reaction can lead to
the formation of a thin surface film that can mitigate corrosion. The JIP data included in PREDICT 6.0
provides a laboratory basis to characterize the stability and formation of mackinawite in sour systems.
(3) In H
2
S dominated systems (ratio of pCO
2
/pH
2
S < 200), there is a preferential formation of a
meta-stable sulfide film in preference to the FeCO
3
scale; hence, there is protection available due to the
presence of the sulfide film in the range of temperatures 60 to 240 C. Here, initially it is the
mackinawite form of H
2
S that is formed as a surface adsorption phenomenon. At higher concentrations
and temperatures, mackinawite becomes the more stable pyrhotite. However, at temperatures below 60
C or above 240 C, presence of H
2
S exacerbates corrosion in steels since the presence of H
2
S prevents
the formation of a stable FeCO
3
scale.
9, 29
Further, it has been observed that FeS film itself becomes
unstable and porous and does not provide protection. Also, the scale factor applicable for CO
2
corrosion
with no H
2
S (shown in Figure 3.1) becomes inapplicable. Even though there is agreement amongst
different workers that there is a beneficial effect of adding small amounts of H
2
S at about 60 C, Ikeda et
al.
9
and Videm et al.
11
present divergent results at higher concentrations and higher temperatures.

The effect of H
2
S adopted in the PREDICT 6.0 model reflects work published by T. Murata et al.
29
for
CO
2
dominated systems. Figure 3.2
29
shows the combined effects of temperature and gas composition
on corrosion rate of carbon steels. Figure 3.3
9
shows the effect of varying degrees of H
2
S contamination
on CO
2
corrosion. It is to be noted that the role of H
2
S in CO
2
corrosion is a complex issue governed by
film stability of FeS and FeCO
3
at varying temperatures and is an area further active research by
Honeywell.

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Figure 3.2: Effect of gas composition and temperature on corrosion rate
3.4.2 Temperature Effects
Temperature has a significant impact on corrosivity in CO
2
/H
2
S systems. Corrosion rate as a function of
different levels of CO
2
and temperature are given in Figure 3.4
2
. It has to be noted that once the
corrosion products are formed, there is a significant mitigation in corrosivity. It is also apparent that the
carbonate film is more stable at higher temperatures and affords greater protection at higher
temperatures. Figure 3.4 also shows that at temperatures beyond 120 C, corrosion rate is almost
independent of the CO
2
partial pressure of the system. The carbonate film may, however, be weakened
by high chloride concentrations or can be broken by high velocity. In H
2
S dominated systems, because
of the fact that no carbonate scale may be formed and that the FeS film becomes porous and unstable at
temperatures beyond 120 C, significant localized corrosion may be observed.

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Figure 3.3: Effect of H
2
S and temperature on corrosion rate in pure iron
3.4.3 Chlorides
Produced water from hydrocarbon formations typically contains varying amounts of chloride salts
dissolved in solution. The chloride concentration in this water can vary considerably, from zero to few
ppm for condensed water to saturation in formation waters having high total dissolved salts/solids
(TDS). In naturally deaerated production environments, corrosion rate increases with increasing
chloride ion content over the range 10,000 ppm to 100,000 ppm
30
. The magnitude of this effect
increases with increasing temperature over 60 C (150 F). This combined effect results from the fact
that chloride ions in solution can be incorporated into and penetrate surface corrosion films which can
lead to destabilization of the corrosion film and lead to increased corrosion. This phenomenon of
penetration of surface corrosion films increases in occurrence with both chloride ion concentration and
temperature.
3.4.4 Bicarbonates
Bicarbonates in the operating environment have a significant impact on corrosion rates. On one hand,
high levels of bicarbonates can provide higher pH numbers leading to corrosion mitigation even when
the partial pressures of CO
2
and H
2
S are fairly high. There is a natural inhibitive effect of presence of
bicarbonates which can be present in substantial quantities in formation waters (up to 20 meq/l)
31
.
Condensed water in production streams typically contains no bicarbonates. Bicarbonates affect both the
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64
ionic strength and system pH and hence play a critical role in both formation of protective scales and
supply of protons that contribute to increased corrosion rates.

Figure 3.4: Corrosion rate as a function of temperature and CO
2
pressure
3.4.5 Wall Shear Stress and Liquid Velocity
In any multiphase flowing system, different flow regimes are manifested as a function of how the vapor
and liquid phases mix. Such flow regimes give rise to different types of fluid forces, and effect different
levels of wall shear. Such wall shear stress has a significant impact on removal of corrosion films, on
mass-transfer coefficient (most turbulent flows operate in mass transfer control rather than activation
control for corrosion) and consequently increased corrosion at high wall shear stress levels. The topic of
multiphase flow modeling is complex enough to merit a complete chapter, and a detailed description of
the flow modeling module in PREDICT 6.0 is given in Chapter 4.
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65
Effect of wall shear stress on corrosion rates, in PREDICT 6.0, stems from the extensive JIP data
generated in the Joint Industry Project on Prediction and Assessment of Corrosivity of Multiphase
CO2/H2S systems. The methodology for such corrosion modeling may be captured as,

- Perform flow modeling to compute wall shear stress (WSS) at given condition.
- Calculate the base corrosion rate for steels (CR
Base
) from computed wall shear stress.
- Obtain the CO
2
(CF
CO2
), temperature (CF
Temp
), and chloride (CF
Cl
) correction factors
from data provided by user.
- Base corrosion rate of steels (CR
Base
) is multiplied by CO
2
, temperature, and chloride
correction factors to get the final H
2
S corrosion rate.

Please see Section 3.4.9 for further details on this topic.
Under conditions not covered by the JIP data, PREDICT 6.0 utilizes a model from literature to account for
fluid flow effects in terms of fluid velocity. Fluid flow velocities affect both the composition and extent
of corrosion product films. Typically, high velocities (> 4 m/s for non-inhibited systems) in the
production stream leads to mechanical removal of corrosion films and the ensuing exposure of the fresh
metal surface to the corrosive medium leads to significantly higher corrosion rates. Corrosion rate as a
function of flow velocity and temperature is shown in Figure 3.5
15
.
In multiphase (i.e. gas, water, liquid hydrocarbon) production, the flow rate influences the corrosion rate
of steel in two ways. First, it determines the flow behavior and flow regime. In general terms, this is
manifested as static conditions (i.e. little or no flow) at low velocities, stratified flow at intermediate
conditions and turbulent flow at higher flow rates. One measure which can be used to define the flow
conditions is the superficial liquid velocity.
Velocities less than 1 m/s are considered static. Under these conditions corrosion rates can be higher
than those observed under moderately flowing conditions. This occurs because under static conditions,
there is no natural turbulence to assist the mixing and dispersion of protective liquid hydrocarbons or
inhibitor species in the aqueous phase. Additionally, corrosion products and other deposits can settle out
of the liquid phase to promote crevice attack and underdeposit corrosion.
Between 1 and 3 m/sec, stratified conditions generally still exist. However, the increased flow promotes
a sweeping away of some deposits and increasing agitation and mixing. At 5 m/sec, corrosion rates in
non-inhibited applications start to increase rapidly with increasing velocity.
31
Data shown in Figure 3.6
31

demonstrates the effects of velocity on corrosion rate for both inhibited and non-inhibited systems. For
inhibited applications, corrosion rates of steel increase only slightly between 3 to 10 m/sec, resulting
from mixing of the hydrocarbon and aqueous phases. Above about 10 m/sec, corrosion rates in inhibited
systems start to increase due to the removal of protective surface films by the high velocity flow.
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Figure 3.5: Corrosion rate as a function of velocity and temperature

