Lesson 1 Introduction To Business Communication

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
On completion of this lesson you will understand

UNIT 1 CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
What is communication? How important it is in context of business organizations? How communication process works?
Communication is a process an activity that serves to connect senders and receivers of messages through space and time. Although human beings tend to be interested primarily in the study of human communication, the process is present in all living things and, it can be argued, in all things. From this we may conclude that communication is a fundamental, universal process. How often have you heard statements such as these?
If you want to be promoted, youll have to improve your
What do we mean by communicating effectively? The object of communication is to convey thoughts/ intentions/emotions/ facts/ideas of one person or group to the others. When the message sent is received and understood by the receiver in the same sense , as the sender wants to convey ,effective communication takes place. When the receiver misunderstands a message we consider it a distortion in communication. Throughout our study, we would try to improve our communication skills so that we can make ourselves better understood in our communications. The fact is that we spend so much of our time communicating; we tend to assume that we are experts. Surveys indicate that when business professionals are asked to rate their communication skills, virtually everyone overestimates his or her abilities as a communicator. There is a natural tendency to blame the other person for the problems in understanding or making ourselves understood. The better option is to improve ones own communication. One has to be always on a look to identify his weak points as a communicator and strive to overcome them. This needs a thorough understanding of meaning and process of communication.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
communication skills.
One of the strengths of our relationship over the years has
been that we communicate so well - in fact, usually I know what shes thinking before she tells me!
The lightening storm knocked out our communication
systems, and since then we havent handled a single customer call. Hes really smart, and he knows his stuff, but as a teacher he just doesnt communicate it very well.
They say they built the product to meet our specifications,
Meaning of Communication
Communication is derived from the Latin word communis, which means, to share that is, sharing of ideas, concepts, feelings and emotions. The science of communication is almost as old as man himself. Form time immemorial; the need to share or to communicate had been felt. Different vehicles / channels were identified and subsequently improvised for the purpose of transmission of ideas and concepts. A study of these channels enables us to gain an insight into the process of communication. Before a definition of communication is arrived at, a few queries, which arise in the minds of the readers, have to be answered. What is the importance of communication? Why should it be studied? Why should the channel be analyzed and examined? The importance of communication can be gauged from the fact that we are communicating in some from or the other almost every moment of our lives. Whether we are walking,, talking ,playing, sitting, or even sleeping, a message is being formulated and transmitted. Man, who is a social animal, is constantly interacting with other individuals. For him it is necessary to understand the art of communication and apply or modify it in a suitable manner. Man possesses the ability to communicate, which is much more than a composition of certain symbolize or to understand concepts in terms of images or symbols. It is this ability that helps him to communicate. Communication then, it may be stated, is much more than an understanding of the spoken or written language. It is a composite of symbols,
but its not what we asked for - I think we have a communication problem here. The word communicate derives from the word common to share, exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put in use, relate. So an investigation of this subject might begin with the question: What do all studies of communication have in common? What are the shared concepts that make the study of communication different from the study of subjects such as thought or literature or life? When someone says, this is a communication problem, what does that mean? When a baby sees his mothers face for the first time, communication happens. When someone steps out onto a beach in Goa and water touches his feet communication happens. When the Indian parliament passes a new bill to curb monopolies in the market and the President signs, communication happens. When a computer in Delhi calls up a computer in Tokyo and transmits a message, communication happens. Communication is a general phenomenon. It occurs in nature, wherever life exists. Whether we recognize it or not, we have no choice but to communicate. If we try to avoid communicating by not replying to messages, we are nevertheless sending a message, but it may not be the one we want or intend. When we dont say yes, we may be saying no by default and vice versa. The only choice we can make about communication is whether we are going to attempt to communicate effectively.
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Copy Right: Rai University
gestures, and illustrations that accompany either the spoken or the written word.
A Study-tour of Communication
This tour presents a fundamental overview of the study of communication with emphasis on the study of human communication. The sections may be used in any order, though a comprehensive study would normally begin with section number one and consider each in the order listed below. 1. The Communication Process Communication is a process that serves to connect senders and receivers of messages in space and time. Although human beings tend to be interested primarily in the study of human communication, the process is present in all living things and, it can be argued, in all things. From this we may conclude that communication is a fundamental, universal process.
Basic Purpose of Communication

People in organizations typically spend over 75% of their time in an interpersonal situation; thus it is no surprise to find that at the root of a large number of organizational problems is poor communications. Effective communication is an essential component of organizational success whether it is at the interpersonal, intergroup, intragroup, organizational, or external levels. What is the purpose of (formal) communication? A response to a query of this nature would be more beneficial if attempts were made to understand the business situation where success or failure of issues is always measured in terms of man- hours spent in the completion of a task. Let us take an example. Suppose the boss issues instructions to his subordinate to complete a certain project in a particular manner within a stipulated timeframe. The subordinate does it to the best of his ability. However, the end result is a miserable failure because the manner of completion does not match with the expectations of the boss. A lot of time has been wasted as a result of miscommunication on the part of the two members of the same organization. In fact, more first instance. If the amount of time used in completion of this particular task is calculated, it would be seen that double the time necessary has been taken. The example cited above is one of the most common and prevailing examples of miscommunication resulting from a lack of feedback in organizations. This, however, is not the only criterion that qualifies for an in-depth study of communication. Let us take a look at the communicative competence required at three different levels in an organization. In the business situation of a manager, as he goes higher up in the hierarchy is to coordinate, issue instructions, collate information, and then present it. All these activities require effective communication skills the sooner these skills are honed, the easier it is for the manager to accomplish tasks. Similar is the case of the junior manager vying for a quick promotion. As work in the organization is always done in conjunction with other people, effective communication skills become a necessity. Let us compare the progression of two junior managers up the ladder of success possessing almost the same academic qualifications and almost similar personality traits. Only one of them would be able to make it to the managing Directors chair. Without doubt it would be the candidate with excellent communication skills. Prior to entry in any organization, certain communicative abilities are also looked for in candidates. Ability to speak, conduct oneself properly in an interview, get along with others, listen carefully and accurately, make effective presentations, prepare good yet brief report, make proposals, sell ideas, convince and persuade others are some of the attributes looked for in a candidate. If an individual possesses these attributes looked for in a candidate. If an individual possesses these attributes or can train himself to excel in them, he himself would realize how much easier it is for him only to secure a comfortable position in an organization but also to achieve success.
2. Self Andsociety Messages are formed in the mind of one individual and interpreted in the mind of another. Yet the formation and interpretation of messages are affected by the groups to which the individuals belong. Thus, a complete understanding of human communication must take into account both human psychology and human social interaction.
3. Information To receive messages human beings must make use of their senses. However, the senses continually process large volumes of data, not all of which are the result of communication. It is the human ability to discern, recognize, and remember patterns in this constant flow of data that makes meaningful communication possible.
4. Signs And Language Some patterns of data bring to mind memories of previous patterns. These signs, as they are called, can be assembled into large, powerful patterns called languages. Much (though certainly not all) of human communication is carried on through the use of language.
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Systems
A system is typically described as a collection of parts which are interconnected, or related to, one another and which also relate to the environment which surrounds the system. In the picture below, the circles and rectangles represent the parts, the solid lines represent the relationships among the parts, and the arrows show the systems interaction with its environment. 5. Interaction And Relationships In face-to-face situations human beings cannot avoid communicating with one another. This interpersonal communication, which involves processes such as speech and body language, plays an important role in the formation, development, and dissolution of human relationships.
6. Mass Communication Approximately five hundred years ago a new form of communication arose. This mass communication process, which makes use of permanent text that can be made available to millions of people at the same time, has quickly become an important factor in the lives of many human beings.
To say that the elements of a system are interconnected implies that if something happens to change one part, then at least one other part must change, too. Naturally, as soon as that second part changes, some other part must then change ... and so on. This is somewhat like the effect of touching a bowl of gelatin a single touch results in a long period of jiggling motion. Because systems interact with their environments, they are constantly being touched from the outside. This means that most systems are constantly changing, and, because these changes take time, a system cannot be described as having one particular shape. It is this property that makes systems useful for studying the kinds of situations that scholars usually refer to as events, or processes. The idea of a system is well illustrated by the device called a mobile. The parts of this system, or objects, as they are often called, are represented in the illustration below as fishes. The relationships are established by the bars, which maintain a horizontal spacing among the fish, and the pieces of string, which keep the fish at certain vertical depths.
7. The Communication Environment Human communication takes place within, and cannot be separated from, the complex social environments within which all communicators must live. Systems of belief, technological media, and the presence of cultural artifacts all affect the communication process and contribute to the development of the human social reality.
Notice that the strings and bars

Connect every fish with every other fish, Allow the fish to move around quite a bit, yet confine them
Communication: a system for sending and receiving messages. An investigation of this statement will lead first to the idea of a system, and then to the idea of messages.
to a certain area and keep them from falling apart. This is a fine example of how a system works. If any one fish moves, at least one other fish will react by moving, too. Thus, the smallest breeze will keep the mobile in constant motion.
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The following quotation by Stephen Littlejohn provides a more formal definition of the term system . From the simplest perspective, a system can be said to consist of four things.
The first is objects. The objects are the parts, elements, or
Communication Connects
But communication is not merely passive connection. Rather, communication is the process of connecting. It is a collection of renewable actions that work throughout space and over time to form relationships among objects. Communication is not an object itself; it is not a thing, and this leads to a second insight into the nature of communication.
variables of the system. These objects may be physical or abstract or both, depending on the nature of the system.
Second, a system consists of attributes, or the qualities or
Communication Happens
This is an important observation. It implies that communication can never fully be understand by looking only at things. To understand communication, we must also look at the relationships among the things and at the environments in which the things reside. For example, consider some common communication things:
A paperback copy of Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol, A video tape of the CNN 6:00 news broadcast on May 5th,
properties of the system and its objects.

Third, a system must possess internal relationships among
its objects. This characteristic is a crucial defining quality of systems. A relationship among objects implies a mutual effect (interdependence) and constraint. Fourth, systems also possess an environment. They do not exist in a vacuum but are affected by their surroundings. Clearly, the fish mobile meets these requirements.
1990,
A written invitation to attend my sisters wedding.
In each case the thing - the actual book, the actual video tape, the actual invitation - is not the communication.
The communication is the process that connects the readers
of the book to the story told by the author.

The communication is the process that connects the watchers
It is important to do the following exercise. Thinking about systems in this way is the most effective way to understand them. Consider each of the three systems named here and try to: Name some of the objects that make up the system,
Name some of the relationships among the objects, Describe the environment of the system, and Describe ways in which the system is constantly changing.
of the broadcast to the events of the day.

The communication is the process that connects my sister
and I via the announcement of her wedding. True, the book, the tape and the invitation are a part of the communication process, but they are only a part. There are additional observations to be drawn from these examples.
Communication always happens between or among - it takes
Three Systems
Your bodys nervous system, The legal system of the United States, The U. S. Interstate Highway system.
at least two to communicate.

Communication involves an exchange - of electrical signals,
of sounds, words, pages of print, or whatever. For ease, these exchanges among communicators will be given the general name: messages. Notice, for example, that each of the previous set of examples contained sender and a receiver and a message. The book was written by its author to be read by its audience. The video tape was produced by one group of people to be watched by another. And the invitation is a message sent from my sister to me. The idea of messages is considered at length in these tutorials. At this point, however, it is appropriate to reiterate the two basic rules that have just been uncovered: 1. Communication is a process that happens among and acts to connect communicators through space and over time. 2. Communication involves the creation, transmission, and reception of messages.
The Role of Communication

Notice that these example systems have communication in common.
The nervous system carries messages from the nerve endings
in our extremities to our brains and back.

The legal system includes thousands of individuals talking
to one another, laws being read and interpreted, forms being filled out, and so on.
The highway system requires constant communication
among drivers - turn signals, brake lights, and so on - and between drivers and their vehicles - as, for example, when you tell your car to turn left by pulling on the steering wheel. In fact, it might be said that communication is the glue that holds a system together. This gives insight into the nature of communication itself, to wit:
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Thats Just What I Mean!

Most problems arise because people cannot sustain effective communication. Cultivating the art of listening helps to build bridges and enhance relationships, says Santosh BabuAll happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. Thus begins Leo Tolstoys epic Anna Karenina. What he meant, perhaps, is that communication is complete when the mind is happy and uninhibited, and distortion creeps in when the mood is sullen and sad. Most problems in an organization, family or group are the result of people failing to communicate. Havent you often said You dont understand what I say or words to that effect? Communication is the exchange or flow of information and ideas between one person and another. Technically, it involves a sender passing on an idea to a receiver. Effective communication occurs when the receiver comprehends the information or idea that the sender intends to convey. What does a communication process involve? You have an idea that you need to communicate, and a message is sent to the receiver, either verbally or non-verbally. The receiver then translates the words or nonverbal gestures into a concept or information. Lets take, for example, this message: You are very intelligent. Would this message carry the same meaning to the receiver every time you voice these words? The success of the transmission depends on two factorscontent and context. Content is the actual words or symbols that constitutes a part of the message, known as language. It could be either spoken or written. We all interpret words in our own ways, so much so that even simple messages could be understood differently. Context is the way the message is delivered-the tone, expression in the senders eyes, body language, hand gestures, and state of emotion (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence and so on). As we believe what we see more than what we hear, we trust the accuracy of nonverbal behavior more than verbal behavior. So when we communicate, the other person notices two things: What we say and how we say it. Normally we think communication is complete once we have conveyed the message: I dont know why it was not done. I had asked him to do it. Chances are that the message was not perceived properly. A message hasnt been communicated successfully unless the receiver understands it completely. How do you know it has been properly received? By two-way communication or feedback.
barriers are filters that we use to decide what is useful for us. No one can completely avoid these filters. If you start taking every information and message you get seriously, you would be overloaded with information. But if you are not consciously aware of this filtering process, you may lose a lot of valuable information. A way to overcome these filters when you want is through active listening and feedback.
Active Listening
All of us can hear, but all of us cannot listen. Hearing and listening are not the same thing. Hearing is involuntary and listening involves the reception and interpretation of what is heard. It decodes the sound heard into meaning. Does a knock on the door sound the same all the time? What if you are alone and you hear a knock at late night? What happens when you hear a knock while you are expecting someone whom you like? People generally speak at 100 to 175 words per minute but we can listen intelligently at 600 to 800 words per minute. This means most of the time only a part of our mind is paying attention, it is easy for the attention to drift. This happens to all of us. The cure: active listening. This involves listening with a purpose. It may be to gain information, obtain directions, understand others, solve problems, share interests, see how the other person feels, even show support. This type of listening takes the same amount of or more energy than speaking. This requires the listener to hear various messages, understand the meaning and then verify the meaning by offering feedback. Here are some of the traits of an active listener:
Does not finish the sentence of others. Does not answer questions with questions. Is aware of biases. We all have them... we need to control
them.
Never daydreams or becomes preoccupied with ones own
thoughts when others talk.

Lets others talk. Does not dominate the conversation. Plans responses after the other persons have finished
speaking, not while they are speaking.

Provides feedback, but does not interrupt incessantly. Analyses by looking at all the relevant factors and asking
open-ended questions.
Keeps the conversation on what the speaker says...not on
Communication Barriers Ourselves

Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead to confusion and conflict. Often, we are thinking about our response, rather than focusing on what the other person is saying. Some other factors that cause this are defensiveness (we feel someone is attacking us), superiority (we feel we know more than the other), and ego (we feel we are the center of the activity). Perception: If we feel the person is talking too fast, not fluently or does not articulate clearly, we may dismiss the person. Our preconceived attitudes affect our ability to listen. We listen uncritically to persons of high status and dismiss those of low status. Mental state: People dont see things the same way when under stress. What we see and believe at a given moment is influenced by our psychological frames of references-beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences and goals. These
what interests them.

Takes brief notes. This forces one to concentrate on what is
being said.
Feedback
This is done by restating the other persons message in your own words. It helps to make sure that you understood the message correctly. How much better daily communication would be if listeners tried to understand before they tried to evaluate what someone is saying! Lets do a test of your listening ability. Get a paper and pen. You have two minutes to do this. If you take more time, you need to improve your listening skills. Read all the instructions below before doing anything.
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Write your name in the top right corner of the paper Draw five small squares in the top left corner Put a circle around each square Put an X on the lower left-hand corner Draw a triangle around the X you just made Sign your name at the bottom of the page On the back of your page multiply 70 x 30 Write the answer to the above problem adjacent to your
signature
Check whether you have done all the above correctly Now
that you have finished reading carefully, do only the first instruction. The author is a Delhi-based personal growth trainer.
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8
LESSON 2: STAGES IN COMMUNICATION CYCLE

In this case the boss heard far more than a simple message that Terry wont be at work today. The boss heard hostility from Terry, indifference, lack of consideration, among other emotions. Terry may not have meant this, but this is what the boss heard. Communications is so difficult because at each step in the process there major potential for error. By the time a message gets from a sender to a receiver there are four basic places where transmission errors can take place and at each place, there are a multitude of potential sources of error. Thus it is no surprise that social psychologists estimate that there is usually a 40-60% loss of meaning in the transmission of messages from sender to receiver. It is critical to understand this process, understand and be aware of the potential sources of errors and constantly counteract these tendencies by making a conscientious effort to make sure there is a minimal loss of meaning in your conversation. It is also very important to understand that major of our communication is non-verbal. This means that when we attribute meaning to what someone else is saying, the verbal part of the message actually means less than the non-verbal part. The non-verbal part includes such things as body language and tone.
Content
Key stages of communication cycle Methods of Communication Verbal and nonverbal
The Communication Process

Although all of us have been communicating with others since our infancy, the process of transmitting information from an individual (or group) to another is a very complex process with many sources of potential error. Consider the Simple Example
Terry: I wont make it to work again tomorrow; this
pregnancy keeps me nausious and my doctor says I should probably be reduced to part time. Boss: Terry, this is the third day youve missed and your appointments keep backing up; we have to cover for you and this is messing all of us up. In any communication at least some of the meaning lost in simple transmission of a message from the sender to the receiver. In many situations a lot of the true message is lost and the message that is heard is often far different than the one intended. This is most obvious in cross-cultural situations where language is an issue. But it is also common among people of the same cuture. Look at the example. Terry has what appears to be a simple message to convey-she wont make it to work today because of nausia. But she had to translate the thoughts into words and this is the first potential source of error. Was she just trying to convey that she would be late; was she trying to convey anything else. It turns out she was. She was upset because she perceived that her co-workers werent as sympathetic to her situation as they should be. Her co-workers, however, were really being pressured by Terrys continued absences, and her late calls. They wished she would just take a leave of absence, but Terry refuses because she would have to take it without pay. Thus what appears to be a simple communication is, in reality, quite complex. Terry is communicating far more than that she would miss work; she is conveying a number of complex emotions, complicated by her own complex feelings about pregnancy, work, and her future. She sent a message but the message is more than the words; it includes the tone, the timing of the call, and the way she expressed herself. Similarly, the boss goes through a complex communication process in hearing the message. The message that Terry sent had to be decoded and given meaning. There are many ways to decode the simple message that Terry gave and the way the message is heard will influence the response to Terry.
Key Stages in Communication Cycle

Communication is a two- way process in which there is an exchange and progression of ideas towards a mutually accepted direction or goal. For this process to materialize, it is essential that the basic elements of communication be identified. These elements are. Sender/ Encoder/ Speaker The person who initiates the communication process is normally referred to as the sender. From his personal data bank he selects ideas, encodes and finally transits them to the receiver. The entire burden of communication then rests upon the sender or encoder. His choice of images and words the combination of the two is what goads the receiver to listen carefully. In this process a number of factors come into play, primary among them being an understanding of the recipient and his needs. If the message can be formulated in accordance with the expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance is going to be higher. For example, a consultant wishes to communicate with the HRD manager of a company. The objective is to secure consultancy projects on training of personnel. If the consultant wishes the HRD manager to communicate with him, he has to ensure that their goals converge. He has a tough task ahead of him. The manager had been interacting with many consultants. Why should he pay heed to the proposal of this consultant? In a situation such as this, a good strategy to be adopted is to expand the purview of the proposal and make it company specific. The result could be
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highlighted and spelt out in terms of increase in sales. If sufficient preparation has been done, the message too would increase in sales. If sufficient preparation has been done, the message too would be formulated in a manner conducive to the interests of the HRD manager. Receiver/ Decoder/ Listener The listener receives an encoded message, which he attempts to decode. This process is carried on in relation to the work environment and the value perceived in terms of the work situation. If the goal of the sender is envisioned as similar to his own, the listener becomes more receptive. The decoding of the message is done in almost entirely the same terms as were intended by the sender. In the example cited above, as soon as the HRD manager realizes that the proposal of the consultant is going to result in tangible benefits, he becomes more receptive and his interest in communication is reinforced. Message Message is the encoded idea transmitted by the sender. The formulation of the message is very important, for a message, which is incorrectly structured, can turn the receiver hostile or make him lose interest. At this stage the sender has to be extremely cautious. What is the order in which he would like to present his ideas? Suppose he has four points to make would he (a) move in the stereotyped manner of presenting them in a sequence or (b) would he like to be innovative and proceed in a creative way? Probability is high that in case (a) he might become monotonous and in case (b) he might touch a wrong spot. How then should the message be formulated and transmitted? The ordering, as stated earlier, should be based on the requirements of the listener so that its significance is immediately grasped. The minute the receiver finds his goals codified in the message, he sits up, listens and responds. The message thus has made an impact. Medium Another important element of communication is the medium or channel. It could be oral, written or nonverbal. Prior to the composition of the message, the medium / channel should be decided. Each medium follows its own set of rules and regulations. For example, in oral communication one can afford to be a little informal, but when using the written mode, all rules of communication need to be observed. It must be remembered that anything in writing is a document that would be filed for records or circulated to all concerned. Feedback This is the most important component of communication. Effective communication takes place only when there is feedback. The errors and flaws that abound in business situations are a result of lack of feedback. Le us take a look at the typical responses of people involved in miscommunication: this is not what I meant or This is not what I said, or this was not my intention. If feedback is solicited on all occasions, this error can be minimized or even completely done away with. Fallacious statements or erroneous conclusions are made because of lack of confirmation through feedback and discrepancy between the message transmitted and understood.
Source
SENDING Encoding Transmission Decoding
Noise
Receiver
Feedback Loop Encoding Transmission Decoding
Activity Try not to narrate a story of a film you recently saw to your friend. Ask your friend to tell the story, which you have just told him. Try to understand the entire communication process through the above diagram.
Barriers to Effective Communication

There are a wide number of sources of noise or interference that can enter into the communication process. This can occur when people now each other very well and should understand the sources of error. In a work setting, it is even more common since interactions involve people who not only dont have years of experience with each other, but communication is complicated by the complex and often conflictual relationships that exist at work. In a work setting, the following suggests a number of sources of noise:
Language: The choice of words or language in which a
sender encodes a message will influence the quality of communication. Because language is a symbolic representation of a phenomenon, room for interpreation and distortion of the meaning exists. In the above example, the Boss uses language (this is the third day youve missed) that is likely to convey far more than objective information. To Terry it conveys indifference to her medical problems. Note that the same words will be interpreted different by each different person. Meaning has to be given to words and many factors affect how an individual will attribute meaning to particular words. It is important to note that no two people will attribute the exact same meaning to the same words.
Defensiveness, distorted perceptions, guilt, project,
transference, distortions from the past

Misreading of body language, tone and other non-verbal
forms of communication (see section below)

Noisy transmission (unreliable messages, inconsistency) Receiver distortion: selective hearing, ignoring non-verbal
cues
Power struggles Self-fulfilling assupmtions Language-different levels of meaning Managers hesitation to be candid 9
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Assumptions-eg. assuming others see situation same as you,
has same feelings as you

Distrusted source, erroneous translation, value judgment,
state of mind of two people

Perceptual Biases: People attend to stimuli in the
environment in very different ways. We each have shortcuts that we use to organize data. Invariably, these shortcuts introduce some biases into communication. Some of these shortcuts include stereotyping, projection, and self-fulfilling prophecies. Stereotyping is one of the most common. This is when we assume that the other person has certain characteristics based on the group to which they belong without validating that they in fact have these characteristics.
Interpersonal Relationships: How we perceive
stage. The crux of the message in both the statements is the same: You want an individual within an organization to undertake a project. The manner in which it is stated brings about a difference in approach. Further, expressions that might hurt or cause mental pain to the receiver should, as far as possible, be ignored. For this it becomes essential that the I attitude be discarded in favor of the you-attitude. Development of interest in the you will perforce make the other individual also see the point of view of the other. At the time of emphasizing the you-attitude, only the positive and pleasant you-issues should be considered. If it is being used as a corrective measure, then the results are not going to be very positive or encouraging. 2. Clarity. Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning of the message. The first stage is clarity in the mind of the sender. The next stage is the Makes comprehension easier transmission of the message in a manner which makes it simple for the receiver to comprehend. As far as possible, simple language and easy sentence constructions, which are not difficult for the receiver to grasp, should be used. 4. Correctness. At the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that his knowledge of the receiver is comprehensive. The level of knowledge, educational background and status of the decoder help the encoder in formulating his message. In case there is any discrepancy between the usage and comprehension of terms, miscommunication can arise. If the sender decides to back up his communication with facts and figures, there should be accuracy in stating the same. A situation in which the listener is forced to check the presented facts and figures should not arise. Finally, the usage of terms should be nondiscriminatory, e.g. the general concept is that women should be addressed for their physical appearance whereas men for their mental abilities. This, however, is a stereotype and at the time of addressing or praising members of both the sexes, the attributes assigned should be the same. Similarly for occupational references. In the business world almost all professions are treated with respect. Addressing one individual for competence in his profession but neglecting the other on this score because of a so-called inferior profession alienates the listener from the sender. 5. Consistency The approach to communication should, as far as possible, be consistent. There should not be too many ups and downs that might lead to confusion in the mind of the receiver. If a certain stand has been taken, it should be observed without there being situations in which the sender is left groping for the actual content or meaning. If the sender desires to bring about a change in his understanding of the situation, he should ensure that the shift is gradual and not hard for the receiver to comprehended. 6. Concreteness. Concrete and specific expressions are to be preferred in favour of vague and abstract expressions. In continuation of the point on correctness, the facts and figures presented should be specific. Abstractions or abstract statements can cloud the mind of the sender. Instead of stating: There has been a tremendous escalation in the sales figure, suppose the sender made the following statement:
communication is affected by the past experience with the individual. Percpetion is also affected by the organizational relationship two people have. For example, communication from a superior may be perceived differently than that from a subordinate or peer Cultural Differences: Effective communication requires deciphering the basic values, motives, aspirations, and assumptions that operate across geographical lines. Given some dramatic differences across cultures in approaches to such areas as time, space, and privacy, the opportunities for mis-communication while we are in cross-cultural situations are plentiful.
7 CS and 4 Ss
7 Cs In any business environment, adherence to the 7 Cs and the 4 Ss helps the sender in transmitting his message with ease and accuracy. Lets us first take a look at the 7 Cs: 1. Credibility. If the sender can establish his credibility, the receiver has no problems in accepting his statement. Establishing credibility is not the outcome of a one-shot statement. It is a long-drawn out process in which the receiver through constant interaction with the sender understands his credible nature and is willing to accept his statements as being truthful and honest.
Courtesy. Once the credibility of the sender has been
established, attempts should be make at being courteous in expression. In the business world, almost everything starts with and ends in courtesy. Much can be accomplished if tact, diplomacy and appreciation of people are woven in the message. Example:
Jane: You can never do things right. Try working on this
project. If you are lucky you may not have to redo it.
Jane: This is an interesting project. Do you think you
would be able to do it. I know last time something went wrong with the project, but everyone makes mistakes. Suppose we sat down and discussed it threadbare Im sure your would be able to do wonders. The two statements convey totally different impressions. While the first statement is more accusative, the second is more tactful and appreciative of the efforts put in by the receiver at an earlier
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There has been an escalation in the sales figures by almost 50% as compared to last year. The receiver is more apt to listen and comprehend the factual details. 7. Conciseness. The message to be communicated should be as brief and concise as possible. Weighty language definitely sounds impressive but people would be suitably impressed into doing precisely nothing. As far as possible, only simple and brief statements should be made. Excessive information can also sway the receiver into either a wrong direction or into inaction. Quantum of information should be just right, neither too much nor too little , e.g. Usually the policy date In the first example, the statement is rather long and convoluted. However, the second example gives it the appearance of being crisp, concise and to the point.
element of deceit involved in the interaction or on the part of the sender. If the receiver is keen an observant, he would be able to sense the make-believe situation and, business transactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.
4 Ss
Ss Shortness Simplicity Strength Sincerity Relevance Economises Impresses Convinces Appeals
Keys to More Effective Communication

Over 70% of our time is spent communicating with others, and thats the one interaction every person must do. Everyone must communicate their needs and ideas. Every organization must communicate its products and services. Unfortunately, many people have trouble in this area. Some just dont have the professional impact they need to get ahead in todays corporate world. Communication is just as important as what we say because people judge us, our companies, our products, our services, and our professionalism by the way we write, act, dress, talk, and manage our responsibilities. In short, how well we communicate with others. Successful people know how to communicate for results. They know how to say what they mean and get what they want without hurting the people they deal with. You deal daily with peers, outside groups, customers, employees, and managers, and you must have a good communication style. When we ask people how well they communicate, their answers usually fall into one of three categories. First, and most prevalent, is the person who responds, I communicate perfectly. I spell everything out so theres nothing left to doubt. Another will react with surprise and ask me, What do you mean how well? I dont think about communicating, I just do it. The third type will reflect on the question thoughtfully before saying something like, How can one ever know how well they get their ideas across to another person? All I can tell you is I work more hours trying to communicate than I can count, and it still doesnt work some of the time. Each answer, in its own way, is correct. Communicating today is both a discipline and a liberation. Our language is flexible; one size fits all. Its a language in which ravel and unravel mean the same thing; flammable and inflammable mean the same thing; fat chance, slim chance, no chance at all mean the same thing. Communication is both a science and a feeling; its often a cinch, and often an impossibility. The smell of a womans perfume, the taste of semisweet chocolate, the sight of a blind persons cane, the feel of the feverish brow of a sick child, the sound of the background music of a horror movieall these move us to action or reaction. These are all examples of effective communication, and none of them involve words.
7 Cs
Cs Credibility Courtesy Clarity Correctness Consistency Concreteness Conciseness Relevance Builds trust Improves relationships Makes comprehension easier Builds confidence Introduces stability Reinforces confidence Saves time
4 S,s
An understanding of the 4 Ss is equally important. 1. Shortness. Brevity is the soul of wit, it is said. The same can be said about communication. If the message can be made brief, and verbosity done away with, then transmission and comprehension of messages is going to be faster and more effective. Flooding messages with high sounding words does not create an impact. Many people harbour a misconception that they can actually impress the receiver, if they carry on their expeditious travails. Little do they realize how much they have lost as the receiver has spent a major chunk of his time in trying to decipher the actual meaning of the message. 2. Simplicity. Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals a clarity in the thinking process. It is normally a tendency that when an individual is himself confused that he tries to use equally confusing strategies to lead the receiver in a maze. Reveal clarity in the thinking process by using simple terminology and equally simple concepts. 3. Strength. The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the sender. If the sender himself believes in a message that he is about to transmit, there is bound to be strength and conviction in whatever he tries to state. Halfhearted statements or utterances that the sender himself does not believe in adds a touch of falsehood to the entire 4. Sincerity. A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver. If the sender is genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates. Suppose there is a small
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Communication is full of risks; despite whatever precautions and plans we make, we can never really be sure of our success. No communication ever travels from sender to receiver in the same shape intended by the sender. And, no matter how hard you try, the message will never be what you saythe message is always what they hear. But if you have a system to go by, you can at least reduce the risk and improve your chance of being effective. For communication to occur, there must be a two-way interchange of feelings, ideas, values; clarification of signals; and a fine-tuning of skills.
The telephone is appropriate when communicating simple facts to a few people. The phone also has more impact and sense of urgency than written communication, but not as much as a meeting. To insure that messages are understood on the phone, you may want to ask for feedback and check to make sure the communication link is complete. Face-to-face communication has more urgency than meetings. It also has the advantage of speed, allows considerable two-way communication to take place, and usually elicits a quick response. Its usually best to use face-to-face dialogue when the interaction is personalwhen giving praise, counseling, or taking disciplinary action. Meetings are appropriate when there is a need for verbal interaction among members of a group. Studies have revealed that supervisors spend more than half of their potential productive time in meetings, discussions, and conferences. For this reason, its important to decide in advance whether a meeting will actually achieve the desired result.
Adjust the Climate

Whenever people get together to communicate with one another, two factors are always present. First, there is some sort of content to be coveredinstructions, news, gossip, ideas, reports, evaluations, etc. All of us are familiar with the content of communication, because its the most obvious factor, and because we deal with it every day. The second factor that is always present when people get together to communicate is the atmosphere or feeling that accompanies what you say. This is known as the communication climate. Physical climate affects us in many ways. When its cold, we wear warm clothes. When its raining, we wear protective clothes. And its not uncommon for weather conditions to affect our mood. Communication climates also affect us. They can be either positive or negative. When the communication climate is positive, its easier for us to communicate, solve problems, reach decisions, express thoughts and feelings. In short, it makes working and dealing with other people more pleasant and productive. Weve all been in restaurants, stores, offices, and homes where we felt comfortable and at ease. We usually want to go back to those places. Weve also been in homes, offices, and shops where the climate has been negative. In those instances, we were uncomfortable, uneasy, and less open. We usually dont enjoy attempting to communicate or do business in a negative climate. Are you making the climate negative for those you work with?
Eliminate Static
Another helpful skill is elimination of communication static or barriers. If theres too much static, or noise, theres a garbled message. The problem is that each of us has different barriers, and we dont usually know what kind of noise the other person is hearing. Sometimes we guess, and sometimes we guess wrong. The major barrier to communication is our natural tendency to judge, evaluate, approve, or disapprove the other persons statements. Suppose the person next to you at lunch today says, I really like what Kay duPont has to say. What will you say? Your reply will probably be either approval or disapproval of the attitude expressed. Youll either say, I do too! or youll say, I think shes terrible. In other words, your first reaction will be to evaluate it from your point of view, and approve or disapprove what the other person said. Although the tendency to make evaluations is common in almost all conversation, it is very much heightened in those situations where feelings and emotions are involved.
Choose Your Channel

Like a radio, human transmitters and receivers have channels. A communication channel is the medium through which information passes from sender to receiver: lecture, written messages, telephone conversations, face-to-face dialogue, and group meetings. The choice of a channel may affect the quality of the communication and, in turn, the degree to which the receiver will respond to it. Therefore, you must decide which channel will be most effective in accomplishing your purpose. Written communication should be used when communicating complex facts and figures or information, such as engineering, legal or financial data, since communication breakdowns often result when complex material is presented orally. Written communication is also the best channel when communicating with large numbers of people, when transmitting large amounts of data, or when you need a record of the communication.
Tune in
One of the best ways to tune in to the other person is to find out how they process and store the information they receive. Studies of Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) have proved that there are three sensory process types: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic. Some people are visually oriented. They remember and imagine things by what they look like. They store pictures. Some people are auditorythey store sounds. Some people are kinesthetic they store touch sensations. How can you figure out a persons processing system? By listening. People tend to broadcast how they process information, how they file their data. Visually oriented people say things like: Heres what it looks like to me. Do you see what I mean? Do you get the picture? I need a clearer vision of that. Thats not coming in clear to me. All visually oriented terms. Auditory people remember and imagine things by what they sound like. They say: Heres what it sounds like to me. That
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rings a bell. Do you hear what I mean? We need to have more harmony in this office. Were not in tune on this. Kinesthetic people remember and imagine things by the feel of them. They say: Heres what it feels like to me. Do you grasp what Im saying? That was a rough problem. That was a heavy burden. That was a weighty issue. People dont always use the same sensory words, of course, but we do tend to use one sensory process about 70% of the time. If you want me to understand how you feel or see what you mean or get in tune with your ideas, you need to talk to me in words Ill relate toeither visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. If you talk to me in flowers, and I hear in pastry, we cant communicate. This is a very sophisticated form of communicating, and can be very effective.
Know Your Nonverbals

Body movement, eye contact, posture, and clothing are also very important elements. In fact, studies prove that 93% of your message is nonverbal and symbolic. Employees learn to cue on the boss moods, spouses learn to react to each others movements, children instinctively watch for signs from their parents. Studies have also taught us that sometimes our tongues say one thing, our bodies say another thing, and our symbolslike clothing and hairstylessay still a third thing. When this occurs, the normal person will believe what they see, not what they hear. So you need to be constantly aware of the image you portray. Is it one of assertive confidence. . .someone who is willing to listen and solve problems? Or is it of someone who is unfriendly and uncaring? Do your clothes and posture reflect a person of high quality or one of sloppy habits? Over 2 centuries ago, Ben Franklin said, Power is with the person who can communicate well. Its truer today than it has ever been. And the power exists within you. . .all it takes is awareness and practice.
Exercise
1. Pick up any two students in your class. At random give feedback to both of them positive to one and negative to the other. Note down their verbal responses and body language. Is there any difference between the responses of the two students? If yes, what is it? What strategies can be used to even out the differences? 2. Divide the section into two groups with two observers. Both the groups are numbered and further subdivided into senders and receivers. It is decided beforehand that the message transmitted in the first group is meaningful and in the second, a mere exchange of social pleasantries. Observers list down the criteria that help them to determine the significance of the message whether it is meaningful or being used to while away the time. Observe the non-verbal cues in a piece of communication. How do these cues affect the meaning of words? What is their impact on the receiver?
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LESSON 3: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication Network
An organization is a composite of many individuals working together, towards its growth. They are constantly interacting with each other and with people outside the company. The communication network in an organization is of two types: 1. Internal 2. External We have by now gathered some knowledge on what communication is, how is it important in business and key stages of communication as well. Today we shall learn the different methods of communication, channels and dimensions of communication.
Contents
Methods of Communication Verbal and nonverbal Channels of communication formal and informal Dimensions of communication upward, downward, horizontal and
diagonal
Internal Communication
Formal Communication Interaction between members of the same organizations called internal communication. It could be both formal and informal. Large organizations with hundreds of people working find it very difficult to have direct interaction with each and everyone. They adopt a number of strategies, e.g., newsletters, annual reports to communicate the essential message. In such large setups, it is neither possible nor necessary to transmit all information to every member. Some of the merits of formal communication network are discussed below: 1. Satisfy the information needs of the -organization - Formal channels of communication are designed to cater to the informational needs of the organization, i.e., when and where, what kind of information is required and who is to provide it. Thus the formal communication channels are needed for the very reason of activating information flow in the organiza-tion. 2. Integrates the organization - Formal communication channels work as linking wires in a big sized organization, and thus integrate its functioning. 3. Coordination and control- By providing required information at right time to right places, the formal communication networks greatly facilitates coordination and control in the organization. 4. Sorts the information for high-level executives - Formal communication channels facilitate the flow of selective information to the top executives. Otherwise they will be finding themselves in the midst of all relevant and irrelevant information. 5. Restricts unwanted flow of information - When a person is supposed to formally communicate some information to some authority, that itself has a restrictive implication that he need not disseminate this information anywhere else. 6. Reliability and accuracy of information - When information moves through formal channel, it has to have some basis to substantiate it. It is any time more reliable and accurate than the informally obtained information. However, the formal communication network entails some limitations also:
Introduction
When Anil entered in his office on a Monday morning, he found that somebody had tempered with his personal computer and that it was plugged on. He called up his personal secretary and enquired as to who could have done that. After a while she reported that two marketing executive came on Saturday evening to seek some information and since he was not there, they used his computer for that. Sandeep was very angry and wanted to stop this practice. He called those executives and and warned them. He issued a memo to this effect and distributed it in the office. Here Anil used speech (words spoken), writing (memo) , body language (his expression when he talked to the marketing executives and paralanguage (stern tone of voice) to make his people aware of his sentiments. Both formal (i.e. memo) and informal channels (discussion among employees) contributed to spread the news. Note the dimensions of communication even in the small office environment. Anil Enquires from his secretary , warns the executives and issues a memo - all are downward communication. Secretary reports, executives reply to Sandeep all are upward communication. Secretary enquires about who came in the bosss room horizontal communication. Now we will see the various forms of communication and different channels and directions through which communication may pass.
Methods of Communication
One of the ways of communicating is by words whether by way of speech or by way of writing. Another is by using the expressions other than words , like gestures , body language, etc. A third mode of communication is circumstantial communication, that is the people communicating make no deliberate effort, the message is conveyed by the way the things are . For example : the elaborate dcor of ones office room conveys that he is holding a high position in the organization. We will divide our discussion into two categories.
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1. Time consuming and expensive - Since formal communication channels involve lot many levels, information takes time to travel across. More-over, paper work, involvement of executives time, and other facilities required for the communication network make it an expensive proposi-tion. 2. It increases the workload of the line supervisor - Since most of the reporting goes from down to up, generally line supervisor is the person who has to devote a good deal of time because in forwarding information, under formal channels. This leaves him with little time to perform other organizational functions properly. 3. Information may get distorted - There are dangers of messages being lost, filtered or distorted as they pass through many points. 4. Creates gaps between top executives and lower subordinates - Formal communication channels reduce the need of contact between the top executive and the subordinates at the lowest level. Many a times they do not even recognize each other. This adversely affects superior subordi-nate relationship. Whatever these limitations are, the need for a formal network of communica-tion cannot be done away with. An organization has to have a formal commu-nication structure. Of course one can strive to make it more economic and efficient by not being too rigid and too elaborate.
Patterns of Grapevine Communication

The grapevine is active in almost every organization. Lets take a look at how communication travels along the informal network-the well-known grape-vine. There appear to be four patterns to this form of communication.
The single strand is the way in which most people view the
grapevine. In this, person A tells something to person B, he tells that to person C, he tells that to another person down the line to Y and so on. This chain is least accurate in passing the information.
In the gossip chain, one person seeks out and tells everyone
the information that he has obtained. This chain is often used when information of an interesting but non-job related nature is being conveyed.
In the probability chain, individuals are indifferent about
Informal Communication
Informal communication network is not a deliberately formed network. It arises to meet needs that arent satisfied by formal communication. Employees form friendships, and cliques develop, they talk in gatherings, the persons working at same place may talk just like that, and likewise. These in turn allow employees to fill. in communication gaps within the formal channels. Following are some of the sources of informal communication: 1. Grapevine _. channel mostly associated with gossip and rumors 2. Social gatherings - organizational gatherings give a chance to people of various ranks to meet and talk 3. Management by walking around - where a manager informally walks through the work area and casually talk to employees 4. Secretaries/administrative assistants - It is very common that the secre-taries or administrative assistants of the top bosses pass and receive much information informally. Since grapevine is the most widespread and commonly used informal commu-nication network, we would discuss it in detail. The grapevine exists outside the formal channels and is used by people to transmit casual, personal, and social interchanges at work. It is an expression of their natural motivation to communi-cate. It consists of rumors, gossip, and truthful information. Its speed is very fast as compared formal communication. For instance, a study conducted by Keith Davis revealed that wife of a plant supervisor has a baby at 11.00 p.m. and a plant survey the next day at 2.00 p.m. showed that 46% of the management personnel knew of it through the grapevine.
whom they offer information to; they tell people at random, and those people in turn tell others at random. This chain is often used when the information is mildly interesting but insignificant. In the cluster chain, person A conveys the information to a few selected individuals; some of those individuals then inform a few selected others. Research evidence shows that the cluster is the most popular pattern that grapevine communications take. That is, a few people are active communica-tors on the grapevine. As a rule, only about 10 per cent of the people in an organization act as liaisons who pass on information to more than one other person. Which individuals are active on the grapevine often depends on the message. A message that sparks the interest of an employee may stimulate him to tell someone else. However, another message thats perceived to be of lesser interest may never be transmitted further. Grapevine show admirable disregard for rank or authority and may link organization members in any combination of directions- horizontal, vertical, and diagonal. As Kieth Devis puts it, the grapevine flows around water coolers, down hallways, through lunchrooms, and wherever people get together in groups.
Merits of informal Communication

The informal communication has the following advantages: 1. Satisfies social needs of members - Man being a social creature needs to have social interaction. Informal communication satisfies this need very well. Also, it provides the workers an outlet to freely express their fears, views and thoughts. 2. Better human relations - Informal communication is a very good way to promote good human relations in the organization. 3. Speed - The informal communication (specially grapevine) is a very speedy network to spread the information. Managers may use the grapevine to distribute information through planned leaks or judiciously placed just between you and me remarks. 4. It works as a linking chain - It links even those people who do not fall in the official chain of command.
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5. It serves to fill the possible gaps in the formal communication.
Limitations of Informal Communication