Flow related effects on corrosivity have been linked to the wall shear stress developed and is an area of
intense research in the community
32
. Flow induced corrosion is a direct consequence of mass and
momentum transfer effects in a dynamic flow system where the interplay of inertial and viscous forces is
responsible for accelerating or decelerating metal loss at the fluid/metal interface. Another relevant
aspect of flow or velocity induced corrosion is erosion corrosion
33
and refers to the mechanical removal
of corrosion product films through momentum effects or through impingement and abrasion. Guidelines
for velocity limits with respect to erosional considerations are given in API-14E in terms of the density
of the fluid medium.
34

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Figure 3.6: Effect of gas velocity on corrosion rate
3.4.6 Importance of Water/Gas/Oil ratios
The PREDICT 6.0 model classifies systems as oil dominated or gas dominated on the basis of the gas/oil
ratio (GOR) of the production environment. If the environment has a GOR < 890 m
3
/m
3
(5000 scf/bbl in
English units)
35
, the tendency for corrosion and environmental cracking is often substantially reduced.
This is caused by the possible inhibiting effect of the oil film on the metal surface, which effectively
reduces the corrosivity of the environment. However, the inhibiting effect is dependent on the oil phase
being persistent and acting as a barrier between the metal and the corrosive environment. The
persistence of the oil phase is a strong factor in providing protection, even in systems with high water
cuts. In oil systems with a persistent oil phase and up to 45 percent water cut, corrosion is fully
suppressed, irrespective of the type of hydro-carbon
12
. Relative wettability of the oil phase versus the
water phase has a significant effect on corrosion
36
. Metal surfaces that are oil wet show significantly
lower corrosion rates
37
.

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The PREDICT 6.0 model described in this Chapter provides for a significant reduction in the corrosion
rate (up to a factor of 4) based on the type of oil phase being persistent, mildly persistent and not
persistent. However, the degree of protection can be quantified only as a function of water cut and
velocity. The persistence determination is a more complex task and requires knowledge of the kerogen
type and hydrocarbon density. It is important to understand the type of crude oil in terms of the organic
compounds that make up the crude to determine wettability effects. Figure 3.7 shows data that relates
the acid number of the crude to oil wettability and Figure 3.8 shows corrosion rate as a function of
produced water content for different crude oil/produced water mixtures
36
. While the effect of
persistence of the oil medium is significant on corrosion rates, it is even more difficult to quantify
precise compositional elements of an oil medium that contribute to wettability and persistent oil film
formation. Such quantification is possible by rigorous laboratory testing of different actual,
uncontaminated (read deaerated) production water samples, so as to determine the extent of protection.

Figure 3.7: Effect of acid number on crude oil wettability

In oil systems the water cut acts in synergy with the oil phase to determine the level of protection from
the hydrocarbon phase. However, at very low water cuts (less than 5 percent), corrosive severity of the
environment is lessened due to the absence of an adequate aqueous medium required to promote the
corrosion reaction.
In gas dominated systems, there are two measures to evaluate availability of the aqueous medium. If the
operating temperature is higher than the dew point of the environment, no condensation is going to be
possible and will lead to highly reduced corrosion rates. Corrosion under condensing conditions (i.e.,

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operating temperature less than the dew point) is a function of the rate of condensation and transport of
corrosion products from the metal surface.
38
If the total water in a condensing system as measured by
the Water to Gas Ratio is less than 11.3m
3
/Mm
3
(2 BBL water/MSCF gas), corrosivity is substantially
reduced.

Figure 3.8: Effect of changing crude oil type on corrosion rate as a function of water content
3.4.7 Oxygen/Sulfur
Presence of oxygen significantly alters the corrosivity of the environment in production systems.
Oldfield
39
has chronicled how presence of oxygen can significantly increase corrosion rates due to
acceleration of anodic oxidation. While corrosion rate increases with oxygen, rate of oxygen reduction
as a cathodic reaction is further exacerbated by:

- Increase in operating temperature
- Increased fluid flow leading to increased mass flow of oxygen to the metal surface
- Increasing oxygen concentration

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Data showing increases in corrosion rate as a function of oxygen concentration for differing
temperatures is shown in Figure 3.9
39
. Corrosion rates for different flow velocities and oxygen levels as
a function of temperature is shown in Figure 3.10
39
. Presence of elemental sulfur is similar to that of
free oxygen since elemental sulfur also acts as a strong oxidizing agent.
3.4.8 Inhibition/Inhibition Effectiveness
Appropriate inhibition is a critical criterion for effective use of carbon steels in corrosive production
systems. Inhibition has been typically found to be viable in flows with velocity in the range 0.3 - 10 m/s.
Requirements for the type of inhibitor and the method of delivery depend on the type of system
(production tubing or horizontal flow lines) to be inhibited. Inhibition Efficiency (IE) describes the
efficacy of an inhibitor treatment in mitigating weight loss corrosion and is an important factor in
assessing corrosivity. It is based on either laboratory or field data where inhibited and non-inhibited
corrosion rates are compared using the following equation:
IE = 100[(CR
n
- CR
i
)/CR
n
]
Where

CR
n
= non-inhibited corrosion rate,
CR
i
= inhibited corrosion rate.

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Figure 3.9: Effect of oxygen concentration as a function of temperature on corrosion

Values of IE near 1.0 represent conditions with maximum efficacy of the inhibitor treatment. Conditions
which affect IE include:

1. Inhibitor concentration.
2. Severity of corrosive environment.
3. Service temperature.
4. Solubility of inhibitor in aqueous phase.
5. Phase behavior of inhibitor and carrier fluid in service environment.
6. Persistence of inhibitor on metal surface.

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The PREDICT 6.0 model evaluates inhibition efficacy on the basis of velocity, hydrocarbons to water ratio
and dissolved chloride levels. The method of delivery (batch, continuous, pigging etc.) is also an
important factor in determining appropriateness of inhibition for a given set of operating conditions.

Figure 3.10: Effect of oxygen concentration as a function of temperature on corrosion
3.4.9 Incorporation of H
2
S Corrosion Data from JIP
PREDICT 6.0 has incorporated PANDA (Prediction Assessment of Corrosivity of Multiphase CO
2
/ H
2
S
Environments) report data; data obtained in a joint industry sponsored program conducted by
Honeywell. This report encompasses over 18 flow loop tests conducted over an eighteen month period
for different environments. Data generated in this report indicates partial pressure CO
2
, chloride content,
shear stress and temperature plays an important role on H
2
S corrosion behavior.
Data detailed in PANDA report indicates that:

- Corrosion rate was lower at higher levels of H
2
S at ambient temperature, indicating
benefit of higher levels of H
2
S.
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- Corrosion rate for impingement and reservoir specimens were higher than that for laminar
coupons in all cases.
- Corrosion rate increased with increase in velocity.
- Higher corrosion rates were observed with higher chlorides.
- No effect of velocity was seen at low levels of H
2
S, indicating possible scaling of the
coupons.

PREDICT 6.0 uses the following methodology to calculate/ predict H
2
S corrosion rate for steels:

- Perform flow modeling to compute wall shear stress (WSS) at given condition.
- Calculate the base corrosion rate for steels (CR
Base
) from computed wall shear stress.
- Obtain the CO
2
(CF
CO2
), temperature (CF
Temp
), and chloride (CF
Cl
) correction factors
from data provided by user.
- Base corrosion rate of steels (CR
Base
) is multiplied by CO
2
, temperature, and chloride
correction factors to get the final H
2
S corrosion rate.