The limitations of informal communication are as follows: 1. Not authentic - Informal communication is not authentic. Different per-sons may distort the message because of different interpretations. 2. Responsibility cannot be fixed - Informal communication is oral in nature and it is very difficult to fix the responsibility of the communicator for the message transmitted. It may lead to generation of rumors in the organiza-tion. 3. Not dependable - Informal channels may not always be active therefore is not dependable. 4. It may lead to the leakage of confidential information. 5. Incomplete information - Grapevine information is generally incomplete. Note that despite all these limitations, the informal communication system permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction, and works parallel to the formal network. It can be used positively to improve an organizations performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient channels of communication. The mangers can do this if they pay due attention to informal communication networks.
While communicating at the internal level, an individual can, on a few occasions, be slightly relaxed. The same would not hold true if he is communicating at the external level. Much is at stake at the time of external communication as individuals are representatives of the companies, they need to protect the image of the organization and create a positive impression that has long-lasting impact.
Dimensions of Communication
Within an organization, communication may flow downward, upward, horizontally, or diagonally. Following discussion pertains to these dimensions of communication networks:
Downward Communication
Downward communication occurs when-ever messages flow from top of the organization through various levels to the bottom of the organization. There may be several types of downward commu-nications, namely-: 1. Job procedures/instructions- directions about what to do or how to do the things. For example, when you restock the shelves, put the new merchan-dise behind the old stock is an instruction. 2. Job rationale- Explanation of purpose of doing a task in a certain way. For example, we rotate the stock like that so that the customers wont wind up with stale merchandise is a statement explaining the purpose of the instruction given in the above example. 3. Policies and practices - Information about rules, regulations, policies, and practices to be followed. For example, II dont try to argue with the unhappy customers. If you cant handle them, call the manager is an instruction about the practice followed in the organization. 4. Feedback/motivation - Telling the subordinates about their performance and. motivating them, like- life you keep up the good work, you will be assistant manager by the end of the year. Thus when we say downward communication, we mean that communication is flowing from upper rung of the ladder of the organization to the lower one, no matter what form it takes. This communication helps the subordinates to know what is expected of them and brings in greater job satisfaction and improves morale of the employees. The main problem with the downward communication is that when the information passes through various hierarchical channels, there are chances that it gets distorted by the time it reaches to the targeted person. Since the person giving the message has different level of understanding than that of the receiver, it may also happen that the way receiver interprets the message is not what the sender wants to convey. Very often, in practice, the recipient not having the ability to understand the communication may hinder communication. The message may also be insufficient or unclear. An example would be a communication quoting the location of a meeting without any instruction on how to find that location. The message could be too big to be fully understood in the time available. An example would be a manager attempting to explain too much of a complex task at a time. The result may be confusion, or, at worst, exasperation.
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External Communication
Communication is an ongoing process. It does not only take place with people within the organization but with people outside the organization as well. If a company has to survive in the competitive environment, it has to adopt the latter form of communication also. The image of the company is contingent upon the relationship that it maintains with people outside. External communication can take on a number of forms. 1. Advertising 2. Media interaction 3. Public relations 4. Presentations 5. Negotiations 6. Mails 7. Telegrams 8. Letters External communication could again be oral or written. The first three forms of communication mentioned above, viz. advertising, media interaction, and public relations, fall mainly within the domain of corporate communications. Establishing good relations, negotiating or conducting a deal, interacting with clients, issuing tenders, soliciting proposals, sending letters are all part of external communication. this is a different task as interaction takes place and varies between a host of people belonging to different disciplines, with different personalities and different expectations. As communication proceeds with external customers, almost all skills needed for adept communication have to be brought to the fore to avoid any embarrassment or lapse in performance.
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When the message passes through many channels, it may get delayed. At times the message may get lost in between. However, these problems do not undermine the importance of downward communication. If the efforts are made to make direct and clear communica-tions, these may be overcome. Upward Communication - Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are termed as upward communication. Some of the examples are given below: We will have the job done by tomorrow - is a reply to an equity from the boss. The problem with the machine is continuing. It stops working after every hour and has to be restarted. -subordinate informing unsolved work problem to the superior. Upward communication is important because It helps the top management in knowing about the attitudes, behaviour, opinions, activities and feelings of the workers on the job. On the basis of such knowledge and information, the management may improve its behaviour, introduce motivational plans and improve its controlling function. Subordinates get an outlet for their grievances, suggestions, and opinions, etc. They may feel that they are contributing towards the goals of the organization. Despite the importance of upward communication, employees find it difficult to participate in it. Being frank with superiors can be risky, especially when the news is not what the boss wants to hear. Busy superiors may also be too occupied to pay attention to employees. Most of the responsibility for improving upward communication rests with managers. They can begin the process by announcing their willingness to hear from, subordinates. The management may use an open door policy, grievance procedures, periodic inter-views, group meetings and the suggestions book, etc.
The main problem is the difference in approach and vision of different functionaries, who look the things from their own angles.
Department A
Department B
Diagonal or crosswise Communication - Diagonal communication cuts across functions and levels in an organization. When a supervisor in the credit department communicates directly with a regional marketing manager, whos not only in a different department but also at a higher level in the organization,- theyre engaged in diagonal communication. Given the potential for problems, why would individuals resort to diagonal communication? The answer again is efficiency and speed. In some situations, bypassing vertical and horizontal channels expedites action and prevents others from being used merely as conduits between senders and receivers. Also, the increased use of electronic mail systems in organizations has made diagonal communication much easier. A major problem with this form of communication is that it departs from the normal chain of command. To minimize communication gaps, most diagonal communications also encompass a vertical communication to superiors or subordinates who may have been bypassed. Communication is required at every level from every direction depending upon the situational need. Formal network channels facilitate the flow of information in every direction-downward, upward, horizontal, and diagonal. Although communication along every dimension entails its own merits and problems, we cannot do without any of them. The Strengths and weaknesses of each communication method are not just a factor of the media elements they can employ, but also the broad categories that they fall into. There are four independent dimensions that help considerably in categorizing the methods:
Recorded v live Passive v interactive Local v remote Push v pull
Upward Communication
Downward Communication
Horizontal and Lateral Communication - This is a communication between persons of same hierarchical level. The main object of this type of communication is to coordinate the efforts of different but related activities. The most obvious type of horizontal communication goes on between members of the same division of an organization; office workers in the same department, co-workers on a construction project, For example accounts department calls mainte-nance to get a machine repaired, hospital admission call intensive care to reserve a bed and so on. Horizontal communication helps in coordinating the activities of different departments at the same level. The departmental heads may sit together and thrash out problems/wastage of time, money, labor and-materials.
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Recorded Recorded communication is prepared in advance of its delivery. Examples are audio tapes and CDs; videotapes; CDROMs; letters, memos and reports; manuals; printed materials; faxes; e-mails; intranet pages and some radio and TV broadcasts. The advantages of recorded communication are that it delivers a consistent message each time; the message can be a considered one and the recipient can access the communication at a time that suits them. Passive Passive communication is one-way. The receiver is not able to respond directly to the communication. Examples are audio tapes and CDs; videotapes; manuals; printed materials; faxes; radio and TV broadcasts. The advantages of passive communication are that it requires less effort from the recipient and that, because there are no opportunities for interaction, it is quicker.
Live Live communication is delivered as it happens, in real-time. Examples are live radio and TV broadcasts; one-to-ones; meetings; phone calls and video conferencing calls. The advantage of live communication is that it is immediate.
Interactive Interactive communication is two-way. Each party in the process is able to send and receive communication. Examples are CD-ROMs (assuming they do not contain purely linear material); letters, memos and e-mails (to the extent that they are exchanged); the intranet (to the extent that interactive facilities are provided); one-to-ones; meetings; phone calls and videoconferencing calls.The advantages of interactive communication are the opportunities it provides for feedback; the greater degree of confidence it provides that the message has been understood; the recipient can to some extent control the pace of the communication and the message can be tailored to better meet the recipients needs. Remote Remote communication is delivered at a distance. It is networked, on-line, transmitted. Examples are e-mails; the intranet; radio and TV broadcasts; phone calls and videoconferencing calls. The process by which faxes are transmitted is also remote. The advantages of remote communication are that there is no delay in getting the message to the recipient, wherever they are and that communication can take place over large distances. An advantage of remote, recorded media, such as intranet pages, is that they can be easily updated centrally. Pull Pull communications are made available to be accessed at the recipients discretion. Examples are audio tapes and CDs; videotapes; CD-ROMs; manuals; printed materials; the intranet; radio and TV broadcasts.The advantages of pull communication are that it is less stressful for the recipient and that very large quantities of information can be made available at any one time.
Local Local communication is stand-alone and off-line. It occurs where you are, even though it might have been originated at a distance. Examples are audio tape and CDs; videotapes; CDROMs; letters, memos and reports; manuals; printed materials; one-to-ones and meetings. Faxes are local even though the process by which they are transmitted is not.The advantages of local communication are that no sacrifice has to be made to quality because of bandwidth limitations and that there are fewer restrictions on where the media can be used or the communication can take place.
Push Push communications are sent to specific recipients. Examples are letters, memos and reports; faxes and e-mails; one-to-ones; meetings; phone calls and videoconferencing calls.The advantage of push communication is the greater certainty that it provides that a message will reach its target within an appropriate timeframe.
Communication methods compared IT IS NOW POSSIBLE to look at the applicability of each method by identifying where it sits against each of the four dimensions and the media elements it is capable of employing.
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Characteristics by dimension Audio tape/CD Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Local, so potential for high quality, portable Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info Videotape Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Local, so potential for high quality, portable Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info CD-Rrom Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Local, so potential for high quality, portable Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info Letters / Recorded, so consistent, considered, memos / accessible when suits user reports Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Local, so potential for high quality, portable Push, so message will reach target on time Manuals Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Local, so potential for high quality, portable Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info
Characteristics by dimension Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through non-verbal sounds can create emotional response, realism
Characteristics by dimension When the message can be conveyed using sound alone; when interaction is not required; when recipients have access to players; when no other medium is suitable, e.g. when travelling Typical applications: education and training on the move
Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through moving images can be direct and memorable, attract attention, show motion, including body language Through non-verbal sounds can create emotional response, realism Through the written word can be specific, self-paced Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through still images can be direct and memorable, selfpacedThrough moving images can be direct and memorable, attract attention, show motion, including body languageThrough non-verbal sounds can create emotional response, realism Through the written word can be specific, self-paced Through still images can be direct and memorable, self-paced
When the message requires high quality moving images; when you need to create a memorable impression; when interaction is not required; when the size of the audience makes it cost-effective; when recipients have access to players Typical applications: corporate communications When the message requires a wide range of media types; when interaction is required; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient; when the size of the audience makes it cost-effective; when recipients have access to players Typical applications: training and point-of-sale programmes
When the message can be conveyed using text and still images; when it is important that you know the recipient will see the message; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient; when e-mail is not available, when portability is needed or when hard copy is essential Typical applications: everyday business communications where no on-line alternative
Through the written word can be specific, self-paced Through still images can be direct and memorable, self-paced
When the message can be conveyed using text and still images; when an intranet is not available, portability is needed or hard copy is essential Typical applications: reference, where no on-line alternative
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Characteristics by dimension Recorded, so consistent, considered, Printed materials accessible when suits user Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Local, so potential for high quality, portable Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info Fax Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Push, so message will reach target on time
Characteristics by dimension Through the written word can be specific, self-paced Through still images can be direct and memorable, self-paced
Characteristics by dimension When the message can be conveyed using text and still images; when quality is important; when the size of the audience makes it costeffective; when an intranet is not available, portability is needed or hard copy is essential Typical applications: corporate communications, marketing materials
When the message can be conveyed using text and still images; when it is important that you know the recipient will see the message; when the recipient is at a distance; when email is not available; when the recipient has a fax machine; Typical applications: business messages if no on-line alternative
E-mail
Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Remote, so no delays, regardless of distance Push, so message will reach target on time
Through the written word can be specific, self-paced
When the message can be conveyed using text alone; when it is important that you know the recipient will see the message; when the recipient is at a distance; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient; when both parties have e-mail access Typical applications: everyday business communications
Intranet
Recorded, so consistent, considered, accessible when suits user Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Remote, so no delays, regardless of distance Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info
When the message can be conveyed using sound alone; when the recipient is at a distance; (if live) when communication needs to be immediate; when the recipient has a radio receiver Typical applications: none
Radio
Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Remote, so no delays, regardless of distance Pull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info
Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through non-verbal sounds can create emotional response, realism
When the message can be conveyed using text and still images; when an intranet is not available, portability is needed or hard copy is essential Typical applications: reference, where no on-line alternative
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Characteristics by dimension TV Passive, so requires less effort from recipient, quicker Remote, so no delays, regardless of distancePull, so less stressful, good for large quantities of info
Characteristics by dimension Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through moving images can be direct and memorable, attract attention, show motion, including body languageThrough non-verbal sounds can create emotional response, realism
Characteristics by dimension When the message requires high quality moving images; when the recipient is at a distance; (if live) when communication needs to be immediate; when the recipient has a TV receiver Typical applications: corporate communications using satellite
One to Ones
Live, so immediate Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Local, so can take place anywhere Push, so message will reach target on time
Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through moving images (in this case normal sight) can be direct and memorable, attract attention, show motion, including body language
When the message requires the parties to see each other; when interaction is required; when communication needs to be immediate; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient Typical applications: interviews, everyday business communications
Meetings
Live, so immediate Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Local, so can take place anywhere Push, so message will reach target on time
Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through moving images (in this case normal sight) can be direct and memorable, attract attention, show motion, including body language
When the message requires the parties to see each other; when interaction is required; when communication needs to be immediate; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient Typical applications: presentations, seminars, reviews, briefing sessions, group decision-making
Phone
Live, so immediate Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Remote, so no delays, regardless of distance Push, so message will reach target on time
Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice
When the message can be conveyed using sound alone; when interaction is required; when communication needs to be immediate; when the recipient is at a distance; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient; when both parties have access to a phone Typical applications: everyday business communications
Video conferencing
Live, so immediate Interactive, so opportunities for feedback, can check message has been understood, recipient can control pace, message can be tailored Remote, so no delays, regardless of distance Push, so message will reach target on time
Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice Through moving images can be direct and memorable, attract attention, show motion, including body language
When the message requires the parties to see each other; when interaction is required; when communication needs to be immediate; when the recipient is at a distance; when the message needs to be tailored to the recipient; when both parties have access to video conferencing facilities Typical applications: important meetings held at a distance
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Importance of Communication
Communication is important because it is about how information is sent and received within firms The way information is communicated is often governed by how firms are structured
Illustrating Structures 1
The Pyramid
Decisions pass down formal channels from managers to staff Traditional view of organisations Information flows up formal channels from staff to management
Forms of Business Structure

Entrepreneurial - decisions made centrally Pyramid - staff have a role; shared decision making; specialisation is possible Matrix - staff with specific skills join project teams; individuals have responsibility Independent - seen in professions where organisation provides support systems and little else
Entrepreneurial
Key worker Quick to act but pressure on decision makers Decision maker Great reliance on key workers supporting decision makers Key worker One or two people make decisions
Most small businesses have this structure Key worker
Key worker
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Matrix
Marketing Project A Project B Production Finance
Channels of Communication
Communication in organisations follows paths or channels Communication between managers and subordinates is known as vertical communication This is because the information flows up or down the hierarchy
Project teams created
Staff with specialist skills
More on Business Structure

Centralisation Managers keep control Decisions are made in the interests of the whole business Costs can be cut by standardising purchasing and so on Strong leadership Decentralisation Empowering and motivating Freeing up senior managers time Better knowledge of those closer to customers Good staff development
Communication in organisations follows paths or channels Communication between managers and subordinates is known as vertical communication This is because the information flows up or down the hierarchy
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Channels between departments or functions involve lateral communication As well as formal channels of communication, information also passes through an organisation informally Communication is not complete until feedback has been received
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LESSON 4: PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

By The End of This Lesson You Should Be Able To
Understand the principles of Effective communication Discuss the impact information technology Explain Email etiquettes
Students, in this lesson we will understand the importance of effective communication. Everyday we communicate with each other but lets think for a while, are we communicating effectively? Communication, whether oral or written, is all about understanding. Our aim should be to communicate a message successfully so that it is received as we intended, without any misunderstanding. Effective communication can be achieved by having a through knowledge of the communication cycle, being aware of the barriers, which exist, and by considering carefully the following vital factors:
What is the objective of communication? Is it intended to
believe it either. When your audience doesnt believe you, your credibilityand their motivation to keep listening evaporates. Speaking with authority is dependent upon speaking truth. Often, speakers get into trouble when they extrapolate a principle into a situation they dont understand. If youre speaking about how a certain principle would work in a business setting, but know nothing about business, it will show. 4. Speak with your own voice : Listeners will disengage from a speaker who uses big words to impress his audience or who appears to choose words for the sake of sounding good. If your listener is conscious of your voice, it is a distraction. Choose your words the same way you choose your clothes; appropriate for the context, but not distracting. Your voice should contain fire, conviction, and accurately reflect whats happening in your mind. 5. Use gestures well : The effective use of gestures reinforces what a pastor says. As with the voice, gestures should represent what is happening in the mind. Gesturing also includes looking at people as you talk. Your eyes are almost as important as your voice. Make sure your eyes sweep across and make contact with people in every part of the audience, not just those in front of you. 6. Remember that your knowledge is limited : You may be tempted to appear to know more than you do. Always keep in mind that someone in your audience may know more than you do about your topic. Honestly communicate what you know. Effective communication is the key to mobilizing your employees behind a new vision. Poor communication, on the other hand, is the best way to demotivate your employees and stall any progress. Not taking the time to explain the vision, not explaining the vision in clear, understandable language, or not walking the talk are some common ways that organizations fail to achieve their goals. The seven principles below will help you to avoid mistakes.
give information, to persuade, to request, to inform?

Who will receive the communication? What is the
relationship between the sender and the recipient? What is the recipients background knowledge and experience?
Under what circumstances is the communication taking
place? Why is the communication happening? Is it urgent, serious, dangerous, emotive or informative? How will the recipient react to the communication ? How will the message affect the recipient? Is it important? Will the recipient be offended or angered? Will it achieve the desired aims? Accomplishing any task with excellence is always a function of mastering the basics. The six communication basics all of us have to follow are 1. Establish a warm atmosphere : The atmosphere you create with your words and gestures determines the effectiveness of your sermon. Avoid beginning with a negative tone, selfcentered anecdotes, or anything, which betrays insecurity on your part. These focus the audiences attention on your needs, not theirs. Your nonverbal signals are also important because they communicate your general demeanor. Smiling at people demonstrates openness and invites them to listen. 2. Actively engage peoples interest : Many of us use techniques to engage congregations that they believe are effective, but actually disconnect them from listeners. Overdramatization, excessive emotion, and yelling focus listeners upon your performance instead of content. A conversational approach works better. 3. Be Believable : Evaluate everything you say from the pulpit with this question: Is it believable? If you cant believe yourself when you say something, your audience wont
Keep it simple
Unfocused, run-on sentences filled with jargon and buzz words create confusion. Language is often an imprecise tool. The more often we repeat jargon the less clear the meaning becomes. Consider this example:
Version #1: Our goal is to improve our victim assistance
service delivery options so that they are perceptually better than any other service provider within the confines of the country. In a similar vein, we have targeted existing service lines and delivery models for transition to more efficient and effective service delivery options.
Version #2: We are going to be the best victim services
program of any police force in Canada. We will do this by
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having a look at what services we provide and how we provide them, to see if we can do it better. Which version do you think people will better understand and respond to?
Use Metaphors and Analogy

Metaphors, analogy, examples, or just plain colorful language helps communicate complex ideas simply and effectively. Heres a colorful vision statement from a large corporation that was facing fierce competition from a host of new, smaller companies: We need to be less like an elephant and more like a customer-friendly Tyrannosaurus rex. The language is imaginative, but also accurate. The transformation from elephant to T-rex described exactly the direction the firm wished to take: still big, but more effective.
open mind to their suggestions. If there isnt a legitimate reason for inconsistent behaviour, change the behaviour quickly. Some may believe that management shouldnt have to explain itself to its employees. Those managers shouldnt be surprised if their employees lose faith and interest.
Listen and Be Listened to

A final rule: communication should be two-way. Explain the vision, then listen to the feedback. Dont forget, a great many people at all levels of the organization have to actually implement the vision to make it real, but they have to believe in it first. Communicating the vision effectively sets the stage for the next phase: getting people to act.
Impact of Information Technology

In recent years there has been an information technology revolution. While paper-based manual systems for processing information and communicating are still very much evident, more and more office functions and procedures are now being undertaken by computer-based technology. The implications of such information technology on communication methods cannot be ignored. However the technology will always require people, and in communication it is the input of the operator that will ensure effective communication (or otherwise). In the area of text creation, computer experts are trying to make the task of creating documents much easier. Programs are available that will produce standard layouts for most business documents when inputs or variables are keyed in. In other words, the originator does not decide on the layout, the computer program does. Sadly, computer experts who may not be so expert in the modern display of business documents write many computer programs. Some of these standard layouts leave much to be desired. The fundamental skills of structure, tone and composition will always be of vital importance in ensuring effective communication. As an originator of printed communications, you have control over these factors. However, while technological developments are making your role more interesting and challenging, the basic presentational conventions should not be allowed to suffer. No matter how technology develops in the future, high standards must be set and maintained in order to ensure that all your communications are not only appropriately worded and logically structured, but are also consistently and attractively presented. Information Technology has revolutionized business communication with Emails. Tell me how many of you still write letters to your friends, relatives? I guess very few of you and that is because you would love to chat with your friends or send an email rather than taking the pain in writing letters getting it posted and worrying whether your friend will receive your letter? By when? So on and so forth. Similarly in business emails are used more as an internal communication tool which saves time, money and effort. Therefore lets now discuss about Emails.EMAIL The rapid growth of email has been the most exciting business communication devel-opment in recent years. In just a short
Use Many Different Forums to Spread The Word

Spread the word in big meetings, informal one-on-one or group talks and formal presentations. Encourage your employees to read national broadcasts, divisional newsletters Quarterly Business Magazines. When the same message comes at people from six different directions, its going to be heard.
Repeat Key Messages

For the message to be repeated as often as possible, plan ongoing communication opportunities including developing your key messages. Key messages are the ideas that you want your audiences (in your case, your employees) to take home with them. Key messages should become a natural part of meetings, discussions, etc. When responding to a question, answer the question honestly, but also use it as a chance to repeat a key message if appropriate. One example of a key message is: The employees of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are committed to our communities. This would probably never be said as a single statement without example of how we demonstrate this commitment, but it is the essence of what we want our listeners to take away and to repeat, or think about later on.
Lead by Example
If you do the opposite of what you say, no one will listen to you. You have to walk the talk.
We are promoting a new, client-focused vision, so
management should guarantee to listen to employees concerns and respond to their own employees within a specified period. If we are encouraging empowerment and trust on paper, we must put it into action, and give employees the support to run with ideas, assuming those ideas are well thought out.
If we espouse community policing, leaders must
demonstrate this to deliver service to all their communities which could include employees, bosses, government officials, and so on.
Explicitly Address Inconsistencies

If theres a legitimate reason for inconsistent behaviour, explain yourself. For example, in times of belt-tightening, if spending some money up-front can save more in the long-run, explain that openly and honestly to your employees, and listen with an
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time, email has emerged as a mainstream form of business communication.
Evaluating Emails Pros and Cons

The reasons for this rapid growth are the advantages email has over other communication forms, especially over its principal competitor, the telephone. Among the reasons, the following are most significant: Conversely, .email saves the time of these busy people. They are spared the interruptions of telephone calls.
Email can. speed up the process of making business
full name also is acceptable. The salutations commonly used in letters ( Dear Sir, Gentlemen, Dear Mr., Dear Ms. ) are rarely used in email. When writing to someone or a group you do not know, it is appropriate to identify yourself early in the message. This identification may include your propose and your company. Your title and position also may be helpful.
Organizing the Contents

Even though email messages often are written under time pressure, you would do well to organize them carefully. For most short, informative messages, a top-down order is appropriate. This plan, used in newspaper writing, involves presenting the most important material first. The remaining information follows in descending order of importance. Such an arrangement permits a busy reader to get the essential facts first, and the reader accessing email on a Web phone or other small screen to get the essential facts more easily. Many writers routinely follow this practice. The longer, more complex, and formal email messages frequently follow more involved and strategic organization patterns. As you will see, these patterns vary depending on how the reader will likely perceive the writers objective. In general, those messages that are likely to be received positively or neutrally are written in a direct pattern. That is, they get to the goal right away and then present their contents systematically and quickly. Those messages that are likely to be received negatively are appropriately written in an indirect pattern. Their negative content is preceded by conditioning and explanation words that prepare the reader for it. Some long email messages may resemble business reports. With these messages, you well may follow the organization and writing instructions for business reports. You should use your knowledge of report presentation in writing them. In fact, business reports can be communicated by email just as business letters can. As you will see in the later lesson on internal communication, some memorandums are communicated by email. The variety of email messages covers the entire spectrum of written business communication.
decisions, because it permits rapid exchanges from an involved in the decisions. Email is cheap. It permits unlimited use at no more than the cost of an Internet connection. Email also has its disadvantages. The following stand out:
Email is not confidential. Its just about as private as a
postcard you drop in the mail box.

Email doesnt communicate the senders emotions well.
Voice intonations, facial expressions, body movements, and such are not a part of the message. They are in telephone and face-to-face communication.
Email may be ignored or delayed. The. volume of email
often makes it difficult for some respondents to read .and act on all of their messages.
Including the Prefatory Elements

Much of what you. do in constructing email messages is standardized, especially the mechanical parts pertaining to structure. But the second part of your effort, writing the message, is far from standardized. Although the following review covers both, the writ-ing receives the greater emphasis. It is here that you are likely to need the most help. Although the various email systems differ somewhat, the elements are standardized. They include the following parts:.
To Here is placed the email address of the recipients. Cc If someone other than the prime recipient is to receive a
courtesy copy, his or her address goes here.

Bcc This line stands for blind courtesy copy. The recipients
Writing the Message : Formality Considerations

A review of email writing is uncomplicated by the fact that email messages are extremely diverse. , they run the range from highly informal to formal. The informal messages often resemble face-to-face oral communication; some even sound like chit that occurs between acquaintances and friends. Email massages are often written in a fast- paced environment with little time for deliberation. Because of this diversity, discussing the formality of email writing is difficult. One approach is to view the language used from three general classifications; casual, informal, and formal. Casual By casual language we mean the language we use in talking with close friends in everyday situations. It includes slang and colloquialisms. It uses contractions and personal pronouns freely. Its sentences are short-sometimes incomplete. It uses mechanical emphasis devices and initializes (to be discussed later).. Although in actual practice it may be subject to
message will not show this information; that is, the or she will not know who else is receiving a copy of the message. Subject This line describes the message as precisely as the
situation permits. The reader should get from it a clear idea of what the message is about.
Attachments In this area you can enter a file that you desire
to send along with the message. You should make certain that what you attach is really needed.
The message The information you are sending goes here.
How to write it is the subject of much of the following discussion.
Beginning The Message

Typically, email messages begin the recipients name. If writer and reader are acquainted, first name only is the rule. If not, the specific situation may determine the first words. A friendly generic greeting such as Greetings is appropriate for a group of people with whom you communicate. Use of the recipients
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grammatical incorrectness, as we stress elsewhere this practice is not helpful to the communication and should be avoided. Casual lan-guage is best limited to your communications with close friends. Following is an ex-ample of casual language: Hi Cupcake. High-five me! Just back from confab with pinheads. Theyre high on our marketing plan. But as you crystal balled it, they want a special for the jumbos. ASAP, they said. Lets meet, my cell, 10 A.M., Wed.? TTFN Bugger Most of your personal email (messages to friends) are likely to be casually written. This is the way friends talk and their email should be no different. Probably some of the email you will write in business also will fall. in this category. Much of it will be with your fellow employees and friends in business. But here some words of caution should be expressed. You would be wise to use casual language only when you know your readers well-when you know they expect and prefer casual communication. Never should you use words, initializes, emphasis devices, or such that are not cer-tain to communicate clearly and quickly. Informal: informal language retains some of the qualities. of casual writing. It makes some use of personal pronouns and contractions. Its sentences are relatively short. It . occasionally may use colloquialisms, but more selectively than in casual writing. It has the effect of conversation, but it is proper conversation-not chitchat. Its sentences are short, but they are well structured and organized. They have varied patterns that produce an interesting literary style. In general, it is the writing that you will find in most of the illustrations in Chapters 6-9. It is the language that appears in the text of this book. You should use its most of your business email messages, especially when writing to people you know only on a business basis. An example of an email message in informal language is the following:
For the purpose of email writing, we may group the more important of these instructions under three heads: conciseness, clarity, and eti-quette. A fourth, correctness is equally vital. Each of these im-portant qualities for email writing is briefly reviewed in the following paragraphs.
Conciseness
As we have mentioned, email often is written by busy people for busy people. In the best interests of all concerned, email messages should be as short as com-plete coverage of the subject matter will permit. This means cutting the information available and using only that which is essential. It means also that the information remaining should be worded concisely. In the words of one email authority, Short messages are better, even especially the important ones Frequently in email communication, a need exists to refer to previous email messages. The easiest way, of course, is to tell your mailer to include the entire message. Unless the entire message is needed, however, this practice adds length. It is better either to paraphrase the essentials from the original or to quote the selected parts that cover the essentials. All quoted material should be distinguished from your own words by the sign > at the beginning and the sign < at the end of the quoted part. Another technique is to place three of these signs (>>>) at the beginning of all parts you write and three of these signs (<<<) at the beginning of all parts you are quoting from previous messages.
Clarity
Especially important in email writing is clarity of wording. You should select words that quickly create clear meanings. Typically, these are the short, familiar ones. You should strive for concreteness, vigor, and precision. Your sentences should be short, and so should your paragraphs.
Eqiquette
It goes without saying that good business etiquette should be practiced in all business relations. We all want to receive courteous and fair treatment. In fact, this is the way we human beings prefer to act. Even so, the current literature has much to say about anger among email participants. Flaming, as the practice of sending abusive or offensive language is called, has no place in business. Good business etiquette should prevail. The skillful use of positive language and your viewpoint also can be effective in email. So can the use of conversational language. Nondiscriminatory language also helps, as can emphasis on sincerity. In act, virtually all the instructions given on goodwill building apply here. Also in the interest of good business etiquette, you will want to let your reader know when no response is required to your email message.
Smita
The management team has heartily approved our marketing plan. They were most complimentary. But as you pre-dieted, they want a special plan for the large accounts. As they want it as soon as possible, lets get together to work on it . Can we meet Wednesday, 10 am my office Brandon
Formal
A formal style of writing maintains a-greater distance between writer and reader than informal style. It avoids personal references and contractions. Its sentences are well structured and organized. Although there is a tendency to create-longer sentences in formal writing, this tendency should be resisted Formal style is well illustrated in the examples of formal reports in lesson 22/23 and it is appropriate to use email messages resembling formal reports, in messages to people of higher status, and to people not known to the writer.
Correctness
One would think that the need for correctness in email writing would be universally accepted. Unfortunately, such is not the case. Because of the fast pace of email communication, some practitioners argue that getting the message out there is the important goal that style need not be a matter of concern. In the view of one in this group, You should not add stylistics and grammatical refinements to your email messages because theyll slow you down.
Writing the Message : General Considerations

Instructions for writing email messages are much the same as those given in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 for other types of messages.
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We cannot accept this view. How one communicates is very much a part of the message. As expressed by one authority, People still judge you on how well you communicate Commercial email represents your company and your brand. Theres no room for excuses. Bad spelling, illogical punctuation, awkward wording, and such stand out like sore thumbs. Such errors reflect on the writer. And they can reflect on the credibility of the message. If one knows correctness, it is easy enough to get it right the first time. What is the logic of doing something wrong when you know better? Clearly, an error-field message strongly suggests the writers ignorance. To avoid any such suggestion of ignorance, you should follow the grammatical and punctuation instructions presented in lesson 5 and 6. And you should follow the basic instructions for using words, constructing sentences, and designing paragraphs. Before pressing the Send button, proofread your mes-sage careful1y. Using Good Email Etiquette Helps Writers Convey Intended Message
formal business relationships. In messages to other businesses, it is important that you include your company and position. Today most email software has a signature feature that will automatically attach a signature file to a message. Most programs even allow the writer to set up an alterna-tive signature; giving users the flexibility to choose between a stm1dard, one alternate, and none attached at all: Writers sometimes set up a .formal full signature in one file and an informal-signature in another. The important point to remember is to close with a signature that gives the reader the information he or she needs to know.
Using Emphasis Devices

When you write email messages, you may find that certain elements of style are miss-ing either on your system or on your readers systems. While most of the current ver-sions of Windows and Macintosh email programs support mechanical devices such as underscoring, font variations, italics, bold, color, and even graphics, some older or mainframe-based systems do not. Email writers have attempted to overcome the lim-itations of these older systems by developing alternative means of showing emphasis. To show underscoring, they use the sign at the beginning of the words needing underscoring. They use asterisks (*) before and after words to show boldface. Solid capital letters are another means of emphasis, although some critics believe this practice is greatly overused. In the words of one critic Dont use solid capital letters. People will think youre shouting. A sign they use to emphasize items in a list is the bullet. Since there is no standardized bullet character that will display on all computers, many writers of email use substitute characters. One is the asterisk (*) followed by a tab space. Another is the dash () followed by a tab space. Probably these devices are used best in the email messages written in casual languages.
Using proper email etiquette is as easy as applying a bit of empathy to your messages: send only what you would want to receive. The following additional etiquette guides will help you consider a variety of issues when using email: Is your message really needed by the recipient(s)? Is your message for routine rather than sensitive messages ? Are you sure your message is not spam (an annoying message sent repeatedly) or a chain letter? Have you carefully checked that your message is going where you want it to go? Has your wording avoided defamatory or libelous language?
Have you complied with copyright laws and attributed sources accurately? Have you avoided humor and sarcasm your reader may not understand as intended? Have you proofread your message carefully? Is this a message you would not mind having distributed widely? Does your signature avoid offensive Quotes or illustrations, especially those that are religious, political, or sexual? Are attached files a size that your recipient's system can handle? Are the files you are attaching virus free?
Using Initialisms Cautiously

Probably as a result of the early informal development of email, a somewhat standardized system of initialisms has developed. Their purpose has been to cut message length and to save the writers time. In spite of these apparent advantages, you would be wise to use them cautiously. They have meaning only if readers know them. Even so, you should be acquainted with the more widely used ones, such as those below. You are likely to find others created by your email correspondents. ASAP BTW FAQ as soon as possible by the way frequently asked question
FWIW for what its worth As noted previously, initializm are appropriate primarily in casual messages. It is important to keep in mind that these practices and some of the other pointers given in this review apply only to current usage. Computers and their use are changing almost daily. The techniques of email writing also are likely to change over time.
Closing The Message

Most email messages end with just the writers name the first name alone if the recipient knows the writer well. But in some messages, especially the more formal ones, a closing statement may be appropriate. Thanks and Regards are popular. In casual messages, acronyms such as THX (thanks) and TTFN ( ta-ta for now) are often used. The conventional complimentary closes used in traditional letters (sincerely, cordially) are not widely used, but they are appropriate in message that involves
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Why is email etiquette important?

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General Format: The Basics

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We all interact with the printed word as though it has a personality and that personality makes positive and negative impressions upon us. Without immediate feedback your document can easily be misinterpreted by your reader, so it is crucial that you follow the basic rules of etiquette to construct an appropriate tone.
Write a salutation for each new subject email. Try to keep the email brief (one screen length). Return emails within the same time you would a phone call. Check for punctuation, spelling, and grammatical errors
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Use caps when appropriate. Format your email for plain text rather than HTML. Use a font that has a professional or neutral look.
The elements of email etiquette

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General Format: Character Spacing

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General format Writing long messages Attachments The curse of surprises
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Flaming Delivering information Delivering bad news Electronic Mailing Lists
Try to keep your line length at 80 characters or less. If your message is likely to be forwarded, keep it to 60 characters or less. Set your email preferences to automatically wrap outgoing plain text messages.
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General Format: Lists and Bullets

When you are writing directions or want to emphasize important points, number your directions or bullet your main points. For example, 1) Place the paper in drawer A. 2) Click the green start button. Another example, Improve customer satisfaction. Empower employees.
General Format: Addresses

Avoid sending emails to more than four addresses at once. l Instead, create a mailing list so that readers do not have to scroll too much before getting to the actual message. To: maillist4@cs.com
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General Format: Tone
Attachments
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Write in a positive tone When you complete the report. instead of If you complete the report. Avoid negative words that begin with un, non, ex or that end with less (useless, nonexistent, ex-employee, undecided).
Use smiles J, winks ;), and other graphical symbols only when appropriate. Use contractions to add a friendly tone. (dont, wont, cant).
When you are sending an attachment tell your respondent what the name of the file is, what program it is saved in, and the version of the program. This file is in MSWord 2000 under the name LabFile.
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General Tips for Electronic Mailing Lists

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Elevator Summary and Table of Contents

An elevator summary should have all the main components of the email. Our profit margin for the last quarter went down 5%. As a result I am proposing budget adjustment for the following areas
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Avoid discussing private concerns and issues. It is okay to address someone directly on the list. Ex, Hi Leslie, regarding your question Change the subject heading to match the content of your message. When conflict arises on the list speak in person with the one with whom you are in conflict.
Table of contents This email contains A. Budget projections for the last quarter B. Actual performance for the last quarter C. Adjustment proposal D. Projected profitability
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When your message is long

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Delivering Information About Meetings, Orientations, Processes

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Create an elevator summary. Provide a table of contents on the first screen of your email. If you require a response from the reader then be sure to request that response in the first paragraph of your email. Create headings for each major section.
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Include an elevator summary and table of contents with headings. Provide as much information as possible. Offer the reader an opportunity to receive the information via mail if the email is too confusing.
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Delivering Bad News

Deliver the news up front: We are unable to order new computers this quarter due to budget cuts. Avoid blaming: I think it will be hard to recover from this, but what can I do to help? Avoid using weasel words or hedging: Our pricing structure is outdated. More examples of hedging are: Intents and purposes Possibly, most likely Perhaps, maybe
Writing a complaint
Ask for help and offer a resolution: Please let me know what other options I may have overlooked. I am willing to meet with the department head and the executive board to seek out a solution that is fair to the members and is good for the business of the organization.
Writing a complaint
Do not take your reader by surprise or press them to the wall

Show why it is critical for the problem to be resolved by your reader. Offer suggestions on ways you think it can be resolved or how you are willing to help in the matter.
You should briefly state the history of the problem to provide context for your reader. Explain the attempts you made previously to resolve the problem.
Do not wait until the end of the day to introduce a problem or concern via memo or email. Avoid writing a litany of concerns that you have been harboring for a long period of time.
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When you need to flame Flaming in emails
Flaming is a virtual term for venting or sending inflammatory messages in email. Avoid flaming because it tends to create a great deal of conflict that spirals out of control.
Flame fights are the equivalent of food fights and tend to affect observers in a very negative way. What you say cannot be taken back; it is in black and white.
There are times when you may need to blow off some steam. Remember your audience and your situation before sending the email.
Heres a way to flame: Flame On Your message Flame Off
Keep flaming under control
Responding to a flame
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Before you send an email message, ask yourself, would I say this to this persons face? Calm down before responding to a message that offends you. Once you send the message it is gone.
Read your message twice before you send it and assume that you may be misinterpreted when proofreading.
Empathize with the senders frustration and tell them they are right if that is true If you feel you are right, thank them for bringing the matter to your attention Explain what led to the problem in question
Avoid getting bogged down by details and minor arguments If you are aware that the situation is in the process of being resolved let the reader know at the top of the response Apologize if necessary
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When Email Wont Work

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There are times when you need to take your discussion out of the virtual world and make a phone call. If things become very heated, a lot of misunderstanding occurs, or when you are delivering very delicate news then the best way is still faceto face.
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LESSON 5: PRACTICE CLASS

Upon completion of this lesson, you will understand the role of communication in business. To achieve this goal you should be able to
Study, analyze and solve the cases given below. Learn more on importance of communication in business Explain the communication model.
One worker is Himanshu, a college - age man who is holding a full time job while going to school - part time. The other is Akash, an old-timer a self made man and master craftsman. Himanshu: I like the candidate. He appears young, energetic and bright. Akash: Hes young all right. Too young! Too bright ! That fancy Harvard degree wont help him here. Why Ill bet he hasnt spent one day in a working mans shoes. Himanshu: Now thats not fair. He was trained to be an administrator , and he has had experience as an administrator high level experience . You dont need experience as a soldier to be a general. Akash: Dont tell me what this company needs. Ive spent 40 years here. I know. I was here when old J.P (the company founder) was president. He started as a machinist and worked to the top. Best presidident any company could have. We loved the man . He knew the business and he knew the business and he knew the work we do. Himanshu: But that doesnt happen today. Administrators have to be trained for admiistration. They have to know administration, finance, marketing the whole business field . You dont get that in the shop. Akash: All you kids think that knowledge only comes from books. You cant substitute book knowledge for experience and common sense . Ive been here 40 years, son I know. The dialogue continued to accelerate and soon led to harsh words. Neither Himanshu nor Akash changed positions. Analyse the dialogue using the model of communication as the base. Further Reading Myths of Effective Communication by Brian H. Spitzberg, Ph.D. Dr. Spitzberg is professor in the School of Communication at San Diego State University. He is co-author of Interpersonal Communication Competence (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 1984), Handbook of Interpersonal Competence Research (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989), and co-editor of The Dark Side of Close Relationships (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, due June, 1998). Could Harry S. Truman be elected in the todays political context? Probably not. A candidate who really tells it like it is would likely alienate too many factions of the voting public. Instead, contemporary candidates employ vague symbols such as peace, prosperity, democracy, freedom, and resounding phrases such as a thousand points of light and bridge into the 21st century. So, as a society, we greatly value clarity, specificity, and honesty. Yet, we only elect leaders who are equivocal and distinctly reluctant to discuss specifics. Such a mismatch between
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Students in this lesson we will solve some cases for which lets form groups and analyze the case. You may have to give a presentation once you are through with your answers/ solutions.
Critical Thinking Exercises

1. Nikita is one of the 12 workers in Department X . She has strong leadership qualities and all her co-workers look up to her. She dominates conversations with them and expresses strong viewpoints on most matters. Although she is a good worker , her dominating personality has caused problems for you , the new manager of department X. Today you directed your subordinates to change a certain work procedure. The change is one that has proven superior wherever it has been tried. Soon after giving the directive, you noticed the workers talking in a group, with Nikita the obvious leader. In a few minutes she appeared in your office . Weve thought it over she said. Your production change wont work. Explain what is happening.
How will you handle the situation?

2. After noticing that some workers were starting work late and finishing early , a department head wrote this message to subordinates: It is apparent that many of you are not giving the company a full days work. Thus the following procedures are implemented immediately:
After you clock in , you will proceed to your work stations

and will be ready to begin work promptly at the start of the work period.
You will not take a coffee break or consume coffee on the job
at eh beginning of the work period. You will wait until your designated break times.
You will not participate in social gatherings at any time

during the workday except during designated break periods.
You will terminate work activities no earlier than 10 minutes

prior to the end of the work period. You will uses he 10 minutes to put up equipment, and check the work area. You will not queue up at the exit prior to the end of the work period.
The message was not well received by the workers. In fact it led to considerable anger , misunderstanding and confusion. Using the model of communication as a base , analyse the message and explain g the probable causes of the difficulties. 3. After being introduced to a candidate for the presidency of their company, two workers had the following discussion .
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public ideology and actual leadership practice is a good example of the dark side of human behavior. What is the dark side of human interaction? It is many things. First, the dark side refers to things we cannot see, things lurking in the shadows of ignorance, either not observed or not understood. Second, it concerns actions we presume to be positive and valuable, which actually can function in negative and destructive ways. For example, honesty is highly valued, but you may be exploited if you are completely honest in the early stages of negotiation. Third, the dark side draws attention to encounters that strike us intuitively as unethical, unpleasant, or dysfunctional, but that are in fact productive, in often surprising ways. A manager lays off well-liked employees and creates a climate of uncertainty and dissatisfaction. But in the long run, the efficiencies gained may produce a working climate that is more productive and desirable. This dark side exposes a number of common myths that a leader needs to appreciate.
The Myth of Adaptability

Adaptability, the ability to change ones actions as the situation requires, is essential to interpersonal skills. Or is it? In the world of athletics, proficiency is often based more on performance consistency than flexibility. In many realms we define excellence by how single-minded and focused a person is, and how she pursues the goal to its end with dogged determination. Change brings unpredictability, uncertainty, and often, a diminished performance because a person has left his or her domain of expertise. Adaptable people can come across like a chameleon as they change their face for each person with whom they interact. This is itself somewhat unnerving. But if everyone is adapting to everyone elses adaptations, people become chameleons in a paisley room, disabled by the shifting pattern of their social context. Persistence and consistency may be hobgoblins of little minds, but they can accomplish great things when applied in a focused manner.
The Myth of Clarity

The ideology of clarity, accuracy, and understanding runs deep in the ethos (and mythos) of our businesses, governments, and relationships. Yet, if we carefully consider these concepts, we rapidly reveal them to be problematic. Several examples should illustrate. Politeness is considered a universal goal. Without basic politeness, society begins to fall apart. Yet, much of what passes for politeness is deceptive. Hi Jennifer, how are ya? Fine. Jennifer may be feeling ill, concerned about not getting the recent promotion, and apprehensive about her husbands suspected affair. But she says fine as a pleasantry, and perhaps to avoid appearing less than competent in a competitive environment. If we are this duplicitous in casual conversation, consider the possibilities when we communicate about issues with larger strategic interests. Getting the message across, avoiding communication breakdowns, and being clear are good terms in most peoples minds. Even a best selling self-help book admonishes us that we just dont understand, as if this is one of the worst sins of human relations. Yet, as humans, we thrive on ambiguity and strategic misunderstanding. We often use ambiguity to cope with predicaments, difficult situations, and conflict situations. A team member who just gave a fairly bad but somewhat inconsequential presentation, may ask How did I do? How do you respond? You may say something like: Probably better than I would have done, or Ive never seen a presentation like it. Such messages may not satisfy the other person, but they assist you in managing a difficult situation and preserving the peace of work relations. Leaders often must rely on equivocal and ambiguous messages if they are to bring diverse groups together. People find it difficult to agree on much of anything specific, but almost everyone can agree on the values of freedom, prosperity, and so forth. People agree to these things in their leaders, without having any real idea of what these ideas mean in terms of policy. Through the use of such equivocal symbols, people come together and make progress toward goals, even if they dont all have the same image of those goals.
The Myth of Creativity

The gurus of creativity tout advantages in innovation, unforeseen solutions to problems, and new perspectives toward the world at large. But creativity as an end in itself can result in a host of potential problems. Brainstorming groups, for example, can produce so many ideas that the best tree of an idea can get lost in the forest of alternatives. Creativity thrives on horizontal thinking, but occasionally a vertical solution is best for vertical problems. Heres a fruitful example. With a son and daughter fighting over the only orange in the house, the mother asks them what they want it for. The boy wants it for a snack and the girl wants it for a recipe that calls for orange peel. The mother could get creative and try to think of alternative, divergent, or numerous solutions, but in this case, theres a singularly obvious solution. For many routine tasks, the best solutions are known well in advance. Conformity, by contrast, has the stigma of the old, the traditional, and the boring. But its conformity that permits society, organizations, and culture, to exist at all. Conformity is highly efficient because people dont have to expend mental and behavioral energy figuring out what youre going to do. You do what everyone else does in this situation, and things work. Certainly, conformity is probably dysfunctional in the extreme, as no source of growth and evolution will exist, but it hardly seems as dark as its often depicted.
The Myth of Assertiveness

For the decades of the 1970s and 1980s, many therapists and experiential group facilitators got wealthy hyping the key to interpersonal effectiveness: assertiveness training. We were all wimps, and assertiveness skills were going to make us powerful, successful, and charismatic. A funny thing happened on the way to this self-actualization. Research found that when you observed someone else being assertive, that person appeared to be competent. However, recipients of assertive behavior tend to see it as effective, but also rather inappropriate and unlikable. So thousands of us were being trained how to lose friends and influence people. Appropriate, even passive, behavior, has its place in social and task interaction, as it serves to balance power disparities and
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smooth tensions among people who, after all, perceive that they have the right to be right as well. Finally, its sometimes preferable to lose a battle so as to win the war.
The Myth of Competence

Can a person be competent by behaving incompetently? At first blush, this may seem an absurd proposition. But consider the concept of passive aggressiveness. A person dislikes a particular task relative to other jobs that he is not currently assigned. By fouling up on his own task, eventually he may get reassigned to a task he likes more. A student who wants to shine, can shine more in a normal class than an advanced class, and may choose this alternative by performing less than optimally on selection tests. Theres a logical reverse of this concept called skilled incompetence. A person or group may do everything in a skilled way; that is, in a normal way that has always worked in the past and seems to fit all the requirements of effective behavior. Yet, when all the dust clears, the outcomes are deeply flawed. A study of the fatal spacecraft Challenger disaster is a case in point. Everyone was an expert, everyone was competent, everyone was doing what they were supposed to, and everyone was making the best decision they could at the time. And most of the people made the wrong decision.
How Dark is the Dark Side?

So the dark side isnt so dark after all. And the bright side doesnt look so bright anymore. Does this mean you should be more ambiguous, rigid, traditional, unassertive, and incompetent? Of course not. The myths above are not myths because their opposites are always true. They are myths because you already engage in equivocal, consistent, persistent, normative, passive, and less than optimal communication, and yet, you are probably not banished from meetings, slapped in the face on a regular basis, or treated like a social pariah. The point of this analysis of interpersonal communication myth-making isnt to recommend incompetent forms of communication, but to draw attention to two conclusions. First, the ideologies we profess about interpersonal communication are false when taken to the extreme. Business textbooks tend to treat clarity as an inherent good, rather than exploring the functional uses of non-clarity. Second, to understand such falseness requires that people stop getting their interpersonal wisdom from talk shows, motivational speakers, and people illequipped to either conduct original research or interpret other scholars scientific work. After all, we all know that clarity, adaptability, creativity, assertiveness, and competence are intrinsically good. Right?
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UNIT 1 CHAPTER 2: USE OF ENGLISH LESSON 6: AID TO CORRECT WRITING

After Completing This Lesson You Will
Brush up your basic grammar Study more about nouns, pronouns, gerunds and infinitives, verbs and
Nouns that end in a consonant followed by a y are made plural by dropping the y and adding ies. Example: one country, two countries Nouns that end in a vowel followed by a y are made plural by adding s.
Example: one toy, two toys
adverbs
Learn to make subjects and verbs agree. Brush up your understanding in phrases and clauses.
Students, this lesson will make you go back to your primary classes where you were taught about basic grammar. It is important to ensure that your language in all business communication is grammatically correct. Therefore lets start by the basics:
Nouns that end in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves.
Example:
one leaf, two leaves
Certain irregular nouns have special plural forms.
Nouns
What is a noun? A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. Every sentence must have a noun as its subject
Examples:
one foot, two feet a mouse, many mice
To find the plural form of a noun that you are unsure of, check the Gage Canadian Dictionary.
Examples:
Types of Nouns
Proper Nouns Common Nouns
The bear sleeps. Toronto is a city.
Possessive Forms
The possessive form of a noun indicates ownership or modifies another noun. The possessive form is usually formed by adding s to the end of a noun.
Examples:
the player's equipment the woman's job Canada's government
Forms of Nouns
Plural Nouns Possessive Forms
Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so that your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to. Therefore, pronouns should 1. Agree In Number If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun. If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker. (NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.) Remember The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY, SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns. Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best) Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas) NOTE: Many people find the construction his or her wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your antecedent so that you can use they as your pronoun, it may be wise to do
Proper Nouns
A proper noun is the name of a person, place or thing. Proper nouns should always be capitalized. Examples: Toronto Mr. Brown Sally
Common Nouns
A common noun is any noun that is not a proper noun. Common nouns are not capitalized. Examples: the city a leader this woman
Plural Forms
The plural form of a noun indicates more than one. The plural form is usually formed by adding an s or es. Examples: One week, two weeks a house, many houses One box, two boxes
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so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use just his or her rather than his or her. See our handout on Non-sexist Language for more information. 2. Agree in Person If you are writing in the first person ( I), dont confuse your reader by switching to the second person ( you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the second person, dont switch to first or third. When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready. (NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.) 3. Refer Clearly To A Specific Noun. Dont be vague or ambiguous. NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is it the motorcycle or the tree?) NOT: I dont think they should show violence on TV. (Who are they?) NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?) NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his lifes work. (What word does this refer to?) NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does it refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)
NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I. (Would you say, he gave the flowers to I?) NOT: Us men like the coach. (Would you say, us like the coach?) 2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as: He is taller than I (am tall). This helps you as much as (it helps) me. She is as noisy as I (am). Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun. NOT: He is taller than me. (Would you say, than me am tall?) 3. In formal and semiformal writing: Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be. FORMAL: It is I. INFORMAL: It is me. Use whom in the objective case. FORMAL: To whom am I talking? INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?
Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives

There are three types of verbals : gerunds, participles, and infinitives. Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of this handout because they can both end in ing but have different functions in a sentence. Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted in the last section below. Gerunds A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new
Pronoun Case
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases. 1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject. 2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions. 3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership. Pronouns as SUBJECTS I You he, she, it We They Who Pronouns as OBJECTS me you him, her, it us them whom Pronouns that show POSSESSION my (mine) your (yours) his, her (hers), it (its) our (ours) their (theirs) whose
experiences. Gerund as direct object:

They do not appreciate my singing. They do not appreciate my assistance.
The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICH do not change form.
Some problems of case:

1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want. NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal. (Would you say, me travel?)
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Gerund as subject complement:

My cats favorite activity is sleeping. My cats favorite food is salmon.
Gerund as object of preposition:

The police arrested him for speeding.
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The police arrested him for criminal activity.
4. The college recommends sending applications early. 5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as : Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. lying to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen. The crying baby had a wet diaper.
Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car. The burning log fell off the fire. Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as: The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. lying to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)
Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
Punctuation
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it. Points to Remember 1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun. 2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation. Exercise on Gerunds Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label how they function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject complement, object of preposition). 1. Swimming keeps me in shape. 2. Swimming in your pool is always fun. 3. Telling your father was a mistake.
Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
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Placement : In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.
Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. * Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.
Exercise on Participles
Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified. 1. Getting up at five, we got an early start. 2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadnt worked hard enough in high school. 3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that seventy percent of American colleges offer remedial English classes emphasizing composition. 4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly. 5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot cant be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left dangling. Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence. Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed. Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest stem form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required.
muscles. If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep. The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
(subject)
Everyone wanted to go. (direct object) His ambition is to fly. (subject complement) He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective) We must study to learn. (adverb)
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
The student earning the highest grade point average will
receive a special award.