The final H
2
S corrosion rate predicted is represented by the following relationship:
CR
Final
= CR
Base
x CR
CO2
x CR
Temp
x CR
Cl

CR
Base
: Base corrosion rate
CR
CO2
: CO
2
correction factor
CR
Temp
: Temperature correction factor
CR
Cl
: Chloride correction factor

3.4.10 Updated pH Prediction Model
The importance of pH determination in corrosion field has been well recognized, because pH is one of
the most critical parameters in corrosivity determination. PREDICT 6.0 calculate the pH by using the
Brnstead concept
63
. The pH calculation involves H
+
, HCO
3
-
, CO
3
-
, H
2
S, HS
-
, S
-
, OH
-
, acetate and
formate. The effects of common anions and cations species were taken into consideration thought their
influence on dissociation equilibrium constants. The pH of an aqueous solution is generally defined by
following equation:

pH = -log a
H
+
= -log
H
+
m
H
+

a
H
+
: Activity of hydrogen ion
H
+
: Activity coefficient
m
H
+
: Hydrogen ion concentration

For systems containing carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, the following ionic balance has been
developed:
[H
+
] = [HCO
3
-
] + 2 [CO
3
-2
] + [HS
-
] + 2 [S
-2
] + [OH
-
] C
HCO3
-
2 C
HS
-2
C
HCO3
-
- 2 C
S
-2

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The ions in brackets are equilibrium concentrations and were computationally determined by following
dissociation process.

Equilibrium concentration of carbonate ion,
K
H

CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3

K
1

H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO
3
-

K
2

HCO
3
-
H
+
+ CO
3
-2

[H
2
CO
3
]
K
H
=
[pp CO
2
]

[H
+
] [HCO
3
-
]
K
1
=
[H
2
CO
3
]

[H
+
] [CO
3
-2
]
K
2
=
[HCO
3
-
]

Further simplifying the above equations gives,

[pp CO
2
] K
1
K
2
K
H

[CO
3
-2
] =
[H
+
]
2

Which,

K
H
Henrys law constant
K
1
First dissociation constant of CO
2

K
2
Second dissociation constant of CO
2

Equilibrium concentration of sulfide ion,
K
H

H
2
S + H
2
O H
2
S
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K
1

H
2
S HS
-
+ H
+

K
2

HS
-
S
-2
+ H
+

[H
2
S]
K
H
=
[pp H
2
S]

[H
+
] [HS
-
]
K
1
=
[H
2
S]

[H
+
] [S
-2
]
K
2
=
[HS
-
]

Further simplifying the above equations gives,

[pp H
2
S] K
1
K
2
K
H

[S
-2
] = .
[H
+
]
2

Which,

K
H
Henrys law constant
K
1
First dissociation constant of H
2
S
K
2
Second dissociation constant of H
2
S

Dissociation of water,

K
W

H
2
O H
+
+ OH
-

K
W
= [H
+
] [OH
-
]

Thus, the pH of solution with the presence of CO
2
and H
2
S can be obtained by solving above equations.
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3.4.11 Pitting Probability Model
Often, rather than uniform corrosion, pitting is the main cause of failure in production and transport of
oil and gas. Pitting is a localized form of corrosion on a metal surface, which rapidly attacks or
penetrates at small discrete spots in the metal surface. The rate of penetration may be 10 to 100 times
that of general corrosion. It is considered to be more dangerous than uniform corrosion damage because
it is more difficult to detect, predict and prevent. Pitting depends on the characteristics of the metals,
amount of CO
2
, amount of H
2
S, pressure, temperature, composition of aqueous streams, and pH.
Pitting/ localized corrosion involves at least two main steps/stages, initiation, and propagation. A
protective iron carbonate scale may form on the metal surface under the right environment as a by
product of corrosion process. Unfortunately, any damage to this film may be one of the ways to initiate
localized corrosion. In some cases localized corrosion is initiated but it does not propagate. Recently,
Ohio University demonstrated that pits will propagate only if the conditions are just right (grey zone
criterion)
64
.
Throughout the experiments detailed in Ref 64, the criteria for the likelihood of localized corrosion were
determined. Localized corrosion occurred only when partially protective films were formed; whereas
under film-free conditions or formation of fully protective films, only uniform corrosion is expected.
Therefore, super saturation level is critical to predict likelihood of localized corrosion. Super saturation
level less than 1 means the solution is under saturated; and super saturation level greater than 1 means
the solution is super saturated. At levels close to saturation point (close to 1), materials tend to be locally
and highly attacked, thus increasing the likelihood of localized corrosion. Criteria for Super saturation
may be characterized as:

If SS << 1 or SS >> 1 uniform corrosion

If 0.5 SS 3 localized corrosion is likely

The iron carbonate super saturation level (SS) is defined as follows:

sp
K
CO Fe
SS
] ][ [
2
3
2 +
=
Where,

[Fe
2+
] Equilibrium concentration of ferrous ion in mol/l
[CO
3
2-
] Equilibrium concentration of carbonate ion in mol/l
K
sp
Solubility Product of iron carbonate

Other than the Grey Zone theory, it is believed that the Cl
-
concentration tends to facilitate pitting. It is
evident that steels become more susceptible to localized corrosion as the chloride concentration
increases. Repassivation and Corrosion potentials were used to determine the minimum concentration of
chloride ions necessary for pitting to initiate and propagate. Steels should be immune/ less likelihood to
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pitting in deaerated/ low chloride ions solutions since the repassivation potential is more active than
corrosion potential. As the chloride concentration increases, the difference between repassivation and
corrosion potentials is reduced which increase the likelihood of localized corrosion. Once corrosion
potential is above the repassivation potential, the likelihood of localized corrosion is high. And its
indicated that if a pit nucleated, it would continue propagating
65,66
.

As mentioned above, if the system condition falls into the Grey Zone or exceeds the critical Cl
-

concentration, localized propagation is expected. Hence, the risk of localized corrosion can be predicted
through super saturation and Cl
-
concentration level.

3.4.12 Summary
The corrosion rate predicted in the current model can be represented in terms of three broad rules that
guide the computer models decision making:

1. Effect of fundamental system variables such as CO
2
, H
2
S, pH, temperature, and fluid flow (flow
regime, wall shear stress, velocity) on corrosion rate.
2. Effect of parameter interactions on corrosivity, such as, influence of temperature on the carbonate or
sulfide film stability. Or flow effects on corrosion products and the ensuing loss of protective films
as a function of velocity, temperature, acid gases and pH.
3. Effects of system modifiers such as oil film persistence (or lack of it) or the crude type, water cut,
dew point, aeration and inhibition.

Corrosion rate, thus predicted, incorporates the synergy of effects of all the critical system variables and
provides a more realistic estimation of corrosivity than what would be available with conservative
theoretical models that focus on a limited number of parameters. The significance of the reasoning in
PREDICT 6.0 model stems from the fact that the decisions made synthesize different types of corrosion
knowledge:

- Theoretical mechanistic models that provide effects of different parameters, including system
thermodynamics, phase behavior, speciation, solubility etc.
- Data from extensive laboratory testing (JIP) that provide a numerical model for correlating wall
shear stress and corrosion rates
- Data from laboratory tests that provide insight on parametric correlations and trends about
parametric effects, and
- Experience-based heuristics that facilitate proper interpretation of data from lab and field.