The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.
The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the
Be sure not to confuse an infinitivea verbal consisting of to plus a verbwith a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers. Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:
streets. (The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)

Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to Remember
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun. 2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated. 4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.
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advise encourage instruct implore
allow force invite incite
Convince Hire Permit Appoint
remind teach tell order
Examples
He reminded me to buy milk. Their fathers advise them to study. She forced the defendant to admit the truth. In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase. Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the subject of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others cant have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate. Verbs that use either pattern
ask
expect
(would) like
want
Examples
I asked to see the records. I asked him to show me the records. Trent expected his group to win. In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an actor.
Exercise on Infinitives Verbs That Take Infinitive Objects Without Actors

agree fail learn prefer remember
Examples Most students plan to study. We began to learn. They offered to pay. They neglected to pay. She promised to return. In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase. Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence, adding any punctuation as needed. 1. I want to go. 2. I want you to go home. 3. We want to see the play. 4. To see a shooting star is good luck. 5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.
begin hesitate neglect pretend start
Continue Hope Offer Promise Try
decide intend plan refuse
Forget and Remember

These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the object.
Examples
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.) Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesnt remember now.) Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.) Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didnt remember sometime later.) Making Subjects and Verbs Agree 1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
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LESSON 7: PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTION AND PUNCTUATION

By the end of this lesson you will learn more about :
Prepositions Conjunction Punctuation
Introduction
1. The basic preposition of a direction is to. TO : signifies orientation toward a goal When the goal is physical, such as a destination, to implies movement in the direction of the goal.
Students this lesson is a continuation of lesson 6 and will help you recall and brush up your understanding about prepositions, conjunctions and punctuation.
Prepositions
What are prepositions? Prepositions are used before nouns to give additional information in a sentence. Usually, prepositions are used to show where something is located or when something happened.
(1) Sa'id returned to his apartment.
Prepositions Showing
Location above below over under among between beside in front of behind next to with in the middle of on in at Time at on by before from since for during to until after Action and Movement at by from into on onto off out of
When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, to marks a verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose. The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase in order. 2. Sudeep washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas. The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:
2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds formed by adding to to the corresponding prepositions of location. The preposition of location determines the meaning of the preposition of direction.
ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface
IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a volume
(To is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean about the same thing.)
Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to)

Prepositions that express movement toward something: to, onto, and into. First, the prepositions will be introduced as a group. Then, the special uses of each one will be discussed. To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositions of location at, in, and on.
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3. With many verbs of motion, on and in have a directional meaning and can be used along with onto and into. (See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is why to is inside parentheses in the title of the handout, showing that it is somewhat optional with the compound
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prepositions. Thus, the following sentences are roughly synonymous:
2. In other cases to is used as an ordinary preposition.
Verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate,

appeal (in the sense of plead, not be attractive)
Werbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/

ride/drive/ fly, travel
(4) Anil jumped in/into the pool.
Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to. However, to suggests movement toward a specific destination, while toward suggests movement in a general direction, without necessarily arriving at a destination:
(5) Reena fell on/onto the floor.
(13) Drive toward the city limits and turn n orth. (Drive in the direction of the city limits; turnoff may be before arriving there.)
(6) The crab washed up on/onto the shore.
(14) The plane was headed toward a mountain.
(It was headed in the direction of a mountain; it may not have reached or hit the mountain.)
(15) Take me to the airport, please.
To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition conveys the completion of an action, while the simple preposition points to the position of the subject as a result of that action. This distinction helps us understand how directional and locational prepositions are related: they stand in the relationship of cause and effect.
Completion of an Action (7) Jean fell on(to) the floor. Position of Subject Jean is on the floor.
(I actually want to arrive at the airport.)
Uses of onto 1. Onto can generally be replaced by on with verbs of motion.
(16) John jumped on(to) the mat.
(8) Neeta dived in(to) the water.
Neeta is in the water.
(17) Manish fell on(to) the floor.
Uses of to
To occurs with several classes of verbs. 1. verb + to + infinitive Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or obligation. Willingness: be willing, consent, refuse
(18) Athena climbed on(to) the back of the truck.
Desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer Intention: intend, plan, prepare Obligation: be obligated, have, need
Examples: (9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats. (10) Id like to ask her how long shes been skiing. (11) I plan to graduate this summer. (12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursars office.
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain place (compare #15-17 above). Of these verbs, some take only on. Others take both on and onto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers. (19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway) (20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree) (21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
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(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug) (23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck. (24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house. (25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor. Verbs taking only on are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add. (26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground. (27) Were adding on a wing at the back of the building. (28) Were adding a porch onto the house. In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important and general rule: Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound prepositions cannot. Note also that in (27), the word on has its ordinary meaning of a position on a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather than horizontal the side of a building. The use of onto in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above. 3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which are formally like add on but have the meaning of continuing or resuming an action when used in the imperative mood. (Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of these combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are given in parentheses.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important and general rule: Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound prepositions cannot. Note also that in (27), the word on has its ordinary meaning of a position on a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather than horizontal the side of a building. The use of onto in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above. 3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which are formally like add on but have the meaning of continuing or resuming an action when used in the imperative mood. (Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of these combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are given in parentheses.
Hang on(to the rope)! (continue to grasp tightly) Carry on (resume what you were doing) Sail on (resume or continue sailing) Dream on (continue dreaming; a humorous way of saying that is an unattainable goal)
Lead on (resume or continue leading us) Rock on (continue playing rock music)
Uses of into
1. With verbs of motion, into and in are interchangeable except when the preposition is the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency. In this case only in (or inside) can be used. (29) The patient went into the doctors office. (30) The patient went in. (not into) (31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. (to take up residence in a new home) (32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday. In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of the preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in an information question, into also can be last word except for an adverbial when its object is questioned by a wh- word: (34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into? (35) Now what sort of trouble is she in? 2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only on or in with the ordinary meanings of those prepositions. If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the construction may have an idiomatic meaning.
Hang on(to the rope)! (continue to grasp tightly) carry on (resume what you were doing) sail on (resume or continue sailing) dream on (continue dreaming; a humorous way of saying that is an unattainable goal)
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain place (compare #15-17 above). Of these verbs, some take only on. Others take both on and onto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers. (19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway) (20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree) (21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table) (22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug) (23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck. (24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house. (25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor. Verbs taking only on are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add. (26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground. (27) Were adding on a wing at the back of the building. (28) Were adding a porch onto the house.
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Prepositions of Location: at, in, on

Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds: prepositions of location and prepositions of direction. Both kinds may be either positive or negative. Prepositions of location appear with verbs describing states or conditions, especially be; prepositions of direction appear with verbs of motion. It deals with positive prepositions of location that sometimes cause difficulty: at, on, and in.
(36) The cat sat on the mat.
Dimensions and Prepositions

Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions they refer to. We can group them into three classes using concepts from geometry: point, surface, and area or volume.
Point
(37) The doctor is in his office.
Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows them is treated as a point in relation to which another object is positioned. Surface Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an object is defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.
Area/Volume
(38) The doctor is in. ('available for consultation')
Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the boundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume. Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together because both are two-dimensional, in grammar area and volume go together because the same prepositions are used for both. In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as follows: In(to) has two special uses with move. 3. When move in is followed by a purpose clause, it has the sense of approach. (39) The lion moved in for the kill. (40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the building. In (39) and (40) in is part of the verb, so into cannot be used; We cannot say: The lion moved into for the kill. 4. When into is used with move, it functions as an ordinary preposition to convey the idea of moving something from one place to another.
on ....... surface
at ....... point
(41) We'll move your brother's old bed into your room.
in ....... area/volume
This use of into is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and (29).
The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some sample sentences:
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in and on
1) My car is at the house.
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2) There is a new roof on the house.
1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window, take both on and in. The prepositions have their normal meanings with these nouns: on is used when the space is considered as a surface, in when the space is presented as an area:
3) The house is i n Tippecanoe county.
Three players are practicin g on the field. (surface)
4) There are five rooms in the house, which has a lovely fireplace in the living room.
Three cows are grazing in the field. (area)
All of these sentences answer a question of the form, Where is _______? but each gives different information. Before going on, explain to yourself the spatial relations shown in each sentence. 1) locates a car in relation to a house, understood as a fixed point. 2) treats the house as a surface upon which another object, the roof, is placed. 3) locates the house within a geographical area. 4) treats the house as a three-dimensional structure that can be divided into smaller volumes, namely, rooms, inside one of which is an object, the fireplace.
The frost made patterns on the window. (surface)
A face appeared in the window. (area)
Using at
At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the prepositions in its spatial orientation, it has a great variety of uses. Here are some of them Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas on implies only that the following noun denotes a surface and not necessarily an enclosed area:
Location
5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at the bank. 5b) Sue spent the whole afternoon at the fair.
The sheep are grazing in the pasture. (enclosed by a fence) The cattle are grazing on the open range. (not enclosed by a fence ) Three players are on the basketball court. (not enclosed) Three players are on the soccer field. (not enclosed) Two boxers are in the ring. (enclosed by ropes)
Destination
6a) We arrived at the house. 6b) The waiter was at our table immediately.
Direction
7a) The policeman leaped at the assailant. 7b) The dog jumped at my face and really scared me.
2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries, such as when field means academic discipline, in is used:
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She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field. 3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom that must be learned as a unit.
The movie starts at 6 p.m. In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons: He likes to read in the afternoon. The days are long in August. The book was published in 1999.
a) The children are playing in the street.
The flowers will bloom in spring.
Extended Time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, fromto, from-until, during,(with)in
b) Our house is on Third Street.
She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has
not returned.) Im going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.) August and ending in October.)
c) He declared bankruptcy last week, and now he's out on the street.
The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in

(This is an idiom meaning that he's poor.)
The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in

spring and ending in fall.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in

In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by the sidewalks on either side. Compare b) with the discussion of sentence 3) in the first section. Here on locates the house on either side of Third Street: it doesnt mean that the street is a surface on which the house sits. Because the street is understood as a line next to which the house is situated, on functions much like at in its normal use: it locates the house in relation to the street but does not specify the exact address. For that purpose, at is used because the address is like a particular point on the line. Compare: Our house is at 323 Third Street. In c) out on the street is an idiom meaning poor or destitute. 4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used with a car, on with public or commercial means of transportation: in the car on the bus on the plane on the train on the ship Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of transportation, using in when the carrier is stationary and on when it is in motion. My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop. The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff. the evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a

year.)
Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at. For more detail, see our handouts on Prepositions of Location and Prepositions of Direction. There is a wasp in the room. Put the present inside the box.
I left your keys on the table. She was waiting at the corner.
Higher than a Point
To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following prepositions: over, above He threw the ball over the roof.
Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower than a Point
To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below. The rabbit burrowed under the ground.
Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to Introduce Objects

One point in time On is used with days: I will see you on Monday.7 The week begins on Sunday. At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day: My plane leaves at noon.
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The child hid underneath the blanket. We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches. The valley is below sea-level.
Close to a Point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite. She lives near the school.
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There is an ice cream shop by the store. An oak tree grows next to my house The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street. I found my pen lying among the books. The bathroom is opposite that room.
Colon :
Use a colon
in the following situations: after a complete statement in order to introduce one or more directly related ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or other comment illustrating or explaining the statement. for example: The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment, and classified ads. The strategies of corporatist industrial unionism have proven ineffective: compromises and concessions have left labor in a weakened position in the new "flexible" economy. Dear Ms. Winstead:
To Introduce Objects of Verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs. At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare
She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
You didnt laugh at his joke. Im looking at the computer monitor. We rejoiced at his safe rescue. That pretty girl smiled at you. Stop staring at me.
in a business letter greeting.
Of : Approve, Consist, Smell
between the hour and minutes in 5:30 p.m. time notation. between chapter and verse in Genesis 1:18 biblical references.
I dont approve of his speech. My contribution to the article consists of many pages. He came home smelling of alcohol.
Of (or about) : Dream, Think
Parentheses ()
Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of the sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs. Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of frontier days) caught fire.
I dream of finishing college in four years. Can you think of a number between one and ten? I am thinking about this problem.
For : Call, Hope, Look, Wait, Watch, Wish
Dash
Use a dash (represented on a typewriter, a computer with no dashes in the type font, or in a handwritten document by a pair of hyphens with no spaces) . . .
Did someone call for a taxi? He hopes for a raise in salary next year. Im looking for my keys. Well wait for her here. You go buy the tickets and Ill watch for the train. If you wish for an A in this class, you must work hard.
Brief Overview of Punctuation: Semicolon, Colon, Parenthesis, Dash, Quotation Marks and Italics
Punctuation marks are signals to your readers. In speaking, we can pause, stop, or change our tone of voice. In writing, we use the following marks of punctuation to emphasize and clarify what we mean. Punctuation marks discussed in other OWL documents include commas, apostrophes, quotation marks, and hyphens.
in the following situations: to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment; but don't overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact.
for example: To some of you, my proposals may seem radical-even revolutionary. In terms of public legitimation--that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators-English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught. The boys--Jim, John, and Jeff--left the party early.
Semicolon
In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound sentences, you can use a semicolon to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas. Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter. for an appositive phrase that already includes commas.
As you can see, dashes function in some ways like parentheses (used in pairs to set off a comment within a larger sentence) and in some ways like colons (used to introduce material
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illustrating or emphasizing the immediately preceding statement). But comments set off with a pair of dashes appear less subordinate to the main sentence than do comments in parentheses. And material introduced after a single dash may be more emphatic and may serve a greater variety of rhetorical purposes than material introduced with a colon.
1. To form possessives of nouns 2. To show the omission of letters 3. To indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters. Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks . . .
in the following situations: to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods go inside the closing quotation mark in conventional American usage; colons and semicolons go outside; and placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation (see our quotation marks document). to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual way; but don't overuse quotation marks in this sense, or they will lose their impact. for example: He asked, "Will you be there?" "Yes," I answered, "I'll look for you in the foyer."
Forming possessives of nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an of the... phrase. For example:
The boys hat = the hat of the boy Three days journey = journey of three days
If the noun after of is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!
Room of the hotel = hotel room Door of the car = car door Leg of the table = table leg
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."
Once youve determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one. add s to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s): the owners car Jamess hat
Add s to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
Underlining and Italics

Underlining and italics are not really punctuation, but they are significant textual effects used conventionally in a variety of situations. Before computerized word-processing was widely available, writers would underline certain terms in handwritten or manually typed pages, and the underlining would be replaced by italics in the published version. Since word processing today allows many options for font faces and textual effects, it is generally recommended that you choose either underlining or italics and use it consistently throughout a given document as needed. Because academic papers are manuscripts and not final publications and because italics are not always easily recognized with some fonts, many instructors prefer underlining over italics for course papers. Whichever you choose, italics or underlining should be used . .
in the following situations: to indicate titles of complete or major works such as magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television programs, long poems, plays of three or more acts foreign words that are not commonly used in English for example: Faulkner's last novel was The Reivers . The Simpsons offers hilarious parodies of American culture and family life.
the childrens game the geeses honking

Add to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses roofs three friends letters Add s to the end of compound words: my brother-in-laws money
Add s to the last noun to show joint possession of an
object
Todd and Annes apartment
Showing Omission of Letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are Some Examples dont = do not Im = I am hell = he will whos = who is shouldnt = should not didnt = did not couldve= could have (NOT could of!) 60 = 1960
words used as words themselves
words or phrases that you wish to emphasize
Wearing blue jeans is de rigueur for most college students. The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color." The very founding principles of our nation are at stake!
Forming Plurals of Lowercase Letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. three ps versus three ps. To form the
Copy Right: Rai University 57
The Apostrophe
The apostrophe has three uses
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plural of a lowercase letter, place s after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them).
Dont use Apostrophes for Possessive Pronouns or for Noun Plurals

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession they dont need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples: wrong: his book correct: his book wrong: The group made its decision. correct: The group made its decision. (Note: Its and its are not the same thing. Its is a contraction for it is and its is a possessive pronoun meaning belonging to it. Its raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you dont use an apostrophe for the possessives his or hers, so dont do it with its!) wrong: a friend of yours correct: a friend of yours wrong: She waited for three hours to get her ticket. correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.
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LESSON 8 : PRACTICE CLASS

Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to use the accepted standard of English grammar ad punctuation in written business communication. To reach this you should be able to:
Punctuate message correctly.
Write complete grammatically correct sentence .
Practice Class
Adverb or adjective?
I feel (bad)_______ about what happened yesterday. I
didnt know you were going to take everything so (serious)________.

This beer tastes too(bitter)_________ for my liking. She looked at me (tender)________ and said (soft)______
Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to): Exercise Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition: to, toward, on, onto, in, or into. Some sentences may have more than one possible correct answer. Remember that a few verbs of motion take only on rather than onto. 1. Anna has returned ______ her home town. 2. The dog jumped ______ the lake. 3. Are the boys still swimming ______ the pool? 4. Thomas fell ______ the floor. 5. The plane landed ______ the runway. 6. We drove _____ the river for an hour, but turned north before we reached it. 7. The kids climbed ______ the monkey bars. 8. Joanna got ______ Freds car. 9. The baby spilled his cereal ______ the floor. 10. We cried to the man on the ladder, Hang ______! 11. I just called ______ say I love you. 12. Matthew and Michelle moved the table ______ the dining room. 13. Allan left your keys ______ the table. 14. Dr. Karper apologized for interrupting us, and told us to carry ______ with our discussion. 15. Id like ______ ask you a question. 16. Pat drove Mike ______ the airport. 17. Glenn almost fell ______ the river. 18. The waitress noticed that there was no more Diet Pepsi ______ Martys glass. 19. Lee and Sarah took the bus that was heading ______ the university. 20. Mary Sue jumped ______ the stage and danced. Exercise 2 Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition: at, in, or on. 1. Will you wait for me _____ the bus stop? 2. Jane is _____ her bedroom. 3. Darias books are lying _____ the floor. 4. The girls didnt want to spend a long time _____ the carnival. 5. I let the cat sit _____ my lap, but then suddenly it jumped _____ my face!
that I looked (good) _______in my chequered shirt.

I could (easy) _______ convince him not to become too
excited with all the media attention.

He turned the car(cautious)__________ as not to drive into
the (nice) ___________ laid-out border of the neighbours. Have you ever been (wrong)_______________ accused of something?
My brother is an (incredible)___________ successful
businessman, he said (cynical)____________ hes just gone bankrupt for the fifth time!
(Unfortunately)__________all the milk has gone
(sour)_________ overnight.
She (haste)_________ ran down the
stairs,(picked)_________ picked up her coat and umbrella and disappeared in the (unusual)____________ mysterious night.
The number of visitors to the exhibition dropped
(considerable)_________ in the second week.
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6. Do you live _____ the city or _____ the country? 7. Trent arrived _____ the school building just in time. 8. The rancher built a fence to keep his cows _____ the pasture. 9. Kevin and Mack are out practicing _____ the football field. 10. From afar, Heathcliff could see a light _____ the window. 11. The old house had so much grime _____ the windows that Bradley could hardly see inside. 12. The shepherd boy grazed his flock _____ the grassy hillside. 13. The audience threw tomatoes _____ the terrible comedian. 14. Wrestling isnt real; those guys _____ the ring are just pretending. 15. David works _____ the field of network administration, while Marty works _____ web design. 16. The car stalled and got stuck _____ the street. 17. Audrey lives _____ Third Street. 18. If William doesnt make any money on his book, hell be out _____ the street. 19. Ill use my cellular phone when Im _____ the bus, but never while Im _____ the car. 20. Passengers are not allowed to use electronic devices _____ airplanes during takeoff and landing. Apostrophes: Exercise Punctuate the following sentences with apostrophes according to the rules for using the apostrophe. 1. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year? 2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps jaws. 3. Our neighbors car is an old Chrysler, and its just about to fall apart. 4. In three weeks time well have to begin school again. 5. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow? 6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I remember Cinderellas glass slipper and Snow Whites wicked stepmother. 7. We claimed the picnic table was ours, but the Smiths children looked so disappointed that we found another spot. 8. Its important that the kitten learns to find its way home. 9. She did not hear her childrens cries. 10. My address has three 7s, and Tims phone number has four 2s. 11. Didnt he say when he would arrive at Arnies house? 12. Its such a beautiful day that Ive decided to take a sun bath. 13. She said the watch Jack found was hers, but she couldnt identify the manufacturers name on it. 14. Little girls clothing is on the first floor, and the mens department is on the second. 15. The dogs bark was far worse than its bite.
16. The moons rays shone feebly on the path, and I heard the insects chirpings and whistlings. 17. Theyre not afraid to go ahead with the plans, though the choice is not theirs. 18. The man whose face was tan said that he had spent his two weeks vacation in the mountains. 19. I found myself constantly putting two cs in the word process. 20. Johns 69 Ford is his proudest possession.
Sentence Fragment Exercises#1

The sentences below appeared in papers written by students. Act as their editor, marking a C if the sentences in the group are all complete and an F if any of the sentences in the group is a fragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments are incomplete sentences? ____ 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior high that was a bad experience. ____ 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various shades of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind. ____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did not encourage students questions. ____ 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose from. It was difficult to distinguish between them. ____ 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar for a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, they were ready for anything. ____ 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional. Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that you should be in control. ____ 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated, prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a value judgment and in circumstances not a true premise. ____ 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man. ____ 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not realizing at the time that we would never enter that door in her home again. ____10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights. To think about this makes me happy. ____11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen red roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology. ____12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joes oldest and best friends had a little too much to drink. ____13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve miles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed like a high-speed job to me. ____14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for the pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boiling water to spill.
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____15. The small, one-story houses are all the same size and style. With no difference except the color. ____16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first joined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot.
Possessive
Tick on the correct possessive form in the sentences below. According the Department of Energy, if we were to set up an area of solar cells equal to 0.25 the area currently covered by our roads, these cells could supply our entire (nations / nations / nations) electrical needs.
With a rear-facing child seat, the top of the seat and the
(infants / infants / infants) head will be in the deployment zone of the air bag.
When you receive my (boss / bosses / bosss / boss /
bosses) memo requesting your participation, please respond to her that your job description, as written, will not allow you to perform that type of work. This section explains the function of each technique and describes (its / its / its) advantages and disadvantages.
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UNIT I CHAPTER 3 : ORAL COMMUNICATION LESSON 9: ORAL COMMUNICATION

By the end of this lesson you should be able to
Explain the importance of oral communication Outline the steps needed to structure effective oral communication Barriers to communication Understand what Noise is Tips for Presentations
of these harmful conditions are crippling your family life and your social and career progress? Do you wonder how you can increase the good elements and decrease the bad? Well, as stated above, most of lifes successes and problems are founded in the quality of your communication skills. Human beings are social animals. Our vast civilizations exist and function only because each of us has learned to control our behavior in very intricate ways. Still, some of us have a better grasp than others of the complex systems in which we live. Those who have the deepest awareness and understanding of the core rules are the ones who succeed and prosper. This is a book of rules, rules many people live and die without ever fully comprehending. Societys rules arent always obvious. The rules that allow us to get by and survive are fairly simple (dont run red lights, dont make bank robbery a career). But other rules, the ones that confer real success, not mere survival, can sometimes be as difficult to detect as black holes in deep space. When your career progress bogs down, when your relationships are weak or troubled, when you have a hard time making friends, when you have difficulty making yourself heard, and when people take advantage of you, it is because you have an imperfect comprehension of those shadowy rules that allow you to focus social power to your advantage. No one in our world succeeds strictly on his or her own. True accomplishment requires that you efficiently influence those around you in positive ways. The primary tool of influence is communication, and like society itself, communication has rules that few fully understand.
Conversation is so basic to human existence that any study of it inevitably leads to some of lifes most important rulesrules that lead to trouble if ignored. Consider the following list of consequences of poor conversation skills. Ask yourself if any of these basic emotions and conditions is a persistent part of your social and business life: Disrespect rejection frustration anger being misunderstood being misinterpreted depression giving offense being insulted disappointment Embarrassment exhaustion failure fear humiliation loneliness powerlessness weakness being overlooked impatience
Good conversation skills, on the other hand, lead to success, and success leads to more success. Good verbal abilities usually promote good relations with others, influence, respect, and a reputation for leadership and effectiveness. People with these advantages go through life feeling the emotions and talents listed below. stimulated energized passionate motivated excited challenged determined flexible contributing effective comfortable confident resourceful empowered vital centered respected well-liked included focused fortunate rewarded in control satisfied lucky
Introduction
Communication is a composite of speaking and listening. Honing skills in both these areas is absolutely essential if the communicator wishes to impress the receiver. The initial impact is made by speaking abilities of the sender. Equally important is the ability to listen carefully. If the overall effectiveness of these two components is considered. It would e seen that he ability to listen rather than to speak fluently impress more. The two activities viz, speaking and listening, cannot be segregated. Both are closely intertwined an overall impact is created if both these skills are used effectively. Let us use the word IMPRESS as an acronym to understand the basic features of communication or concept, which, if once understood, would define helps us to impress the other person.
I Idea
The first step in the process of communication is to decide on the idea which needs to be communicated. There may be a host of ideas passing through the mind of the sender. Depending upon the situation and the receiver, the speaker selects the idea suited to the occasion.
We all feel the above emotions and conditions, good and bad, from time to time. But do you have the feeling that the negative factors occur too persistently in your life? Do you feel that some
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M Message
Once the idea has been selected, it needs to be clothed in a language that is comprehensible to the receiver. The encoding of the message has to be done keeping a number of factors inmind. What is it that needs to be stated? What is the language that is going to be understood y the receiver? Does the idea necessarily pertain to the interest of the receiver? What is it that the receiver actually needs to know? Framing of the message , if done(keeping answers to these question in mind), would definitely make an impact on the receiver.
word, namely, sympathy, which is different in connotation. Sympathy is placing the sender on a higher pedestal and viewing the other in a sympathetic light.
P - Pause/ Paragraphs
The significance of pauses cannot be underestimated. Pauses should be juxtaposed at just the right minute so that the receiver can assimilate the impact of the message. The use of pauses would be best understood in the context of a presentation. The presenter should, at the time of making a presentation, use this device suitably. Excessive usage of this device can lead the presentation into being one that is pretty boring and monotonous. The right use of pauses actually stimulates the audience. The impact is often so great and forceful that the receiver actually leans forward in their chairs when the presenter pauses, as if urging him to resume the presentation. This device, in the course of the interaction, lasts for barely a few seconds. However, the impact is long and meaningful. In written communication pauses get translated into paragraphs. If the decision to use a certain number of paragraphs is right and the division of points in these paragraphs is also correct, then written communication becomes meaningful and creates a positive impression.
Empathy
S - Sender
The communication process hinges on the sender. He initiates the interaction and comes up with ideas and concepts that he wishes to share with the receiver. His role is the most crucial. The success or failure of interaction depends on him and on the strategies he adopts to get his message across by securing the attention of the receiver. A cautious sender would understand that there is a difference between the mental frames of the participants. Such a difference could be a result of discrepancy in interpretation of words, perception of reality, and attitudes, opinions and emotions. Message, if formulated, with awareness along these areas, is sure to bring success to the sender.
R - Receiver.
The receiver is the most important person in the process of communication who could, if he so desires, also prove to be the most difficult. He is the one who is generally led into the interaction. In order to draw his attention, it is imperative that there be an extra plus that would retain his interest and make him attentive to the ensuing communication. To satisfy this criterion the sender should address himself to the needs and expectations of the receiver. Formulating the statements according to a mutually accepted goal is a good way of proceeding and drawing his attention.
S - Security Check
Effective communication necessitates that the receiver listens carefully to the utterances of the sender so that the end results are positive. The primary rule is: never be in -a rush to commence communication. Sufficient time and effort should be put in formulating the message. Suppose the sender wishes to communicate five points. The sequencing and necessary substantiation of points with facts and figures should be done prior to the actual beginning of the communication process. This would build confidence in the message and eliminate possibility of errors in the statements. To sum up, the sender, in order to impress the receiver should, at the start, have an idea encoded in the form of a message. At the time of encoding, the sender does a thorough security check to ascertain that all points have been dealt with in a desired order. The message is then transmitted to the receiver with the required voice articulations and pauses so as to heighten the impact. Finally, the response of the receiver should be viewed empathetic ally. Once all these factors have been understood, it proves easy to prevail upon the receiver. There could, however, be moments when, in spite of efforts being made to make the interaction informative and meaningful, all communication links fall apart and the process ends in a
E - Empathy
In communication empathy should be used to help us understand the other individual, the strategies that. he adopts and the responses that he gives at a particular moment. It would be worthwhile to note that all communication is situation bound. The same individual in two different situations might use the same words but his intention might be totally different. Gauging the exact meaning of an utterance can onlybe done when we literally put ourselves in the shoes of the other person and try to understand the situation from the perspective of the sender. Each individual, as a sender has, what we refer to as, a logic bubble that enables him to formulate his message in a particular fashion. The same holds true for the receiver or the listener. The greater the empathy between them, the higher the level of understanding and more the receptivity to messages
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meaningless rumble of words and sounds. This disturbing or distracting factor is what we refer to as Noise. This may be on the part of the sender or the receiver; it can be voluntary or involuntary.
Types Physical
Causative Factors Disturbances and distractions in the environment Mental turbulence, preoccupation, ego hang-ups, anxiety, tiredness, preconceived ideas and notions
Remedies Ensuring that all channels are clear and free of noise Entering into Question/ Answer sessions, Securing advice
Noise
Noise can be defined as a physical sound or a mental disturbance that disrupts the flow of communication as the sender or the receiver perforce gets distracted by it. According to this definition, noise can be classified into two categories: 1. Physical 2. Psychological. Physical noise is that sound which emanates from the surroundings and hampers the listening process, e.g. while speaking on the telephone, disturbances might hinder the smooth transmission of message or just at the time when the sender wishes to transmit an important point, there might be a queer squeaking sound. Physical noise is not all that difficult to manage. It can be done away with at the time of communication by ensuring that all channels are in proper functioning order. For example, often, companies have a soundproof room for discussions. While care may be taken to eliminate possibilities of physical noise, problems arise at the time when psychological noise plagues either the sender or the receiver. Whenever there is psychological noise, it results in (un)welcome ideas or thoughts crowding the mind, which are of more relevance than the ensuing communication to either of the participants. Listening, as a result, is hampered and responses are not well formulated. Some of the common forms of noise are mental turbulence, preoccupation, ego hang-ups, anxiety, tiredness, pre-conceived ideas and notions. These are mostly involuntary and no cause can be assigned to them. What is important is awareness about these factors. The sender at a particular moment might be disturbed by psychological noise. If he is aware of the mental turmoil and knows that it would disturb his listening process he should, at the time of communicating, carry a piece of paper and a pen or pencil to jot down points or comments of the receiver. On the other hand, the receiver might also be distracted by psychological noise. Outward manifestations of this disturbance would be in the form of restless tapping on the table, looking in other directions, shifting restlessly, changing positions, etc. These are just some of the means through which the sender can gauge the presence of psychological noise in the mind of the receiver. To make more meaningful and successful communication, the sender should try through certain strategies to draw the attention of the receiver. He can do this by entering into a question answer session or asking for advice. Both these devices would, to a great extent, remove the element of psychological noise.
Psychological
Barriers To Communication An activity as complex as communication is bound to suffer from setbacks if conditions contrary to the smooth functioning of the process emerge. They are referred to as barriers because they create impediments in the progress of the interaction. Identification of these barriers is extremely important. According to the role observed by the two participants, let us categorize the barriers as:
Sender-oriented Receiver-oriented.
Sender-oriented Barriers
Sender-oriented barriers could be voluntary or involuntary. At any cost, efforts should be made on the part of the sender to identify and remove them. As the sender is the originator of communication, he should be extremely careful not to erect barriers. If his interaction gives rise to or indicates that there are barriers, the communication comes to a grinding halt. Some of the barriers that are sender-oriented are as follows: 1. Badly Expressed Message. Not being well versed in the topic under discussion can create problems of this nature. The sender may not be able to structure his ideas accurately and efficiently. What he wishes to say and what he finally imparts may not be the same. The discrepancy emerges as soon as the words are uttered. In fact, one of the important criteria at the time of initializing a piece of communication is that ideas should be concrete and the message should be well structured. The receiver should not feel that the interaction is a waste of time. The moment this feeling crops up, the listener totally switches off and thus ceases the process of effective communication. 2. Loss In Transmission. This is a very minor issue but one that gains in magnitude when it leads to inability in transmitting the actual message. Once again, if the choice of the channel or medium is not right, the impact of the message is lost. This is mostly a physical noise. However, the responsibility lies with the sender, as he should ensure that all channels are free of noise before commencing communication.
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3. Semantic Problem High and big sounding words definitely look and sound impressive. But if the receiver is not able to comprehend the impact of these words, or if they sound Greek or Latin to him, the entire exercise proves futile. This problem could arise in the interpretation of the words or overall meaning of the message It is also related to the understanding of the intention behind a particular statement. For the receiver, e.g., the sanctity associated with the word white might be violated when the receiver uses it in a careless fashion. The idiosyncrasies of the receiver should be well understood by the sender if he does not wish these barriers to crop up at the time of communication. The look on the face of the listener should be sufficient to warn the sender that he has overstepped his limits or he has been misunderstood. 4. Over/ Under Communication The quantum of communication should be just right. Neither should there be excess information nor should it be too scanty. Excess information may confuse the receiver as he has to figure out the exact import of the message, and scanty information would make him grope for the actual intent of the message .The sender should ,as far as possible try to get the profile of the receiver so that at the time of communication he knows how much material is needed and how much can be done away with. Suppose he starts with some information that the receiver already possesses, the latter might lose interestas it is merely repetition of what he already knows . So b the time he arrives at the core of he matter , he had already lost the attention of the receiver. 5. I -Attitude. Imagine a piece of communication that begins and ends with the pronoun I. How tedious it is going to be for the listener to sit through the entire piece of interaction. If the sender starts every sentence with I, it gradually leads to what is referred to as the I-syndrome. He would not be receptive to changes, if suggested by the receiver; as such, changes would go against his personal formulation of certain views. 6. Prejudices. Starting any piece of communication with a bias or know-itall attitude can prove to be quite detrimental to the growth of communication process. Though it is easier said than done, still, when communication commences, all sorts of prejudices should be done away with, and the mind should be free of bias. This would enable the sender to formulate his message, Mind, free of keeping only the receiver and his needs in mind. Thoughts like Last time he said this... or Last time he did this... or He belongs to this group... can totally warp the formulation of the message. This barrier can also be extended to the receiver. If the respondent starts with prejudices in mind, he too would be unable to listen to the intent of the message. His understanding of the message is going to be warped. The messages are going to be understood in relation to the prejudices that a receiver harbors against the sender.
Exhibit 11.3 Sender-oriented Barriers

Causative factors Badly expressed message Loss in transmiSSion Semantic problem Over/Under communication
Participant Sender/Encoder/ Speaker
Barrier 1. Loss in Impact 2. Ineffective grasp of message 3. Misunderstood statements 4. Groping for the right message 5. Lack of collaborative effort 6. Biased communication
Remedies Think prior to speaking Remove physical noise Use simple language Make the quantum of communication just right Minimise usage of "I" Formulate messages with an open mind
"I-attitude"
Prejudices
Rules for Overcoming Sender - Oriented Barriers.

These barriers are not insurmountable. Care and constant practice on the part of the sender can remove these barriers. Some of the rules for overcoming sender-oriented barriers are as follows: 1. Plan and clarify ideas. Ideas should be carefully formulated/thought out before beginning any kind of communication. This can be done by following few steps. Primary among them is to test thinking by communicating with peers and colleagues. It is said that two minds are always better than one. Ideas, when discussed aloud with another person, necessarily take on a shape and form. Errors of logic, if any, get sorted out. In this process the concepts of others can also be collated and incorporated to make the communication richer and more fruitful. As these steps require preplanning and extra time, the sender should be highly motivated. Unless he is sufficiently motivated, he will not spend extra hours in planning the message and clarifying it by facilitating discussions with other members in the organization. 2. Create a climate of trust and confidence. In order to win the trust and confidence of the receiver, the sender has to put in extra effort through which he is able to win the trust and confidence of the recipient. This is what we normally refer to as establishing sender credibility. If the receiver is convinced that the sender has his best interests at heart, he would be willing to pay attention to all that is being said and try to grasp the import of the message in the manner in which it is intended. 3. Time your message carefully. Different occasions and different hours necessitate a change in the encoding of the message. The sender has to be careful of the time and the place he makes his statements. As all communication is situation bound, a statement made at an
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incorrect moment, or a wrong place can stimulate an undesired response. The most prudent step is to measure the import of the message in relation to the situation and then impart it. 4. Reinforce words with action. Whatever statements are made should be reinforced by action on the part of the sender. The receiver should not feel that there are two codes at play, one for transmittal and the other for action. If there is harmony between the two, the decoder is mentally at peace, for his grasp is more accurate and thorough. 5. Communicate efficiently. The sender can only ascertain whether communication has been effective when he confirms with feedback. The receiver on his part is also wary as he knows that he would be requested for feedback. Soliciting and receiving feedback is the simplest and the surest way of removing any barriers that might crop up in the course of communication as a result of either over communication or a semantic problem. Once all barriers to communication have been overcome, communication, it is said has been meaningful and purposeful.
sequel to the listening process. It cannot be done simultaneously with listening. The minute sender opens his mouth, if the listener starts mentally pronouncing judgments concerning his style or content, he has actually missed out on a major part of what has been said. His responses naturally are then going to be incorrect or expose his misunderstanding. 4. Interests and attitudes. I am not interested in what you are saying or My interest lies in other areas. Starting any piece of communication with this kind of indifference can thwart any attempts at communication. Fixed notions of this kind should be dispensed with. It is not possible to be interested in all that is being said. But to start any communication with this notion is hazardous. 5. Conflicting information. Dichotomy in the information that the receiver possesses and that which is being transmitted can create confusion and result in miscommunication. Conflict between the existing information and fresh one results in elimination of the latter unless and until the receiver is cautious and verifies with the sender the reliability and validity of the message. The sender should convince the receiver that whatever is now being said is correct and relevant to further proceedings. 6. Differing status and position. Position in the organizational hierarchy is no criterion to determine the strength of ideas and issues. Rejecting the proposal of a subordinate or harboring a misconception that a junior cannot come up with a eureka concept is not right. In fact, many companies have started encouraging youngsters to come up with ideas/ solutions to a particular problem. These ideas are then discussed among the senior managers and their validity is ascertained keeping the workings and the constraints of the company in mind. The basic purpose of this upward traversing of ideas is that fresh and innovative minds can come up with unique solutions. If an individual has been working in a particular company for some years, it is natural that his mind gets conditioned in a particular manner. Challenging newcomers to innovate,as a part of company policy takes care of ego problems that may arise if this is not a accepted norm. 7. Resistance to change. Fixed ideas, coupled with an unwillingness to change or discuss, hampers listening and results in miscommunication. Novae concepts that require discussion before they can really materialize, if rebuked, fall flat. The onus lies directly on the receiver who is unreceptive and unwilling to change. People with dogmatic opinions and views prove to be very poor communicators and erect maximum number of barriers. 8. Refutations and arguments. Refutations and arguments are negative in nature. Trying to communicate with the sender on the premise that refutations and arguments can yield fruitful results would prove to be futile.Communication is a process in which the
Receiver-Oriented Barriers
Receiver can also have some barriers in the course of the interaction. Although his role in the initial phase is passive, he becomes active when he starts assimilating and absorbing the information. He is equally to blame if the situation goes awry and communication comes to a stop, or there is miscommunication. Some of the barriers emanating from the side of the receiver are as follows: 1. Poor retention. Retention is extremely important during interaction. If the receiver has poor retention capability, he would probably get lost in the course of the proceedings. There would be no connection between what was said initially and what is being said now. He might counter statements instead of seeking clarifications that might lead to clamping on the part of the sender. If the decoder feels that his retention capacities are not good, a judicious strategy for him would be to jot down points. It does not portray him in a poor light. On the contrary, it shows how conscientious he is to get the message right. 2. Inattentive listening. The mind has its own way of functioning. It is very difficult to exercise control over ones mind. Listening is more of an exercise in controlling the mind and exercising it to assimilate messages. The errors in listening arise primarily because the receiver is either not interested in what is being said, or has other things to concentrate on. The art of listening is an exercise in concentration. 3. Tendency to evaluate. Being judgmental and evaluative are both the starting points for miscommunication. Remember, one mind cannot perform two activities at the same time. If it is evaluating, listening cannot take place. Evaluation should always be a
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sender and the healthyreceiver are at the same level. The minute refutations or discussions arguments begin, there is a shift in balance between the two participants, after which the receiver moves to a conceived higher position and the sender remains at the same level. In case there are some contradictions that need to be resolved, discussion is the right way to approach. Listening to the views of the other, trying to understand or at least showing that there has been understanding, appreciating and, finally, positing own views should be the sequence to be followed. The strategy adopted should not make the sender feel small or slighted.
Technology now allows anyone with E-mail to move information throughout the organization, posing questions or suggesting new product ideas to any individual, regardless of their location or status. Increased competition has forced us to look for ways to do everything exponentially better, faster and at less cost. Its caused us to challenge all the rules, processes, policies, programs and structures. Self-direction, virtual offices, spiderweb organizational structures and telecommuting has forced many organizations to adopt more efficient and effective ways of moving information among people who need that it. A new partnership has evolved from a recognition that assets such as capital, raw materials and technology are inert until people do something with them. Those firms that can get the right people doing the right things at the right time with precious finite assets will be tomorrows winners. Communication in its broadest form is a critical enabler that can engage people and unlock the discretionary effort thats needed to win. Organizations that understand these factors and manage communications well have adopted or are adopting the following two best practices. 1. Using a concept commonly called open book leadership, theyre creating businesses of business people where everyone thinks and acts like a business owner. In these organizations, often considered the model of communication management, everyone knows how the enterprise makes money and how to track business performance. Everyone knows that a large part of the job is to move the numbers in the right direction. The income statement, cash flow statement and balance sheet are the primary communication media. Everyone works to manage these three statements prospectively. (For instance, if a variance in material usage is projected on next months income statement, employees who can influence material usage work to avoid the variance. This effort may involve frontline employees; it may involve others. Focusing communication primarily on frontline people at the exclusion of others could too often circumvent people who have valuable contributions to improving the organizations financial health. 2. Theyre seeking faster, more focused ways to get relevant information into the hands of those who can most influence business performance. These businesses understand that some organization capabilities or processes drive the business more than others. In a world of finite resources, its often strategically efficient to focus on these needed-to-win capabilities or success drivers. For instance, if an electric power company were deficient in a needed-to-win capability such as creating strategic partnerships, it should direct its attention at eliminating this deficiency. This may or may not involve frontline employees but would address a major competitive issue. If a retail store were deficient in a core driver such as increasing in-store traffic, it would want to fucus on this activities that would increase in-store traffic. This might include merchandis67
Exhibit 11.4 Receiver-oriented Barriers
Participant Receiver! Decoder! Listener
Barrier 1. Dichotomy in reception and comprehension 2. Partial grasp of topic 3. Distancing from the speaker 4. Lack of interest
Causative factors Poor retention
Remedies Jot down points Keep the mind open Delay evaluation Find an area of interest Check reliability and validity Listen to ideas Be open to changes Enter into healthy discussions
Inattentive listening Tendency to evaluate Differences in nterests and attitudes Conflicting information Differing status/Position Self-experience Resistance to change Refutations and arguments
5. Mental turbulence 6. Superior attitude 7. Mental block 8. Lack of provision of correct feedback
Article
A Strategic Focus on Face-to-face Communication By Jim Shaffer Superior communication management should help improve organizational performance. Its job is to focus people on whats required to win and build an environment that gives them the information needed to improve performance. It should do its job as effectively and efficiently as possible. Three factors have reinvented the way we must manage communication: technology, increased global competition and the emerging partnership between an organization and its members.Technology has replaced layers of management that frequently blocked communication back in the days when the communication process was thought to be a hierarchic, cascading, up and down process.
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ing, advertising, perceived product quality, atmosphere, retail skills, leadership skills and a host of other activities that could increase in-store traffic. This probably would involve frontline people, but not to the exclusion of others. Essentially, best practice companies focus communication management where it has maximum strategic impact. This requires involving people who bring a mix of competencies from various places within the organization. In these organizations, frontline isnt part of the lexicon. Frontline is a hierarchic remnant. In the new model, everyone is critical to the value chain. Everyone is part of the business. Everyone is engaged in a partnership. This emerging model represents a fundamental shift in the way we think about our organizations and how we share information. Part of this shift renders the historical frontline employee/ supervisor discussion obsolete. In this new model, the way we move information should be situational. Sure, face-to-face may be ideal. It can capture the essence of human interaction better than E-mail, fax, courier services, video or teleconference. But, try telling someone at Hewlett-Packard in Palo Alto, California that she should communicate cash flow reports face-to-face to someone in the Asia-Pacific office and shed be justified in giving us a quick lesson in business economics and the need for speed in todays competitive environment. Lionize face-to-face as an ideal, but be prepared to seek better ways to move information among telecommuters who have child care obligations. Face-to-face may have significant advantages, but perhaps not at the expense of dragging a world-wide sales force to London for a monthly sales meeting. Organizations are changing dramatically. Work gets done differently. Structures are fluid. Businesses will continue to metamorphose as customers needs and members needs change. Communication practitioners should be hard at work looking for new ways to help adapt to a new business environment. They should be looking for better ways to engage everyone in achieving increasingly higher levels of performance through improving information sharing. Doing this effectively will require a mind set change and a fresh view of the needs of the emerging organization. It will mean letting go of the past when it doesnt serve todays business needs - however painful letting go might be.
Generally, people retain

10% of what they READ 20% of what they HEAR 30% of what they SEE 50% of what they SEE and HEAR 70% of what they SAY 90% of what they SAY and DO
Business Communication Goals

Receiver Understanding Receiver Response Favorable Relationship Organizational Goodwill
Sender is responsible for these goals.
Biography
Jim Shaffer, is one of the worlds leading thought leaders and consultants in generating employee commitment to achieving improved organizational performance. His new book The Leadership Solution has been hailed by CEOs as a practical common sense look at how leaders use communication to solve business problems. Jim pioneered performance-based communication management, the process for improving critical performance indicators such as quality, service, speed, costs, innovation or productivity by improving the way businesses manage communication. He leads the JimShaffer
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Parts of a presentation
Introduction Body Conclusion Questions
Guidelines for Effective Closings

Always prepare a closing Always restate the main point, and, perhaps, the key supporting points Say clearly what happens next If appropriate, make a call to action Thank the audience
Say what you are going to say, say it, then say what you have just said.
Guidelines for Effective Introductions

Always prepare your opening Tell people what the presentation is about Keep the opening short and simple Only use anecdotes that are relevant Use caution with personal experiences Stay away from inappropriate humor
Communication Barriers/Noise
Word choice
too difficult, too technical, etc. overused words such as, good, excellent value, etc.
Connotations VS Denotations
Examples sender denotes Cheap inexpensive Flexible offers choice Compromise adjust rec. connotes poorly made no standard give in
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Communication Barriers/Noise
Inferences Pace of the delivery
Speaking too fast or too slow
10 common presentation mistakes (and suggestions for avoiding them)

#1 Accepting an inappropriate invitation
personally decline, retain opportunity for company
Poor grammar, spelling, etc. Appearance and performance of the presenter Use of gender bias terms or stereotypical terms Positive VS Negative terms
We have a full year warranty. VS Warranty is only for the first year.
#2 Neglecting to research the audience

take the time to find out who you are talking to
Handouts
When to use and distribute handouts
@ beginning if audience needs them during presentation during presentation, have someone else hand them out at end if possible
What you should know about your audience

How large is the audience? What are the audience members relevant characteristics? Why are people attending? What are the audiences specific needs, interests, and concerns? How much do people already know? How are people likely to respond to your message?
Running handouts two, three or six to a page
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#3 Procrastinating, then punting.
Do not try to organize your talk and create your slides simultaneously.

#7 Backing up to the wrong media
Check your back-up media before leaving for your presentation.
#4 Getting a late start.