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4. FLOW MODELING IN PREDICT 6.0

4.1 OVERVIEW
Multiphase systems present an imposing challenge from a standpoint of corrosion evaluation and
prediction because of the need to synergistically capture the role of important environmental, flow and
metallurgical variables and underlying mechanisms of corrosion. In this chapter, we focus on modeling
fluid flow in order to assess wall shear stress and pressure drop in multiphase systems.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Proper modeling of multiphase flow requires an understanding of the physical system. When co-current
flow of multi-phases occurs, the phases take up a variety of configurations, known as flow patterns
52
.
The particular flow pattern depends on the conditions of pressure, flow and channel geometry. In
corrosion prediction and assessment in oil and gas wells, the flow pattern or successive flow patterns
that would exist in the well and shear stress at the wall are essential. The flow modeling module in
PREDICT 6.0 helps the user in predicting the flow pattern and assessing the shear stress and pressure drop
for various flow regimes depending on the flow parameters, thus helping the user in assessing the
effective corrosion rate.
4.3 VERTICAL FLOW
PREDICT 6.0 uses the flow map proposed by Kabir and Hasan
52
. The flow map is developed based on
theoretical principles and is verified using experimental data. The model is found to have a better
accuracy in calculation of flow regime, liquid hold-up and pressure drop, over other models. As per
Kabir and Hasan, the four flow patterns that occur in a vertical flow are - bubbly, slug, churn and
annular - shown in Figure 4.1.
At low gas flow rates, the gas phase tends to rise through the continuous liquid medium as small discrete
bubbles giving rise to the name, bubbly flow.
As the gas flow rate increases the smaller bubbles begin to coalesce forming larger bubbles. At
sufficiently high gas flow rates, the agglomerated bubbles become large enough to occupy almost the
entire pipe cross-section. These large bubbles, known as Taylor bubbles, separate the liquid slugs
between them. The liquid slugs, which usually contain smaller entrained gas bubbles, gives the name of
the flow regime.
At still higher flow rates the shear stress between the Taylor bubble and the liquid film increases,
finally causing a breakdown of the liquid film and the bubbles. The resulting churning motion of the
fluids give rise to the name of this flow pattern.
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The final flow pattern, annular flow, occurs at extremely high gas flow rates which causes the entire gas
phase to flow through the central portion of the tube. Some liquid is entrained in the gas core as droplets
while the rest of the liquid flows up the wall through the annulus formed by the tube wall and the gas
core.
Figure 4.1 - Flow Patterns in Vertical Concurrent Two Phase Flow
A brief summary of the model used for calculation of flow pattern, liquid hold-up and pressure drop is
given below:
Summary of the Model
4.3.1. Bubbly Flow:
Transition Criteria:
| | V V V V V
sg sl t t tT
< + < 0429 0357 . . or

( )
or and E V D
g
g m
l g
l
m
l
< >

(
(
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
052 4 68
112 0 48
0 5
0 6 0 08
. .
. .
.
. .

o
o

Void Fraction:
| |
E
V
C V V
g
sg
m t
=
+
0

C
D
D
c
t
0
12 0371 = +
|
\
|
.
|
. .

Pressure Drop:
( )
dP
dz
f V
g D
f
m m m
c
=
2
2

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4.3.2. Slug Flow:
| | V V V
sg sl t
> + 0429 0357 . . and

( )
| |
V V V
sg g l sl l sl
2 2 2
171 232 50 < - > . log . if or

( ) V V V
sg g l sl l sl
2 2 2
000673 50 < < .
1.7
if

Void Fraction:
| |
E
V
CV V
g
sg
m tT
=
+
1

C
D
D
c
t
1
12 090 = +
|
\
|
.
|
. .

Pressure Drop:
( )
( )
dP
dz
f V E
g D
f
m m m g
c
=
2 1
2

4.3.3. Churn Flow:
( )
V
g
sg
l g
g
<

(
(
31
2
.
o
0.25
and

( )
| |
V V V
sg g l sl l sl
2 2 2
171 232 50 > - > . log . if or

( ) V V V
sg g l sl l sl
2 2 2
000673 50 > < .
1.7
if

Void Fraction:
| |
E
V
CV V
g
sg
m tT
=
+
1

C
1
10 = .

Pressure Drop:
( )
( )
dP
dz
f V E
g D
f
m m m g
c
=
2 1
2

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4.3.4. Annular Flow:
( )
V
g
sg
l g
g
>

(
(
31
2
.
o
0.25

Void Fraction:
( ) E where, X is the Lockhart - Martinelli parameter
g
=

1
0 8
0 378
X
.
.

Pressure Drop:
dP
dz
f V
g D
c c g
c
=
2
2

| |
| |
where,
c

=
+
+
V EV
V EV
sg g sl l
sg sl

( )
| |
( )
f
E
c
g
g
=
+
0079
1 75 1
0 25
.
Re
.

In all of the above equations,
( )

m g l g g
E E = + 1

f
DV
m
m m
l
from

|
\
|
.
|

4.3.5. Shear Stress Calculation

Once the pressure drop in the system is calculated, the shear stress (
t
W
) exerted on the wall can be
calculated using the relation,

tW
P
L
D
=
A
A 4

4.4 HORIZONTAL FLOW
The flow patterns in horizontal flow can be broadly divided into stratified, wavy, annular, slug, bubble
and dispersed/mist flow- Figure 4.2 depicts the flow patterns pictorially. PREDICT 6.0 uses the flow map,
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82
Figure 4.3, proposed by Mandhane et. al.
54
, based on 5935 flow pattern observations with an accuracy of
68.3%, to make an estimate of the flow pattern prevalent in the vertical system.

FIGURE 4.2 FLOW PATTERNS IN HORIZONTAL FLOW

Stratified flow occurs when the liquid flows along the bottom of the pipe and the gas flows over a
smooth liquid-gas interface. Wave flow occurs when the gas phase traveling at a greater velocity than the
liquid phase as to cause ripples in the liquid.
Annular flow occurs when the liquid forms a film around the inside wall of the pipe and the gas flows at
high velocities in the center of the pipe. Slug flow occurs when waves of liquid are picked up by a more
rapidly moving gas to form a frothy slug, which passes through the pipe at a much greater velocity than
the average liquid velocity. The gas phase is more pronounced than in bubble flow. Although the
liquid phase is still continuous the gas bubbles coalesce to form stable bubbles with almost the diameter
of the pipe. Slugs of liquid separate these large bubbles. The velocity of the bubbles is greater than that
of the liquid and can be predicted in relation to the liquid velocity. The liquid surrounding the gas
bubble travels at different velocities compared to the rest of the liquid phase. These variations result in
varying wall friction losses and also in liquid holdup. Both the gas and liquid phases have significant
effects on the pressure gradient.
Bubble flow occurs when bubbles of gas move along the upper part of the pipe at approximately the
same velocity as the liquid. Here, the gas is present as small bubbles randomly distributed, and their
diameters also vary randomly. The bubbles move at random velocities depending on their respective
diameter. Mist flow is the regime in which most or nearly all of the liquid is entrained as spray by the
gas. This is also called as dispersed flow/spray flow and may result in droplet impingement on the metal
surface, causing significant erosion damage. Here, the gas phase is continuous and the bulk of the liquid
is entrained in the gas.
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FIGURE 4.3 FLOW-PATTERN MAP OF MANDHANE ET. AL. FOR HORIZONTAL TWO-PHASE FLOW IN PIPES

4.4.1. Flow Pattern Prediction
The coordinates for transition boundaries between various flow regimes of proposed flow pattern map
are delineated in Table 1 where X and Y are the physical property correction factors,

X
G L G
=
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|

o

00808 62 4
72 4
0018
0 2 0 25 0 2
. .
.
.
. . .
Y
L L
=
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
o

62 4
72 4
10
0 25 0 2
.
.
.
. .
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Transition Boundary VSG (ft/s) VSL (ft/s) Physical property
correction - multiply
equation of
transition boundary
by
Stratified to elongated bubble 0.1
5.0
0.5
0.5
1.0/Y
Wave to slug 7.5
40.0
0.3
0.3
Y
Elongated bubble and slug to
dispersed bubble
0.1
230.0
14.0
14.0
Y
Stratified and elongated
bubble to wave and slug
35.0
14.0
10.5
2.5
2.5
3.25
0.01
0.1
0.2
1.15
4.8
14.0
X
Wave and slug to annular-mist 70.0
60.0
38.0
40.0
50.0
100.0
230.0
0.01
0.1
0.3
0.56
1.0
2.5
14.0
X
Dispersed bubble to annular-
mist
230.0
269.0
14.0
30.0
X
TABLE 4.1: CO-ORDINATES FOR TRANSITION BOUNDARIES IN THE FLOW MAP
4.4.2. Liquid Hold-up Factor
Another important step in the prediction of pressure drop is the liquid hold-up factor. Liquid hold-up is
the actual portion of the tube occupied by the liquid. Beggs & Brill
56
provide adequate relationships
among primary hydrodynamic variables for calculating the liquid hold-up, based on three broad flow
patterns:
1. Segregated flow - stratified, wavy, annular
2. Intermittent flow - plug, slug
3. Distributed flow - bubble, mist

The equations used for hold-up calculation are listed below:
For segregated flow:
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For intermittent flow:
For Distributed flow:

4.4.3. Pressure Drop Calculation

Calculating accurate pressure drop in tubing for a two-phase flow is not a simple task. A method
suggested by Duckler et. al.
55
, has found good agreement in lab simulation. Relevant equations used for
pressure drop calculation are listed below:

Where,

N
ReTP
is the two phase Reynolds No. used for the calculation of friction factor f
o

o() is the two-phase correction factor
G
T
is the total mass velocity
W
T
is the total mass flow rate
NS
,
G
,
L
are no-slip, gas and liquid densities respectively
, H
L
are liquid fraction and liquid hold-up factor respectively
D is the diameter of the pipe

4.4.4. Shear Stress Calculation

Once the pressure drop in the system is calculated, the shear stress (t
w
) exerted on the wall can be
calculated using the relation,

H
N
L
FR
=
098
0 4846
0 0868
.
.
.
H
N
L
FR
=
0845
0 5351
0 0172
.
.
.
H
N
L
FR
=
1065
0 5825
0 0609
.
.
.
t
w
P
L
D
=
A
A 4
c
c
o |
P
L
G f
g D
T o
c NS
=
2
2
( )
N
W
D
TP
T
NS
Re
=
4
t
|
( )
( )
|

= +

L
NS L
G
NS L
H
H
2 2
1
1
4.5 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
PREDICT 6.0 includes the effect of compressibility of gases while calculating velocity and
pressure drop. The compressibility factor of natural gases is calculated using the Dranchuk
Abou-Kassem equations given below:

( )
( )
z A
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
A
T
A
T
A
A
T
A
T
A A
T
pr
pr pr pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
A
pr
= + + + + +
|
\
|
.
|
+ + +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
+ +
|
\
|
.
|

1
1
1
2 3
3
4
4
5
5
6
7 8
2
2
9
7 8
2
5
10 11
2
2
3
11
2

where,
( )
pr
pr
pr
P
zT
=

(
(
027 . , is the pseudo reduced density

A1 through A11 are constants
T
pr
is the pseudo reduced temperature
P
pr
is the pseudo reduced pressure

4.6 INCLINED FLOW
Inclined flow is handled as per the correlations based on the publication by Beggs and Brill
56
.
The approach to inclined flow modeling is of computing horizontal liquid hold-ups as mentioned
above and using a correction coefficient to account for the inclination.
The various types of flow regimes generated in horizontal flow, the inclination (whether flowing
uphill or downhill) and the input liquid content are the main parameters that affect this
coefficient.
Pressure drop is computed using the following equation:

p g
H H
d g
G f
H H
g
g
dZ
dp
c
sg m L g L l
c
m m tp
L g L l
c
u u
u
u
)] 1 ( [
1
2
) 1 ( sin
+
+ ) + (
=

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87
Where,
v
m
and v
sg
are the mixture and superficial gas velocities
L
and
G
are the densities of the liquid and the gas phase
G
m
is the mixture mass flux rate
d is the pipe diameter
f
tp
is the two phase friction factor
u is the pipe inclination angle from horizontal

This total pressure drop takes into account the following three components:
1. Frictional Pressure Gradient
2. Acceleration Pressure Gradient
3. Gravity Pressure Gradient

This also accounts for the pressure recovery in downhill section of a pipeline and forms a part of
the flow model. An iterative procedure is implemented to perform a complete flow
characterization of the entire pipeline system to compute liquid holdup, pressure drop, shear
stress, superficial gas and liquid velocities for individual segments.
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5. CORROSION DISTRIBUTION PROFILE IN PREDICT 6.0
5.1 OVERVIEW
The problem of corrosion prediction across a pipeline or a tubing string is significant from a
stand point of the number of data points that need to be modeled and characterized. Given that
each corrosion prediction calculation in PREDICT 6.0 may require up to 50 input data parameters,
studying corrosion distribution across multiple points on a line immediately becomes a
substantial task.
In an effort to address the need to generate multi-point profiles across tubing strings or pipeline
segments, Honeywell has created a new corrosion distribution profile generation module in
PREDICT 6.0 that automates this onerous task. This chapter describes the extensive functionality
built into this module, and shows how the end user can, with minimal data specification, identify
and predict problem zones in a piping system and to analyze predicted corrosion rates and water
phase behavior at virtually any point along the pipe.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
One of the many crucial parameters for accurate corrosion prediction is the presence of liquid
water in the system. Water phase behavior is critical for two reasons:
- Corrosion occurs only in the presence of a continuous conductive (aqueous) system
- It is important to accurately characterize the liquid water in a system in order to assess the
water wettability with respect to other phases.

PREDICT 6.0 incorporates a rigorous model for accurate characterization of water phase behavior.
With correlations for water content of Natural Gas, corrections for sour gas, and vapor pressure
estimates for water at various conditions along a line, as well as information about total water to
gas ratio of the system, the condensation of water can be predicted. The Profile tool in PREDICT
6.0 takes into account the system water and evaluates the phase behavior, quantifies the
availability of liquid water and computes the corrosion rates along the pipeline. On the Process
Data tab, users provide gas composition, water analysis and inlet and outlet temperature and
pressure conditions. Once this is provided, users can select the Profile button under the Home
Menu to launch the Profile tool. The resulting profile screen is as shown below in Figure 5.1
As shown in the figure, users can perform the corrosion profile analysis on a series of segments
with different inclinations as well. Additional segments can be added by tabbing through the data
slots for each segment shown in the bottom panel. Users will be prompted to add another row of
data when the TAB key is clicked while in the last entry box for the row. Clicking Analyze will
refresh the screen with any changes made.