Always plan to arrive early for your presentation.
#8 Telling tasteless or offensive jokes

A greater awareness of your audience can determine if they will find your sense of humor funny or offensive.

#5 Assuming all projectors are the same.
Be sure you know the equipment or bring your own.

#9 Relying on the World Wide Web live Web connection
Create a copy on your hard drive.
#6 Failing to heed Murphys Law

Always assume the equipment will NOT work.
#10 Having too little to say

Be prepared!
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Tips on PowerPoint Presentations

Always use a title slide. Put it up about five minutes before your presentation begins. The presentation should set the tone of the message.
If you are sharing good news, your presentation can use a lot of fun art, audio and video. If you have bad news, stick to the points.

Keep the presentation look simple. You dont want to distract from the content of the slide/presentation. Keep a consistent look from slide to slide. Create high contrast between the background and the text. Consider creating a company specific background for sales presentations.
Sample Slide
Sales are down!

Clip art should match your audience. Art should match a key word or phase in the slide. When using art, keep the images balanced on the page. Use the rule of thirds. Use art judiciously. All of the rules apply to sound (even more so!).
We are going to have to down size.
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One of the significant advantages of using presentation software packages is that you have access to color. Use it wisely and judiciously.
Keep it simple and consistent. Use no more than five colors for charts or graphs. Choose no more than two colors for text. Be careful with the use of red because the eye will naturally go there first.

Limit your bullet points to three or four items. Try to have no more than 24 words on any one slide. Be careful when using abbreviations, acronyms, and special phases on your slides. Explain them quickly or you lose your audience.

One of the significant advantages of using presentation software packages is that you have access to color. Use it wisely and judiciously.(cont)
Use complimentary colors together. Never use red and green together unless you want your audience to think of Christmas!

Fonts are like colors, just because you have a lot of them to choose from you dont have to use them all! No more than two or three per slide. Be consistent from slide to slide. Dont overdo the use of italics, bolding and shadows and like e-mail, do NOT use all caps.
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It is important to explain how to read your chart or graph as soon as you put it on the screen. Do not say anything important within ten seconds of putting up a chart. People wont be listening, theyre too busy figuring out the chart.

Have a final slide that lets the audience know that the presentation is over.
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LESSON 10: LISTENING SKILLS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand: 1. How important listening is in oral communication 2. Common faults we make while listening 3. How we can improve our listening skill 4. Different approaches to listening
Students, today, lets learn about the importance and listening . Do you think you are a good listener? I do hear a loud Yes from you all!!! At the end of the lesson we have some exercise to evaluate your listening skills.
Note that in both the cases, the listener has not listened to the actual message. In the first case, listener has taken the message without giving proper attention to understand it, and in the second case, the listener has a blocked mind to listen anything other than his own notions. Situations like this are disturbingly common in business. They show that listening failures can prove to be very costly. Because of listening mistakes, letters have to be retyped, appointments rescheduled, shipments rerouted, productivity is affected and profits suffer. Thus poor listening habits can keep an organization from functioning properly. Industrial firms have recognized the importance of the listening skill to manag-ers for some time. Dr. Earl Planty, in his role as executive counselor at Johnson and Johnson, has said: By far the most effective method by which executives can tap ideas of subordinates is sympathetic listening in the many day-to-day informal contacts within and outside the work place. There is no system that will do the job in an easier manner. Nothing can equal an executives willingness to listen. The benefits of applied listening skills are impressive. Good listeners make a company a more effective organization. They have better rapport with others, they get more out of meetings and are more effective in conferences, and they are better at understanding the needs of others.
Introduction
Its a pity that Raman didnt receive the promotion he wanted, but he has one big fault: he doesnt know how to listen. This remark was made by a department head in a manufacturing firm. Listening is a skill, an art necessary for success in life and work. Do you know that we devote about 40 to 45 per cent of our working hours to listening? And do you know that, if you have not taken steps to improve this skill, you listen at only 25 per cent efficiency? For a long time most persons assumed that listening was a natural trait, but practically, not all people are good listeners. Evidence indicates that many persons do not know how to listen - that listening is a skill that must be developed. In Shakespeares Julius Caesar, Marc Antony realizes that persons dont listen readily, for he begins his famous oration by saying, Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. As you will learn in the following pages, listening effectively is hard work. It involves far more than sitting passively and absorbing others words. It occurs far more frequently than speaking, reading, or writing and is just as demanding and important.
Common Faults of Listening

Research studies shows that our listening efficiency is no better than 25 to 30 per cent. That means the considerable information is lost in the listening process. Why? Some reasons follow1. Prejudice against the speaker At times we have conflict in our mind as to the speaker. Whatever he speaks seems to be colored and we practically dont listen what he says. 2. Rehearsing Your whole attention is on designing and preparing your next comment. You look interested, but your mind is going a mile a minute because you are thinking about what to say next. Some people rehearse whole chains of responses: Ill say, then hell say, and so on. 3. Judging negatively Labeling people can be extremely limiting. If you prejudge somebody as incompetent or uninformed, you dont pay much attention to what that person says. A basic rule of listening is that judgments should only be made after you have heard and evaluated the content of the message. 4. Identifying When using this block, you take everything people tell you and refer it back to your own experience. They want to tell you about a toothache, but that reminds you of your oral surgery for receding gums. You launch into your story before they can finish theirs.
What Listening is
Johnson defines listening as the ability to understand and respond effec-tively toOral communication. Thus, we can state at the outset that hearing is not listening. Listening requires more than hearing; it requires understanding of the communication received. Davis states it this way: Hearing is with the ears, but listening is with the mind.
Consider the Following Examples

I told him we were meeting this Tuesday, not next Tuesday. Now we have to reschedule the meeting. It will cost us a weeks time and we will not be able to meet the deadline. He said he was listening, but hed obviously made up his mind before I started. He didnt give me a minute to talk before he started interrupting.
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5. Advising You are the great problem solver. You dont have to hear more than a few sentences before you begin searching for the right advice. However, while you are coming up with suggestions and convincing someone to just try it, you may miss what is most important. 6. Sparring This block has you arguing and debating with people who never feel heard because you are so quick to disagree. In fact, your main focus is on finding things to disagree with. 7. Being Right Being right means you will go to great lengths (twist the facts, start shouting, make excuses or accusations, call up past sins) to -avoid being wrong. You cant listen to criticism, you cant be corrected, and you cant take suggestions to change. 8. Derailing This listening block involves suddenly changing the subject. You derail the train of conversation when you get uncomfortable or bored with a topic. Another way of derailing is by joking. 9. Placating Right. . . Absolutely. . . I know. . . Of course you are. . .Incredible ... Really? You want to be nice, pleasant, supportive. You want people to like you. So you agree with everything. 10. Dreaming When we dream, we pretend to listen but really tune the other person out while we drift about in our interior fantasies. Instead of disciplining ourselves to truly concentrate on the input, we turn the channel to a more entertaining subject. 11. Thinking speed Most of us speak between 60 to 180 words per minute, and people have capacity to think at the rate of 500 to 800 words per Minute. The difference leaves us with the great deal of mental spare time. While it is possible to use this time to explore the speakers ideas, we most often let our mind wander to other matters - from the unfinished business just mentioned to romantic fantasies. 12. Premature evaluation It often happens that we interrupt the speakers before they complete their thought, or finish their sentence, or state their conclusions. Directly as a result of our rapid thinking speed, we race ahead of what we feel is the conclusion. We anticipate. We arrive at the concluding thought quickly although often that is quite different from what the speaker intended. 13. Semantic stereotypes As certain kind of people bother us, so too do certain words. When these words are repeated time and again, they cause annoyance in the mind and effective listening is impaired. 14. Delivery A monotonous delivery by the speaker can put listeners to sleep or cause them to loose interest. 15. External distractions The entire physical environment effects the listen-ing. Among the negative factors are noisy fans, poor or glaring lights, distracting background music, overheated or cold rooms, a conversation going on nearby, and so on.
relaxed and mentally alert to receive and understand the message. Effective listening requires sustained concentration (regardless of the length of the message), attention to the main ideas presented, note-taking (if the conditions are appropriate), and no emotional blocks to the message by the listener. You cannot listen passively and expect to retain the message. If you want to be an effective listener, you must give the communicator of the message sufficient attention and make an effort to understand his viewpoint. Here are some practical suggestions for effective listening, which, if followed, can appreciably increase the effectiveness of this communicative skill. 1. Realize that listening is hard work You must appreciate the art of listening, and make conscious effort to listen others. 2. Prepare to listen To receive the message clearly, the receiver must have the correct mental attitude. In your daily communications, establish a permissive environment for each communicator. . 3. Have positive attitude If you have to do it, do it with a positive attitude. 4. Resist distractions Tune out internal and external distractions by facing and maintaining contact with the speaker. If you experience some negative environment factors, you can sometimes move to another loca-tion in the room. Good listeners adjust quickly to any kind of abnormal. 5. Listen to understand, not refute -Respect the viewpoint of those you disagree with. Try to understand the points they emphasize and why they have such feelings (training, background, etc.). Dont allow your personal biases and attitudes to influence your listening to the message. 6. Keep an open mind A good listener doesnt feel threatened or insulted, or need to resist messages that contradict his beliefs, attitudes, ideas, or personal values. Try to identify and rationalize the words or phrases most upsetting to your means. 7. Find an area of interest Good listeners are interested and attentive. They find ways to make the message relevant to themselves and/ or their jobs. Make your listening efficient by asking yourself what is he saying that I can use? Does he have any worthwhile ideas? Is he conveying any workable approaches or solutions? G. K Chesterton once said, There is no such-thing as an uninteresting subject; there are only uninteresting people. 8. Concentrate on the context Search out main ideas. Construct a mental outline of where speaker is going. Listen for transition and progression of ideas. If need be, you may reinforce the mental outline by physically taking down the notes. 9. Capitalize on thought speed Most of us think at about four times faster than the communicator speaks. It is almost impossible to slow down our thinking speed. What do you do with the excess thinking time while someone is speaking? The good listener uses thought-speed to advantage by applying spare thinking time to what is being said. Your greatest handicap may be not capitalizing on
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How to Improve Listening Skill

The ability to listen more effectively may be acquired through discipline and practice. As a listener you must be physically
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thought-speed. Through listening training, it can be converted into your greatest asset. 10. Combine verbal delivery with nonverbal cues F. S. Pearls, author of Gestalt Theory Vibration, said Dont listen to the words_ just listen to what the voice tells you, what the movements tell you, what the posture tells you what the image tells you. 11. Show some empathy Empathy means placing yourself in the shoes of speaker and try understand his viewpoint from there. If we show some empathy, we create a climate that encourages others to communicate honestly and openly. Therefore, try to see the communicators point of view. 12. Hold your fire Be patient. Dont interrupt. Dont become over-stimulated, too excited, or excited too soon, by what the speaker says. Be sure you understand what the speaker means; that is, withhold your evaluation until your comprehension is complete. Mentally arguing with a communi-cator is one of the principal reasons so little listening takes place in some discussions. Dont argue. If you win, you lose. 13. Listen critically and delay judgment Good listeners delay making a judgment about the communicators personality, the principal points of the message, and the response. Ask questions and listen critically to the answers. Then, at the appropriate time, judgment can be passed in an enlightened manner.
Points to ponder
Here are some hints and tips to make you a better listener: 1. Listen carefully to what the speaker says. Pick out the key words in any information. Its easier to remember one or two important words than a whole sentence. If youre taking a message for someone its easier to write down key words to help you remember the message than it is to try to write everything out. You can add to your message after youve finished listening to the information. 2. Give each new stage in a set of instructions a number, it will help you remember them later.
Approaches to Listening
Just as a carpenter or a chef uses different tools to tackle a job, listeners can take advantage of several skills for listening and responding to messages at work. Different approaches to listening are discussed below-: Passive listening - Sometimes the best approach to listening is to stay out of the way and encourage the speaker to keep going: Uh-huh, really, Tell me more, and so on. Non-verbal cues like eye contact, attentive posture, and appropriate facial expressions are an important part of the passive listening. Generally this approach is used when there is one to one conversation or the speaker is giving a formal presentation. Questioning - Sincere questions are genuine request for information: when did you find that fuel was leaking from the barrel?, When did you inform your manager?, and the like. These questions may be used to gather facts and details, clarify meanings, and encourage a speaker to elaborate. Paraphrasing - Paraphrasing occurs when a listener restate the speakers ideas in his own words in order to ensure that he has understood them correctly. This is often preceded by phrases such as, Let me make sure I understand what you are saying..., or in other words you are saying... and the like. We often think that we understand other person but we may be wrong at times. Paraphrasing is a practical technique that can highlight misunderstandings. It is the recipient who communicates. The so called communica-tor, the person who emits the communication, does not communi-cate. He utters. Unless there is someone who hears, there is no. communication. There is only noise. Peter Drucker
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3. Repeat the instructions or the information youve been given back to the person who gave them to you. If youve got anything wrong the person will correct you and the repetition will help you to remember. 4. Ask questions about anything that you are unsure of, or replay the recorded message.
5. Go through the complete sequence in your mind so that it is clear. If youre taking a message for someone else you might want to rewrite it using complete sentences so that it will make sense to the reader. 6. If you are with someone you need to do some extra things while you are listening, because you are part of a two-way process and you want to encourage the other person. Look interested in what they are saying Maintain eye contact If the person is giving you directions, pay attention to the direction they are pointing. Gesture can be very important and can often make the speakers meaning much clearer.
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I know how you feel. You have to prove it by being willing to communicate with others at their level of understanding and attitude. We do this naturally by adjusting our tone of vice, rate of speech and choice of words to show that we are trying to imagine being where they are at the moment. Listening to and acknowledging other people may seem deceptively simple, but doing it well, particularly when disagreements arise, takes true talent. As with any skill, listening well takes plenty of practice. I think one lesson I have learned is that there is no substitute for paying attention. - Diane Sawyer
The Secrets to Listening Well

Listening is as powerful a means of communication and influence as to talk well. - John Marshall There must be a lot of frustrated people out there, a lot of people who feel like they arent listened to, a lot of people throwing up their arms and saying, You just dont get it, do you? There seems to be a growing realization of the importance of listening and communication skills in business. After all, lack of attention and respectful listening can be costly - leading to mistakes, poor service, misaligned goals, wasted time and lack of teamwork. You cant sell unless you understand your customers problem; you cant manage unless you understand your employees motivation; and you cant gain team consensus unless you understand each team members feelings about the issue at hand. In all of these cases, you must listen to others. However, listening is less important than how you listen. By listening in a way that demonstrates understanding and respect, you cause rapport to develop, and that is the true foundation from which you can sell, manage or influence others. I like to listen. I have learned a great deal from listening carefully. Most people never listen. - Ernest Hemingway Following are some keys to listening well:
Give 100% Attention: Prove you care by suspending all other
Only about 25 percent of listeners grasp the central ideas in communications. To improve listening skills, consider the following:
Poor Listener tends to "wool-gather" with slow speakers subject is dry so tunes out speaker distracted easily takes intensive notes, but the more notes taken, the less value; has only one way to take notes is overstimulated, tends to seek and enter into arguments inexperienced in listening to difficult material; has usually sought light, recreational materials lets deaf spots or blind words catch his or her attention shows no energy output judges delivery -- tunes out listens for facts Effective Listener thinks and mentally summarizes, weighs the evidence, listens between the lines to tones of voice and evidence finds what's in it for me fights distractions, sees past bad communication habits, knows how to concentrate has 2-3 ways to take notes and organize important information doesn't judge until comprehension is complete uses "heavier" materials to regularly exercise the mind interpret color words, and doesn't get hung up on them holds eye contact and helps speaker along by showing an active body state judges content, skips over delivery errors listens for central ideas
activities.
Respond: Responses can be both verbal and nonverbal
(nods, expressing interest) but must prove you received the message, and more importantly, prove it had an impact on you. Speak at approximately the same energy level as the other person...then theyll know they really got through and dont have to keep repeating.
Prove understanding: To say I understand is not enough.
People need some sort of evidence or proof of understanding. Prove your understanding by occasionally restating the gist of their idea or by asking a question, which proves you, know the main idea. The important point is not to repeat what theyve said to prove you were listening, but to prove you understand. The difference in these two intentions transmits remarkably different messages when you are communicating. Prove respect: Prove you take other views seriously. It seldom helps to tell people, I appreciate your position or
Exercise 1
Choose one of the following topics and discuss it in groups of 4. Prepare a statement in which you list the arguments for and against. To begin the discussion, each person in the group must take a particular stance:
Comment on the positive elements of the proposal Suggest problems with implementing the proposal Suggest the people who will need to be involved
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Suggest practical/organizational issues which will need to be
dealt with. The group should also come to a consensus on how to proceed with the proposal you are discussing. Note that consensus means that you come to a group view. It is different from a vote in which the majority rules. Nominate someone to lead the group, someone to take notes and someone to act as a critical friend. Keep a personal record of the roles you play, so that you have an opportunity to take different roles throughout the semester.
3. Picks up cues, which ask for a particular response. For example: What do you think? 4. Ask questions about something that has been said (to clarify or expand) I dont understand the point about Did you consider trying to Does that mean it wont work? or in informal conversation What did he say to that? What did you wear? What are you going to say to them? 5. Use eye contact to show concentration on the person 6. Using facial expressions (smiles or frowns, nods or shakes of the head) to show interest or concentration 7. Use confirming words and phrases Yes. Really? Go On! You dont say! Oh no! 8. Uses the persons name when speaking to them 9. Allow the speaker to make a point or tell a story without interruption 10.Encourage others to take a turn, and to respond when someone presents a different view during discussion
The Leader of the Group Should

1. Encourage all people to contribute make sure that everyone has a turn at speaking 2. Ensure that the discussion sticks to the topic
The Note Taker Should

1. Record the names of group members 2. Keep notes of the main points raised 3. Record the groups point of view (arrived at by consensus) 4. Report back to the class
The Critical Friend Should

1. Observe the way the group functions (including body language). 2. Report on how each member participated, including whether they contributed and whether they allowed or encouraged others to contribute. Scenario 1 You are concerned about water usage in your school. You would like to put in a tank to use rainwater for drinking purposes. Scenario 2 You would like to organize an overseas tour of students to a country which speaks the language you are studying (e.g. Italy, France, China, Indonesia, Japan, Germany) Scenario 3 You are concerned about the amount of litter in your school or local area. You would like to improve student attitudes towards recycling.
A Poor Listener May

1. Not focus on the speaker (e.g. look around the room) 2. Interrupt when another speaker is taking their turn, or before the person has finished 3. Talk about themselves only 4. Maintain a blank face 5. Show no interest in the topic or not understand the points being made (e.g. lack background in the topic) 6. Not ask questions about what has been said 7. Aggressively disagree with the points being made (although this may be because the listener is appalled by the ideas being presented!)
Listening to Others
Reflect on the group discussion that you have been involved in while completing the above exercises. Did everyone speak for about the same length of time? How easily was consensus achieved? How often did the group stray from the topic (e.g. by talking about personal matters). Did anyone ask questions of other group members? Consider the characteristics of listeners. Who are people whom you consider to be good or bad listeners? What is it about them that leads you to make this judgment?
The Speakers Background

The background or relationships of the speakers/listeners can also have an impact. For example, suppose that you are listening to someone put a point a view about race relations in Australia. Discuss how your response might differ if the person putting the point of view is:
A friend A member of your group in a discussion Your employer Your teacher A politician invited as a guest speaker to your class An aboriginal guest speaker invited to your class
A Good Listener May

1. Work co-operatively and concentrate. 2. Be sympathetic to the speaker (e.g. concerned about their welfare)
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Context
The place where the conversation is taking place is also significant. In particular, the level of formality can affect a listeners response.
Body Language
Our body language can send messages to others in a conversation or discussion. In groups, consider the impact of the following body language. Then draw a table like the one below. Use this table to record whether the actions are likely to help or hinder a discussion. It may be useful to ask group members to act out these examples so that you can more easily assess their impact.
Help Hinder Comment
Active Listening Skills

The Heart of Empathic Understanding
Folding arms Suggests a closed approach to the discussion. Puts a barrier between speaker and listener. Nodding Suggests agreement with the speaker and encourages them to continue.
Folding arms Putting arms behind head Frowning Smiling Nodding/shaking the head Sneering Fidgeting with hands or an object (e.g. a pen) Scribbling Rocking on the chair Leaning forward Leaning back Looking around the room Staring at the speaker Maintaining occasional eye contact with the speaker .
n n
Reflecting
n
Purpose
To
show that you understand how the person feels. the speakers basic feelings.
Action
Reflects
Example:
You seem very upset.
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Encouraging
n
Clarifying
n
Purpose
To convey interest. To encourage the other person to keep talking.
Purpose

To help you clarify what is said. To get more information. To help the speaker see other points of view. Ask questions. Restate wrong interpretation to force the speaker to explain further. When did this happen? Do I have this right? You think he told you to give him the pencil because he doesnt like you?
Action
Dont agree or disagree. Use neutral words. Use varying voice intonations.
Action

Example

Example
Can you tell me more?
Summarizing
n
Restating
n
Purpose
To review progress. To pull together important ideas and facts. To establish a basis for further discussion.
Purpose
To
show you are listening and understanding what is being said. To help the speaker see other points of view.
n n
Action
Restate
n n
Action
basic ideas and facts.
Restate major ideas expressed, including feelings. These seem to be the key ideas youve expressed
Example
So
Example
you would like your friends to include you at recess, is that right?
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Validating
n n
Purpose
To
acknowledge the worthiness of the other person. the value of their issues and feelings. appreciation for their efforts and actions.
Action
Acknowledge Show
Example
I
truly appreciate your willingness to resolve this matter.
The Keys to Effective Listening

Keys to Effective Listening Listening
1. Capitalize on thought speed
The Bad Listener Listener

Tends to daydream
The Good Listener

Stays with the speaker, mentally summarizes the speaker, weighs evidence, and listens between the lines Listens for central or overall ideas Listens for any useful information Assesses content by listening to entire message before making judgments Withholds judgment until comprehension is complete
2. Listen for ideas
Listens for facts
3. Find an area of interest
Tunes out dry speakers or subjects Tunes out dry monotone speakers
4. Judge content, not delivery
5. Hold your fire
Gets too emotional or worked up by something said by the speaker and enters into an argument
Sources: Derived from N Skinner, Communication Skills, Selling Power, July/August 1999, pp 32-34; and G Manning, K Curtis, and S McMillen , Building the Human Side of Work Community (Cincinnati, OH: Thomson Executive Press, 1996), pp 127-54.
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The Keys to Effective Listening (continued)

Keys to Effective Listening
6. Work at listening
The Bad Listener

Does not expend energy on listening
The Good Listener Listener

Gives the speaker full attention
7. Resist Distractions
Is easily distracted
Fights distractions and concentrates on the speaker
8. Hear what is said
Shuts our or denies unfavorable information
Listens to both favorable and unfavorable information
9. Challenge yourself
Resists listening to presentations of difficult subject manner
Treats complex presentations as exercises for the mind Takes notes as required and uses visual aids to enhance understanding of the presentation
10. Use handouts, overheads, Does not take notes or pay attention to visual aids or other visual aids
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UNIT 1
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION
Lesson 11 Non Verbal Communication
After completion of this lesson you will be able to: Understand the meaning and importance of non-verbal communication. Categories of Non verbal communication Ways in interpreting the non verbal cues Steps to improve non verbal communication
Students, this is the last lesson of Unit one and here we shall learn about nonverbal communications. The blank faces I see today is also a nonverbal communication wherein the class tells me how prepared they are for the lesson. Ok, lets proceed.
Why do we study nonverbal communication?