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Figure 5.1 CORROSION PROFILE IN PREDICT 6.0
The temperature and pressure profiles are assumed to be linear along the pipe length and
corrosion rates are predicted at various points using the interpolated pressure, temperature, partial
pressures and the presence of water condensate at these conditions. These calculated corrosion
rates and water phase-behavior bars are plotted on the profile plot. The maximum allowed
corrosion rate is presented as a yellow line and for the piping to have a projected service life
greater than or equal to the desired (design) service life, the predicted corrosion rates should be
less than the permissible corrosion rate. In the example shown above the predicted corrosion
rates are greater than the permissible corrosion rate.
The profile plot can be copied by clicking on the copy button, this places the plot in the clipboard
and this can be pasted into any application such as MS-Word, MS-PowerPoint etc. Clicking on
Done will dismiss the Profile screen and show you the default consultation view.
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5.3 WATER PHASE BEHAVIOR COMPUTATIONAL BACKGROUND
PREDICT 6.0 uses the correlation of Bukacek and Maddox for computing the water content of
sour natural gas
62
. It utilizes Bukaceks correlation
61
for sweet gas, which is reported to be
accurate between 60 F and 460 F and for pressures from 15 to 10,000 psia. The factors for the
acid gas are accounted by Maddox Correlation
60
, which handles the contribution of CO
2
and
H
2
S. These correlations for both H
2
S and CO
2
are valid from 100 to 3000 psia. Temperature
ranges for their accuracy should be in the range of 80 F 280 F for H
2
S and 80 F 160 F for
CO
2
.

Bukaceks correlation is given as:
B w
P
P
total
sat
water
+ = * 47484
69449 . 6
6 . 459
87 . 3083
log +
+
=
t
B

where w is in lb/MMSCF and t is in F. This is applicable only to sweet gas.
Maddoxs method assumes that the water content of sour gas is the sum of three terms:
1. sweet gas contribution
2. CO
2
contribution, and
3. H
2
S contribution.

The water content of the gas is calculated as a mole fraction weighted average of the three
contributions.
w
y
w
y
w
y
S H
S H
CO
CO
HC
HC
w
2
2
2
2
+ + =
Where,
w is the water content in lb/MMCF, y is the mole fraction and subscripts HC, CO
2
and H
2
S for
hydrocarbon, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide

respectively.
Carroll
62
put forth a mathematical correlation by regressing the Maddox charts, to
programmatically compute water content w in lb/MMCF for H
2
S and CO
2
.

This correlation is a
function of total pressure P in psia, and uses common logarithms.

2
2 1 0
) (log log log P a P a a w + + =

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93

The values for coefficients a
0
, a
1
and a
2
are reproduced in Table 6.0.

Temperature F
(C)
a0 a1 a2
Carbon Dioxide
80 6.0901 -2.5396 0.3427
100 6.1870 -2.3779 0.3103
130 6.1925 -2.0280 0.2400
160 6.1850 -1.8492 0.2139
Hydrogen Sulfide
80 5.1847 -1.9772 0.3004
100 5.4896 -2.0210 0.3046
130 6.1694 -2.2342 0.3319
160 6.8834 -2.4731 0.3646
220 7.9773 -2.8597 0.4232
280 9.2783 -3.3723 0.4897

TABLE 5.1 Correlation Coefficients for Calculating the Maddox Correction for Water Content of
Sour Natural Gas, Carroll
62

To use this method, w
HC
is computed using a sweet gas method such as McKetta-Wehe chart,
(Bukacek is used in PREDICT 6.0) and the contributions for CO
2
and H
2
S are computed from the
charts provided by Maddox, which were regressed and used for computing w
CO2
and w
H2S
, this
also enables the correlations to be extrapolated beyond their suggested range to a certain extent.
Since the contribution by these gases is minor in most cases, the use of these extrapolations can
be justified. In cases with high H
2
S and CO
2
content it is advisable to stay within the limits of the
Maddox correlation for an accurate water content estimate.
These equations and the system parameters are used to accurately estimate the phase behavior o
water in the system and predict the dew point temperature for water. The presence of liquid water
aggravates the corrosion problem and predicting its presence along a piping system is critical to
the accuracy to predicted corrosion rates.
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APPENDIX A: BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. C. S. Fang et al., Computer model of a gas condensate well containing carbon dioxide, Corrosion/89, Paper
465, New Orleans, NACE, 1989.
2. C. de Waard and U. Lotz, Prediction of CO
2
corrosion of carbon steel, Corrosion/93, Paper 69, New
Orleans, 1993.
3. C. de Waard and D. E. Milliams., Carbonic acid corrosion of steel, Corrosion 31, 5, 1975, 177.
4. E. Dayalan et al., Modeling CO
2
corrosion of carbon steels in pipe flow, Corrosion/95, Paper 118, Orlando,
FL, 1995.
5. J. D. Garber et al., Down hole parameters to predict mist flow and tubing life in gas condensate wells,
Corrosion/94, Paper 25, Baltimore, MD, 1994.
6. R. D. Kane and S. Srinivasan, Proceedings of CLI Workshop on oil and gas corrosivity, Abu Dhabi, April
1995.
7. L. H. Gatzky and R. H. Hausler A novel correlation of tubing corrosion rates and gas production rates,
Advances in CO
2
Corrosion, Vol. 1, pp. 87, NACE 1984.
8. J. L Crolet and M Bonis., A tentative method for predicting the corrosivity of wells in new CO
2
fields,
Advances in CO
2
Corrosion, Vol. 2, pp. 23, NACE 1985.
9. A. Ikeda et al., Influence of environmental factors on corrosion in CO
2
wells, Advances in CO
2
Corrosion,
Vol. 2, pp. 1-22, NACE 1985.
10. C. D. Adams et al., Methods of prediction of tubing life for gas condensate wells containing CO
2
, 23
rd
OTC,
Houston, TX, 1991.
11. Ketil Videm and Jon Kvarekval., Corrosion of carbon steel in CO
2
saturated aqueous solutions containing
small amounts of H
2
S, Corrosion/94, Paper 12.
12. U. Lotz. et al., The effect of oil or gas condensate on carbonic acid corrosion, Corrosion/90, Paper 41.
13. H. J. Choi et al., Corrosion rate measurements of L-80 grade bottomhole tubular in flowing brines,
Corrosion/88, Paper 213, St. Louis, MO, 1988.
14. K. D. Efird, Predicting corrosion of steel in crude oil production, Materials Performance, Vol. 30, No. 3,
March 91, pp 63-66.
15. Arne Dugstad and Liv Lunde., Parametric study of CO
2
corrosion of carbon steel, Corrosion/94, Paper 14.
16. U. Lotz., Velocity effects in flow-induced corrosion, Corrosion/90, Paper 27, Houston, Texas 1990.
17. Y. Gunatlun., Carbon dioxide corrosion in oil wells, Paper SPE 21330, SPE Middle East Oil Show,
Bahrain, 1991.
18. M. R. Bonis and J. L. Crolet., Basics of Prediction of risks of CO
2
corrosion in oil and gas wells,
Corrosion/89, Paper 466, New Orleans, 1989.
19. R. H. Hausler and D. W. Stegmann CO2 corrosion and its prevention by chemical inhibition in oil and gas
production, Corrosion/88, Paper 363, St. Louis, MO, 1988.
20. R. D. Kane and S. Srinivasan Reliability assessment of Wet H
2
S Refinery and pipeline equipments: A
Knowledge-based systems approach, Serviceability of Petroleum, Process and Power Equipment, Eds. D.
Bagnoli, M. Prager and D. M. Schlader, PVP Vol. 239, ASME, NY, 1992
21. S. Srinivasan and R. D. Kane, Expert Systems for Selection of Materials in Sour Service, Proceedings of the
72
nd
Annual GPA Convention, GPA, 1993, pp 88-92.
22. Linda G. S., et al., Effect of pH and temperature on the mechanism of carbon steel corrosion by aqueous
carbon dioxide, Corrosion/90, Paper 40, Las Vegas, 1990.
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23. Bonis M., and Crolet J. L., Practical aspects of the influence of in-situ pH on H
2
S induced cracking,
Corrosion Science, Vol. 27, No. 10/11, pp 1059-1070, 1987.
24. R. D. Kane et al., Internal Reports on multi-client program on safe use limits for steels, CLI International,
Inc., 1992-1994, Houston, Texas.
25. S. Srinivasan and R. D. Kane, Methodologies for reliability assessment of sour gas pipelines, Proceedings
of the Fifth International Conference on Pipeline Reliability, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, Sept.
1995.
26. S. N. Smith and E. J. Wright, Prediction of minimum H
2
S levels required for slightly sour corrosion,
Corrosion/94, Paper 11, Baltimore, MD, 1994.
27. R. D. Kane, Roles of H2S in behavior of engineering alloys, International Metal Reviews, Vol. 30, No. 6,
1985, pp 291-302.
28. M. J. J. Simon Thomas and J. C. Loyless., CO
2
corrosion in gas lifted oil production: Correlations of
predictions and field experience, Corrosion/93, Paper 79.
29. T. Murata et al., Evaluation of H
2
S containing environments from the view point of OCTG and line pipe for
sour gas applications, Paper No. OTC 3507, 11
th
Annual OTC, 1979, Houston, Texas.
30. B. Lefebvre et al., Behavior of carbon steel and chromium steels in CO
2
environments, Advances in CO
2

Corrosion, Vol. 2, pp. 55-71, NACE 1985.
31. L.K. Sood et al., Design of surface facilities for Khuff gas, SPE Production engineering, July 1986, pp 303-
309.
32. K. D. Efird et al., Experimental correlation of steel corrosion in pipe flow with jet impingement and rotating
cylinder laboratory tests, Corrosion/93, Paper 81, New Orleans, 1993.
33. J. S. Smart III, A review of erosion corrosion in oil and gas production, Corrosion/90, Paper No. 10, 1990.
34. API 14-E, Recommended practice for design and installation of offshore production platform piping system,
III Edition, Dec. 1981, API, Dallas.
35. NACE Material Recommendation MR-01-75-94, NACE International, 1994.
36. K. D. Efird, Chapter on Petroleum Testing. In: Corrosion Tests and Standards - Application and
Interpretation, Ed: Robert Baboian, ASTM, June 1995, pp 350-358.
37. John S. Smart III, Wettability - A major factor in oil and gas system corrosion, Corrosion/93, Paper No. 70,
New Orleans, LA, 1993.
38. S. Olsen, Corrosion under dewing conditions, Corrosion/91, Paper 472, Cincinnati, 1991.
39. J. Oldfield and B. Todd Corrosion considerations in selecting metals for flash chambers, Desalination, 31,
1979, pp 365-383.
40. E. Dayalan et al., Influences of flow parameters on CO
2
corrosion behavior of carbon steels, Corrosion/93,
Paper 72, New Orleans, 1993.
41. A. Dugstad et al., Influence of alloying elements upon the CO
2
corrosion rate of low alloy carbon steels,
Corrosion/91, Paper 473, Cincinnati, 1991.
42. M. Kimura et al., Effects of alloying elements on corrosion resistance of high strength line pipe steel in wet
CO
2
environment, Corrosion/94, Paper 18.
43. R. D. Kane et al., Multi-client proposal Prediction and Assessment of Corrosivity for Use of Steels in Multi-
phase CO2/H2S Environments, CLI International Inc., Oct. 1995.
44. Ciaraldi S. W., Materials failure in sour gas service, Corrosion/85, Paper 217.
45. Kane R. D., et al., Guidelines for selection of materials for H
2
S service, Battelle Summary Report, 1980.
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46. B. V. Johnson et al., Effects of liquid wall shear stress on CO
2
corrosion of X-52 C-steel in simulated oilfield
production environments, Corrosion/93, Paper No. 573.
47. M. Kimura et al., Effects of alloying elements on corrosion resistance of high strength line pipe steel in wet
CO
2
environment, Corrosion/94, Paper 18.
48. X. Zhou and W. P. Jepson., Corrosion in three phase oil/water/gas slug flow in horizontal pipes,
Corrosion/94, Paper 26.
49. C. A. Palacios and J. R. Shadley., CO
2
corrosion of API N-80 steel in two-phase flow systems,
Corrosion/91, Paper 476.
50. Leigh Klein, H
2
S Cracking resistance of type 420 stainless steel tubulars, Corrosion/84, Paper 211.
51. M. B. Kermani et al., Experimental limits of sour service for tubular steels, Corrosion/91, Paper 21.
52. A. R. Hasan and Kabir., C. S., A Study of Multiphase Flow Behavior in Vertical Oil Wells: Part I -
Theoretical Treatment, SPE, Paper No. 15138, 1986.
53. J. L. Crolet and Bonis, M. R., pH Mesurement Under High Prssures of CO
2
and H
2
S, Materials
Performance, May 1984, pp 35-42.
54. J. M. Mandhane et al., A Flow Pattern Map for Gas-Liquid Flow in Horizontal Pipes, J. Multiphase Flow,
1974, Vol. 1, pp. 537-553.
55. A. E. Duckler et al., Frictional Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Flow B. An Approach Through Similarity
Analysis, AIChE J., January 1964, pp. 44-51.
56. H. D. Beggs and Brill, J. P., A Study of Two-Phase Flow in Inclined Pipes, JPT, May 1973, pp. 607-617.
57. Tomson, M. B., and Oddo, J. E., A New Saturation Index Equation to Predict Calcite Formation in Gas and
Oil Production, Soc. Of Pet. Eng. Paper No. 22056, 1991.
58. Ionization Constants of inorganic acids and bases in aqueous solutions, compiled by D. D. Perrin, Pergamon
Press, Oxfordshire, 1964.
59. Stability Constants of metal ion complexes: Part A Inorganic Liquids, compiled by Erik Hogfeldt,
Pergamon Press, Oxfordshire, 1982.
60. Maddox, R. N., Gas and Liquid Sweetening, 2
nd
ed., John M. Campbell., pp.39-42, (1974) and Maddox, R.N.,
L.L. Lilly, M. Moshfeghian, and E. Elizondo, Estimating Water Content of Sour Natural Gas Mixtues,
Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, Norman, OK, Mar. (1988)
61. Bukacek quoted in McCain, W.D., The Properties of Petroleum Fluids. 2
nd
ed., PennWell Books, Tulsa,
OK, (1990)
62. John J. Carroll, The Water Content of Acid Gas and Sour Gas from 100 F to 220 F and Pressures to 10,000
psia, Gas Liquids Engineering Ltd., 81
st
Annual GPA Convention, Dallas, TX, (2002)
63. Donald D. Deford, The Application of the Bronsted Concept to the Calculation of pH in Systems Involving
Two Acid-Base Couples, Analytica Chimica Acta, 1951, pp. 352-356.
64. Jiabin Han, Yang Yang, Bruce Brown, Srdjan Nesic, Electrochemical Investigation of Localized CO
2

Corrosion on Mild Steel, Corrosion/2007, Paper 323.
65. Anderko, N. Sridhar and D.S. Dunn, A General Model for the Repassivation Potential as a Function of
Multiple Aqueous Solution Species, Corrosion Science, 2004, pp. 1583-1612.
66. Anderko, N. Sridhar, D.S. Dunn and C. S. Brossia, A Computational Approach to Predicting the
Occurrence of Localized Corrosion in Multicomponent Aqueous Solutions, Corrosion/2004, Paper 61.
INDEX
A
Acetate .............................................................................. 42
acid number ...................................................................... 69
aeration ....................................................................... 44, 70
alloy ............................................................................ 44, 57
API-14E ............................................................................ 67
aqueous ............................................................................. 40
B
Benefits ............................................................................. 10
Bibliography ..................................................................... 95
bicarbonate ....................................................................... 58
bicarbonates ................................................................ 42, 64
Bockris .............................................................................. 58
Bonis ................................................................................. 60
buffer .......................................................................... 40, 42
C
Calculate
Friction Factor ............................................................. 22
Pressure Drop .............................................................. 22
Shear Stress ................................................................. 22
carbon dioxide .................................................................. 41
carbonic acid ..................................................................... 58
chlorides ..................................................................... 41, 64
Choi .................................................................................. 60
CLI Contact Information .................................................... 6
CO2
Effective partial pressure ............................................ 60
partial pressure of ........................................................ 60
CO
2
/H
2
S- corrosion .......................................................... 57
composition
temperature and ........................................................... 63
Compressibility ................................................................. 87
consult .............................................................................. 54
Conversions ...................................................................... 10
corrosion
allowance ..................................................................... 45
assessment ................................................................... 40
erosion ......................................................................... 57
local ............................................................................. 61
parameters ................................................................... 61
reaction ........................................................................ 58
corrosion allowance .......................................................... 45
corrosion rate
equation ....................................................................... 58
gas velocity .................................................................. 68
water content ............................................................... 70
cost analysis ...................................................................... 20
crude oil wettability .......................................................... 69
D
data entry .......................................................................... 19
Delta pH ........................................................................... 61
Density
Gas .............................................................................. 22
Oil 22
Water ........................................................................... 22
development ..................................................................... 56
dew point .......................................................................... 69
deWaard ..................................................................... 57, 58
Dialog
Flow Model ................................................................. 22
Ionic Strength ........................................................ 23, 24
Diameter ........................................................................... 22
Dugstad ............................................................................ 60
E
Electroneutrality equations ............................................... 61
English units ..................................................................... 10
environmental parameters ................................................ 40
erosion .............................................................................. 57
F
file
new .............................................................................. 50
open ............................................................................ 50
save ............................................................................. 51
Flow Modeling ................................................................. 22
Hoizontal..................................................................... 82
Vertical ....................................................................... 79
Flow Regime
Annular ..................................................... 79, 80, 82, 83
Bubble ............................................................. 79, 82, 83
Churn .......................................................................... 79
Mist ....................................................................... 82, 83
Slug ................................................................. 79, 82, 83
Stratified ............................................................... 82, 83
Wave ..................................................................... 82, 83
fluid velocity .................................................................... 44
Friction Factor .................................................................. 22
G
gas to oil ratio ................................................................... 43
gas velocity
corrosion rate .............................................................. 68
Gunatlun ........................................................................... 60
H
H
2
S
role of .......................................................................... 61
temperature and ........................................................... 64
heuristic ............................................................................ 56
horizontal flow ................................................................. 45
Horizontal Flow ............................................................... 82
FLOW MAP ................................................................... 84
FLOW PATTERNS .......................................................... 83
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Liquid Hold-up ............................................................ 85
Pressure Drop .............................................................. 86
Shear Stress ................................................................. 86
Transition Boundaries ................................................. 85
hydrogen sulfide ............................................................... 40
I
Ikeda ..................................................................... 57, 59, 62
inhibition
batch ............................................................................ 46
continuous ............................................................. 46, 47
horizontal flow ............................................................ 46
method of ..................................................................... 46
no treatment ................................................................. 46
pigging ......................................................................... 46
squeeze ........................................................................ 46
vertical flow ................................................................. 46
Inhibition .......................................................................... 71
Efficiency ............................................ 71, 73, 74, 77, 78
inhibition efficiency .......................................................... 47
factors .......................................................................... 47
Install .............................................................................. 5, 6
interface ............................................................................ 50
Introduction ...................................................................... 56
Ionic Strength ................................................. 23, 24, 42, 43
K
kerogen ............................................................................. 69
L
life time cost ..................................................................... 21
literature ............................................................................ 57
Lotz ................................................................................... 60
M
mackinawite ...................................................................... 62
mechanical design ............................................................. 45
metallurgy ......................................................................... 57
Milliams ...................................................................... 57, 58
modeling parameters ......................................................... 57
multiphase ......................................................................... 66
Murata, T .......................................................................... 62
N
nomogram ......................................................................... 58
numerical .......................................................................... 56
O
oil phase ............................................................................ 69
Oldfield ............................................................................. 70
Overview............................................................................. 8
oxygen .............................................................................. 70
P
parameters ........................................................................ 61
superposition ............................................................... 57
persistence
oil phase ...................................................................... 69
pH
Bulk ...................................................................... 42, 61
delta ............................................................................ 61
Saturation .................................................................... 61
Saturation FeCO
3
........................................................ 42
Saturation FeS ............................................................. 42
pH 44
precipitation ..................................................................... 58
Predict
benefits ........................................................................ 10
consult ................................................................... 13, 54
consultation ................................................................. 15
Convert ....................................................................... 53
cost analysis .................................................... 20, 52, 53
description................................................................... 60
exit .............................................................................. 55
help ............................................................................. 52
install ............................................................................ 5
interface ...................................................................... 50
menus .......................................................................... 50
network ......................................................................... 6
results .......................................................................... 15
screen .............................................................. 12, 13, 14
setup .............................................................................. 5
single-user ..................................................................... 5
start up ............................................................ 12, 13, 14
technical support ........................................................... 6
toolbar ......................................................................... 50
using ............................................................................ 19
present worth .................................................................... 21
Production Rate
Gas .............................................................................. 22
Oil 22
Water ........................................................................... 22
pyrhotite ........................................................................... 62
R
ratio
gas/oil .......................................................................... 43
hydrocarbons/water ..................................................... 45
water/gas ..................................................................... 43
water/gas/oil ................................................................ 68
reactions ........................................................................... 58
reduction .......................................................................... 58
Roughness
Pipe ............................................................................. 22
S
Saturation
pH 61
Saturation pH
FeCO
3
......................................................................... 40
FeS .............................................................................. 40
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service life ......................................................................... 45
setup .................................................................................... 5
Shear Stress....................................................................... 22
SI units .............................................................................. 10
sulfur ........................................................................... 44, 70
Synopsis ............................................................................ 56
System Requirements .......................................................... 5
T
Technical Description ....................................................... 56
Technical Support ............................................................... 6
temperature ....................................................................... 42
CO
2
pressure ................................................................ 65
composition ................................................................. 63
H
2
S and ........................................................................ 64
oxygen concentration ................................................... 72
oxygen concentration ................................................... 73
velocity and ................................................................. 67
Temperature ...................................................................... 63
type of flow ....................................................................... 46
U
undissociated .................................................................... 58
units
english ......................................................................... 51
SI, metric ..................................................................... 51
Units
conversions .................................................................. 10
V
variables ........................................................................... 57
velocity ............................................................................. 65
temperature and ........................................................... 67
vertical flow ..................................................................... 45
Vertical Flow .............................................................. 79, 93
Annular Flow .............................................................. 82
Bubble Flow ................................................................ 80
Churn Flow ................................................................. 81
Patterns ....................................................................... 80
Pressure Drop .................................................. 80, 81, 82
Shear Stress ................................................................. 82
Slug Flow .................................................................... 81
Summary ..................................................................... 80
Void Fraction .................................................. 80, 81, 82
Videm ......................................................................... 59, 62
Viscosity
Gas .............................................................................. 22
Oil 22
Water ........................................................................... 22
W
water
condensed ................................................................... 64
formation ..................................................................... 64
water cut ..................................................................... 40, 69
water to gas ratio .............................................................. 43
wettability ......................................................................... 69

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