Nonverbal messages communicate emotions
As we know, it forms the bulk of our communication. Most of that communication is about emotional information, which in turn is a powerful motivator in human behavior. We base our feelings and emotional responses not so much upon what another person says, but upon what another person does.
Because of nonverbal communication, you cannot not communicate

The very attempt to mask one's communication communicates something in and of itself. If you are playing poker with someone who has been talking normally, but who suddenly stops talking and goes "stone-faced," that person has communicated something. It may be a very good hand, or a very bad hand, but at the least the poker player has communicated a desire to hide what is there. Long periods of silence at the supper table communicate as
clearly as any words that something may be wrong.
Nonverbal communication is strongly related to verbal communication

Nonverbal cues substitute for, contradict, emphasize, or regulate verbal messages. For instance, if someone asks us which way the restroom is, we may simply point down the hall. We may compliment someone's new haircut while our faces give away the real feeling of dismay we have. We may describe a fish we caught with a motion of our hands to emphasize the monster-like proportions. And most certainly we regulate the flow of conversation nonverbally by raising an index finger, nodding and leaning forward, raising eyebrows, and/or changing eye contact.
Problems of studying nonverbal communication

Studying nonverbal communication presents a whole range of challenges that are unique to its nature. They include:
Nonverbal cues can be ambiguous

No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture and context, but by degree of intention, i.e., you may not be intending to communicate (in the absence of nerve disorders, people seldom talk out loud when they don't intend to). A random gesture may be assumed to have meaning when none at all was intended. Plus, some people who may feel emotion strongly nevertheless find that their bodies simply do not respond appropriately, i.e., someone who is feeling happy may not necessarily smile.
Nonverbal cues are continuous

This is practically related to the last point. It is possible to stop talking, but it is generally not possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to tell when a subject has changed, for instance, or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not lend itself to this kind of analysis.
Nonverbal cues are multichannel

While watching someone's eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand gesture. Everything is happening at once, and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously. This has both advantages and disadvantages. Because we interpret nonverbal cues subconsciously and in a "right-brained", holistic fashion, it can happen quickly and fairly accurately. However, because it is not conscious and more "right-brained" it is difficult to put one's finger on exactly why one got a certain impression from someone, or even to put it into "left-brained" wording.
Nonverbal cues are culture-bound

Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown when unhappy. A few other gestures seem to be universal. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further disconnected from any "essential meaning" than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one culture (like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another culture. Categories of nonverbal communications The major categories of nonverbal communications include the following: personal space eye contact position posture paralanguage expression gesture touch locomotion pacing adornment context physiologic responses Personal Space: This category refers to the distance which people feel comfortable approaching others or having others approach them. People from certain countries, such as parts of Latin America or the Middle East often feel comfortable standing closer to each other, while persons of Northern European descent tend to prefer a relatively greater distance. Different distances are also intuitively assigned for situations involving intimate relations, ordinary personal relationships (e.g., friends), social relations (e.g., co-workers or salespeople), or in public places (e.g., in parks, restaurants, or on the street.) Eye Contact: This rich dimension speaks volumes. The Spanish woman in the Nineteenth Century combined eye language with the aid of a fan to say what was not permissible to express explicitly. Eye contact modifies the meaning of other nonverbal behaviors. For example, people on elevators or crowds can adjust their sense of personal space if they agree to limit eye contact. What happens if this convention isn't followed? This issue of eye contact is another important aspect of nonverbal communication. Modern American business culture values a fair degree of eye contact in interpersonal relations, and looking away is sensed as avoidance or even deviousness. However, some cultures raise children to minimize eye contact, especially with authority figures, lest one be perceived as arrogant or "uppity." When cultures interact, this inhibition of gaze may be misinterpreted as "passive aggressive" or worse. Position: The position one takes vis-a-vis the other(s), along with the previous two categories of distance between people and angle of eye contact all are subsumed under a more general category of "proxemics" in the writings on nonverbal communications .
Posture: A person's bodily stance communicates a rich variety of messages. Consider the following postures and the emotional effect they seem to suggest: slouching twisted (wary) crouching pelvis tilt kneeling stiff cringing angled torso shoulders forward angle of head slumped towering legs spread general tightness jaw thrust
Paralanguage: "Non-lexical" vocal communications may be considered a type of nonverbal communication, in its broadest sense, as it can suggest many emotional nuances. This category includes a number of sub-categories: Inflection (rising, falling, flat...) Pacing (rapid, slow, measured, changing...) Intensity (loud, soft, breathy,... ) Tone (nasal, operatic, growling, wheedling, whining...) Pitch (high, medium, low, changes...) Pauses (meaningful, disorganized, shy, hesitant...)] Facial Expression: The face is more highly developed as an organ of expression in humans than any other animal. Some of these become quite habitual, almost fixed into the chronic muscular structure of the face. For instance, in some parts of the South, the regional pattern of holding the jaw tight creates a slight bulge in the temples due to an overgrowth or "hypertrophy" of those jaw muscles that arise in that area. This creates a characteristic appearance. The squint of people who live a lot in the sun is another example. More transient expressions often reveal feelings that a person is not intending to communicate or even aware of. Here are just a few to warm you up: pensive warning startled amused pouting confused sad anxious sleepy barely tolerant sexually attracted intoxicated
Gesture: There are many kinds of gestures: clenching fist shaking a finger biting fingernails rubbing chin raising eyebrows scratching head hands behind head sticking out tongue tugging at hair smoothing hair pursing lips looking away rubbing nose tugging earlobe
pointing squirming folding arms narrowing eyes hands on hips rocking waving
These, too, have many different meanings in different cultures, and what may be friendly in one country or region can be an insult in another . Touch: How one person touches another communicates a great deal of information: Is a grip gentle or firm, and does one hold the other person on the back of the upper arm, on the shoulder, or in the middle of the back. Is the gesture a push or a tug? Is the touch closer to a pat, a rub, or a grabbing? People have different areas of personal intimacy, and this refers not only to the sexual dimension, but also the dimension of self-control. Many adolescents are particularly sensitive to any touching that could be interpreted as patronizing or undue familiarity. Even the angle of one's holding another's hand might suggest a hurrying or coercive implicit attitude, or on the other hand, a respectful, gentle, permission-giving approach . Locomotion: The style of physical movement in space also communicates a great deal, as well as affecting the feelings of the person doing the moving slither crawl totter walk stroll shuffle hurry run jog spring tiptoe march jump hop skip climb swing acrobatics swim slink Pacing: This is the way an action is done. jerky pressured graceful fatigued shaky deliberate
nervous tense furtive
gradual easy clumsy
A related variable is the time it takes to react to a stimulus, called "latency of response." Some people seem to react to questions, interact in conversations, or are slower or faster "on the uptake" than others. Adornment: Our communications are also affected by a variety of other variables, such as clothes, makeup, and accessories. These offer signals relating to context (e.g. formal vs. informal), status, and individuality. The ways people carry cigarettes, pipes, canes, or relate to their belts, suspenders, or glasses also suggests different semiotic meanings. (Semiotics is the science of the emotional or psychological impact of signs, appearances not wordsthat's "semantics"-- but of how things look.) Context: While this category is not actually a mode of nonverbal communication, the setting up of a room or how one places oneself in that room is a powerfully suggestive action. Where one sits in the group is often useful in diagnosing that person's attitude toward the situation. Group leaders need to be especially alert to the way the group room is organized. Consider the following variables and imagine how they might affect the interaction:
- amount and source of light - color of the lighting - obvious props, a podium, blackboard - the size of the room - colors of the walls, floor, furniture - seating arrangements - number of people present - environmental sounds, smells, and temperature - the numbers and ratios of high-status and low status people - the positioning of the various people in the space, who sits next to whom, who sits apart, who sits close, etc. Physiological Responses: This, too, is an exceptional category, because it cannot be practiced voluntarily. Still, it's useful for therapists and group members to become more aware of these subtle signs of emotion. It often helps to comment on these observations, as it implicitly gives permission to the person experiencing the emotion to more fully open to that feeling; or, sometimes, to more actively suppress it. Either way, the existence of that signal is made explicit in the group process. Some of the clues to physiological processes include: shaking sweating blushing blinking flaring of nostrils blanching moisture in eyes swallowing trembling chin cold clammy skin flushing breathing heavily
While a few of these behaviors can be mimicked, for the most part these reactions happen involuntarily. The only exercise is to watch for these reactions in oneself or others, at least mentally note their occurrence, and consider what the meaning of that emotional reaction might be.
Interpreting nonverbal cues

Immediacy
Immediacy cues communicate liking and pleasure. We move toward persons and things we like and avoid or move away from those we dislike. Generally, we instinctively decide whether we like someone or not and then later find "reasons" to back up our feelings. We can summarize the nonverbal behaviors then by saying that cues that move or lean or otherwise open up or go toward the other person communicate liking. Cues that fall in this dimension include eye contact, mutual eye contact, touching, leaning forward, and touching.
Arousal
Arousal in this usage is similar to animation. That is, when we are interested in communicating with someone else, we tend to be more animated. A flat tone of voice and very little movement indicate a lack of interest. Cues that fall in this dimension include eye contact, varied vocal cues, animated facial expressions, leaning forward, movement in general.
Dominance
These cues indicate something about the balance of power in a relationship. They communicate information about relative or perceived status, position, and importance. For instance, a person of high status tends to have a relaxed body posture when interacting with a person of lower status. High-status people tend to have more space around them, such as bigger offices, and more "barriers" such as more hallways, doors, and gatekeepers such as secretaries. Furniture, clothing, and location also tend to communicate in this dimension.
Improving nonverbal communication

Check context
Don't try to interpret cues isolated from other such cues, from the verbal communication, or from the physical or emotional context. As we've said in class, someone's arms being crossed may indicate nothing more than physical discomfort from a cold room.
Look for clusters

This is the nonverbal context itself. See if the arms being crossed are accompanied by a resistance to eye contact and a flat tone of voice.
Consider past experience

We can more accurately interpret the behavior of people we know. For one thing, we notice changes in behavior more than the behavior itself. Unless we know someone, we
can't know that something has changed. For another thing, we interpret patterns of behavior. Your mother may always cry when you come home from school with an A, and so you learn that this represent happiness in that particular situation.
Practice perception checking

This is basically the art of asking questions. For instance, you come home and announce to your significant other that you have received a great promotion that requires you to move to another state. Your announcement is met with silence. Rather than assume that s/he is upset, ask, "Does your silence mean that you're opposed to the move?" You may find out that s/he is simply stunned at the opportunity. Recognize that you are interpreting observed behavior, not reading a mind, and check out your observation. SIX WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but it's how you say it that can make the difference to students. Nonverbal messages are an essential component of communication. Some major areas of nonverbal behaviors to explore are:

Eye contact Facial expressions Gestures Posture and body orientation Proximity Para linguistics Humor
Eye contact: Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the flow of communication. And it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact with audiences increases the speaker's credibility. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth and credibility. Facial expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits:
Happiness
Friendliness Warmth Liking Affiliation
Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and learn more. Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening. Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class. Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Some of these are:

Rocking Leg swinging Tapping Gaze aversion
Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance. To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak. Paralinguistics: This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as:
Tone Pitch Rhythm Timbre Loudness Inflection
For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices. Humor: Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in college classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It fosters a friendly environment that facilitates learning. Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the only crucial element. Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on video tape. Then ask a colleague in communications to suggest refinements. PERCEPTIONS, ATTITUDES, BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS AND EXPERIENCES AND THEIR IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION Human beings constitute the integral part of any communication. It is people who give out messages. It is people who receive messages. It is people who understand messages and act on them. Herein lies the significance of human behavior and its impact on communication. Human beings are extremely divergent and no two individuals are identical in all respects. Man is not just a physical being or a rational being. He is a social and an emotional being. These factors bring in a new dimension to the entire process of communication. Effective communication becomes more challenging. It is rightly observed, "meaning is in people, not in words". Human beings interpret the words. They translate the messages they receive. In translating the messages, in interpreting the words, each individual brings into the process his or her total personality. The literal and mechanical dimension apart, the behavioral dimension assumes significance. Human behavior in any given context is the product of his or her perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, values, norms and experiences. They distinctly influence a person's role and response in communication as the sender and the receiver. In order to ensure the effectiveness of communication, it is, therefore, very essential that we understand the meaning and impact of each one of them. Each one of them may bring in a bias or an
expectation that will affect communication. Let us, therefore, take a brief look at each of them. Perception The word perception has many shades of meaning as per the dictionary. It can mean "act or power of perceiving' or 'discernment' or 'appreciation of any modification of consciousness'. It could also be used to indicate 'the combining of sensations into a . recognition of an object' or ' reception of a stimulus' or 'action by which the mind refers its sensation3 to external object as cause' and so on. Perception implies discernment, reception of a stimulus and an act by which the mind refers its sensations to an external object as cause. In other words, perception is a process of making sense out of events. It is we who perceive the meaning of any event. In the organisational context, the commonly used word is "role perception". As against a defined role, there is a perceived role. The definition mayor may not be adequate. It is the attitude of the individuals that will influence their perception of the role-whether to continue in the defined role or go beyond it. Great leaders and achievers bring their own perceptions to the legally or organizationally defmed roles. It is such positive perceptions that help people become more creative and make human endeavour much more meaningful. Good or Bad Beautiful or Ugly Sincere or Manipulative Fair or Unfair Precise or Exaggerated These are not absolutes. They have an element of judgment. Perception is the action by which the mind refers its sensations to these external stimuli and the individual draws his own interpretations. A good communicator has to have a good understanding of the perceptions of the persons with whom he is communicating. He has to recognize the fact that others may not necessarily perceive his intentions as he himself does. MAKING SENSE OUT OF EVENTS Perception is the process of making sense out of events. A classic example is that of two salesmen of a shoe making company who visit a remote village and make the following observations: Salesman A: "There is absolutely no scope. No one wears shoes here". Salesman B: "No one wears shoes here. There is tremendous scope".
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Although the event or information base is the same, the inferences are quite different. Attitude The dictionary provides several meanings to the word attitude. Attitude means a >posture or position or affected posture; settled behaviour, as indicating any condition of things or persons viewed as expressing some thought, feeling etc.
Attitudes exercise a strong influence on human relationships .in any sphere" be it family, society, group, organisation or nation. Attitudes can be both positive and negative. Positive attitudes contribute to the _,effectiveness of any process. Negative attitudes hinder-or vitiate the process. Attitudes, however, are not necessarily permanent in nature. It is possible, with conscious efforts, to change the attitude of a person or group of persons. Organisations and businesses are all the time making efforts to change attitudes to make them more positive. Negative attitudes bring negative: feelings that undermine achievement of personal and organisational objectives. Deficiencies in service by the staff at the counters and the front line staff, in service organizations like banks can be attributed to attitudinal factors as well. They can communicate better, they can interact more meaningfully by developing the right attitude. In the training programmes organised by various organisations, the attitudinal and behavioural aspects are recognised to be as important as imparting of knowledge and development of skills. Beliefs The word belief again has different shades of meaning: faith-, intuition, judgement, trust or confidence, acceptance as true or existing of any fact or statement, persuasion
of the truth of anything etc.
Like perceptions and attitudes, people have their beliefs as well. They are not easily changed. Beliefs can cover different areas. Belief in God, fate, superstition, religion and belief in future. So strong are such beliefs, that quite often people spend much time, energy and efforts in pursuing those beliefs. While it is appropriate to recognise the existence of beliefs, it is not always desirable to make a judgement on various beliefs. The fact that one individual, or a group of persons, believes-in a particular father judgement does not mean that all others have to necessarily subscribe to it. Organisations generally exhibit a degree of tolerance to accommodate such beliefs as long as they do not affect their functioning. Every country, every race, every group has its share of beliefs developed over the years, which must be recognised. Values Values constitute yet another dimension of human behaviour. Values exist at various levels. There are individual values, social values, organisational values, national values and one can even refer to global values. They are so integral that often one can see the existence of a value system within a group or community. Values refer to a certain intrinsic quality or worth. Values are seen as standards or criteria that people develop for guiding their actions. Values are Cleve loped or adopted in terms of various influences, upbringing, group identification, needs, expectations and c<5mparative standards. Values and ethics often go together. Ethics relates to the treatment of morality or duty. Ethics deals with that branch of philosophy which is concerned with human character and conduct. When we refer to values we are also referring to the ethical dimensions, i.e., the human character, conduct and moral values.
It is widely accepted that any business or organisation can achieve sustainable success only when its activities are governed by a sound value system. Every- profession has to have its set of values. There are values in teaching, in banking, in trading, in corporate governance etc. These values cover various groups of people with whom interaction takes place. These are values in relation to employees, values in relation to customers, values in relation to competitors, values in relation to community and so on. The process of communication is influenced _Y.. values and value systems. It would be necessary to take note of the degree of congruence or divergence in values. When there is a high degree of congruence, communication is easy. If the values are highly divergent, communication becomes more complex.
Norms and experiences Norms and experiences are also among the factors which influence the process of communication. A norm relates to a rule, a pattern or an authoritative standard. It is also understood as the ordinary or most frequent value or state. While discussing the norms, it is also appropriate to refer to the normal standards. Every business or profession normally adopts and articulates such norms or standards. They may be in the nature of expectations, compliances or prescriptions. Norms may also relate to a set of do's and don'ts. We often talk about prudential norms, priority sector norms (in banking), entry norms, and the like. Similarly human beings face a variety of experiences in their lives and work situations. People naturally tend to relate events and messages to their previous experience in dealing with them. People associated with the process of communication should necessarily take cognizance of this. Based on their past experience, people may categories communicators and communications like boring speaker, impatient listener, not very articulate, prone to exaggeration, evasive, contradicts himself, persuasive, well informed, insightful, etc. A good communicator makes it a point to be in the know of such perceptions and impressions. He tries to overcome negative impressions through conscious efforts. Various aspects of human behavior generally come into play in any human interaction and thereby make the communication process more complicated. There are both positive and negative aspects. Some of them exercise a strong influence, others don't. Some of the negative factors may exist and will have to be removed so as to make communication effective. A good communicator is one who develops a clear insight into human behavior and uses that knowledge to his advantage.
Honing Your Nonverbal Communication Skills

THE BOTTOM LINE: To improve your communication skills use body language such as eye contact, facial expressions and gestures to make your conversation more interesting.
The words you use have only a 7% impact on your communication; your tone of voice, another 38%. But your nonverbal body language has a 55% impact on the message you're trying to communicate. Body language refers to the way you sit, stand, move and look when talking to others. Without it, your conversations would be boring and less effective. These five nonverbal communication skills will help you add vitality to your conversations.
EYE CONTACT
Where you look is one of the most obvious aspects of behavior when talking to another person. Looking directly at the person as you speak helps to communicate your sincerity and increases the directness of your message. It shows you respect the person, which helps create a more positive relationship.
Even more importantly, avoiding eye contact can make you seem sneaky, guilty, bashful or frightened. The common expression He couldn't look me in the eye is often used to describe a person's guilt. While using eye contact, be careful not to stare, squint or blink your eyes rapidly. It's more natural to look away from time to time in a relaxed, comfortable manner.
BODY POSITION
Observe how people stand or sit while talking to others. You'll be surprised how many people talk with their bodies turned away from those they're speaking to. Standing side by side may disconnect you from your partner, and standing face to face may seem confrontational. Instead, stand or sit at an angle from the other person. And, whenever possible, sit or stand at the same eye level as the other party, which signals you're equals and decreases any feelings of intimidation. Posture also matters. Good posture reflects your confidence and helps ensure others will pay more attention to your message.
DISTANCE
Pay attention to how close you are to another person. Some people feel comfortable with physical closeness; others may be offended. Many cultures also place limitations on such closeness. If you sense someone feels uncom fortable, put a little more space between you.
GESTURES
Gesturing with your hands adds life and meaning to your message. Practice in front of a mirror using your hands to emphasize important points. When not gesturing, don't cross your arms; that signals anger or a lack or openness. And don't play with your clothing, jewelry, pencils, etc., which is distracting. Instead, relax your arms at your side.
FACIAL EXPRESSION
Have you ever seen someone trying to express anger while smiling? It just doesn't come across. Effective assertions require an expression that agrees with the message. If you're sending mixed messages, others will believe your facial expression, not your words. For example: A forced smile makes you appear insincere. Tension can be seen in your face with a wrinkling forehead or a pursed or tight-lipped moutb. Rolling your eyes and other disapproving looks can have powerful negative effects on communication. If you have to say something negative, sit down and have a meaningful discussion with the other person; your body language will naturally coincide with your verbal message.
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT

Try to use these five skills each day to improve your nonverbal communication. Others will find you more enjoyable to talk to, and you'll communicate more persuasively, interestingly and effectively.
By Harriet Meyerson, president of the Confidence Center in Dallas.

Upon completion of the lesson , you will be able to listen well and understand non verbal communication. To reach these goals , you have to
Participate in the following exercises and know your listening skills. Explain the listening problem and how to solve it.
minutes of exchanging remarks twice more so that each person takes each role once. The entire practice session should take about 25 minutes. When you are finished, form the large group. Your facilitator will help you share your practice experiences. How are these skills relevant to your work? Where else would they be useful? Go around the group so that participants have a chance to share at least one thing they have learned about themselves in this practice session.
Practice Class
Listening Skills The group should be divided into subgroups of three. There will be three roles in each subgroup: speaker, listener, and observer. Everyone will take each role once in this practice, so divide into your subgroup and decide who is going to take which role first.
Listening Skills
Questions, Reflections, Summarization
Directions
ObjectiveThe point of the practice session is to give each person the opportunity to learn how to use verbal and nonverbal minimal encouragers and become a better listener. To the speakerYour task is to talk about something that is important to you: your job, your family, a decision, or a question. The practice will be more helpful if you talk about something you really care about, although role-playing is possible. You may find yourself in the midst of discussing something important when the allotted time runs out. If this happens, you could make an agreement with the person listening to carry on later, after work or during a break. To the listenerYour task is to practice the skills of the session: eye contact, body language, silences, and verbal minimal encouragers. Dont panic! Just concentrate on following the speakers train of thought. Try to limit your responses to the skills discussed in this session. To the observerYour task is to observe the listeners verbal and non-verbal skills. Observe and count only as many behaviors (eye contact, body posture, verbal minimal encouragers, topic jumps) as you can manage and still be relatively accurate.
Form subgroups of three and practice using question asking as a listening skills. Each member of your subgroup should take turns being the speaker, the listener (who practices the skill of questioning), and the observer. To the speaker: In the speaker role, we ask you to share something that is a real concern to you. Obviously, we are not asking that you share anything that is very private or that might be embarrassing. Sharing a real part of your life, however, will make this practice both interesting and useful. (And you might find it helpful to have someone carefully listen to your concern). Or, you can tell of situations that occur in workwe all have a storehouse of work problems that give us difficulty. The qualifier on being real in the practice sessions, however, is that we are here to give the listener a chance to practice interactive skills. If you, as the speaker, take all of the practice time in a monologue about yourself, the listener will not have a chance to practice listening skills. So, be sure to pause often to encourage the listener to respond, even though this may seem a bit unnatural. Try to share information that allows the speaker to practice the skill of the sessionthe art of questioning. If you give the complete details of your concern, for example, it may be difficult for the listener to find anything to ask questions about. Or, if your story is completely factual and does not include your personal feelings or opinions, the listener may have difficulty asking questions with a speaker focus. As the speaker in the practice session, part of your job is to help your listener practice listening skills. To the listener: In this session try to concentrate on asking questions, reflecting, and, at the end, summarizing even though this may seem difficult. You may use minimal encouragers occasionally, as long as your primary responses are questions. Vary your responses between open and closed questions and vary the focus of your questions (i.e., on speaker, topic, or others). By using both open and closed questions you will also see how your question and its focus can determine the course of the conversation.
Procedure
The first speaker will talk with the listener for three or four minutes. The listener will then discuss the listening experience with the two other members of the subgroup. (To the listener: What was comfortable? Difficult? Did you stay with the speaker?) Then the speaker will share his or her feelings about the listeners listening. (To the speaker: Did you feel listened to? Was it helpful? Did the listener have any habits you found distracting?) The observer will then share observations. This sharing process should take about three or four minutes. Now everyone change places. Have the listener become the speaker, the speaker the observer, and the observer the listener. Go through the five minutes of talking and listening and five
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To the observer: Keep track of the listeners responses. Include the number of open and closed questions used by the listener and the focus of each question; note the use of feeling and factual reflection, and the effectiveness of the listeners summary.
Procedure
The speaker and listener will have a conversation of three or four minutes duration. The observer can also time the conversation, gently announcing stop when the time is up. After the conversation, take a few minutes: First, the listener will share thoughts about how they used questions; second; the speaker will comment on his/her experience during the conversation and the listeners use of the skill; finally, the observer will share observations and comment on the conversation. Now change roles and repeat the practice. Each listener practice should take eight to ten minutes:
Three or four minutes for the initial conversation and three
or
Four minutes to review itto share the listeners and the Speakers impressions and the observers reactions (l/2
hour). When exchanging observations about a conversation, please give the listener accurate feedback about how he or she used the skills. If the listener is having difficulty asking open questions, reflecting, or summarizing, say so and help him/her learn how to do so better. Remember that the purpose of practice is for the listener to learn the listening skill. Feedback and suggestions from both speaker and observer are essential to the learning process.
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UNIT 2 CHAPTER 4: BUSINESS LETTER LESSON 13: INTRODUCING THE BUSINESS LETTER
After completion of this lesson you will be able to
Understand the meaning and importance business letters Carry out an audience analysis Know about the general format of a business letter
determine your purpose. The typical audience is other professionals. However, you might also write business letters to your co-workers. These audiences generally require you provide a detailed background about your purpose. As a student, you may have to write business letters to your instructor or classmates. When composing academic business letters, consider what this audience already knows about the subject. For example, if you are writing a business letter to accompany a paper, does your audience already know what the paper is about? What further information do they require? What do you require from them as a result? Because a business letter is a communication from one person to another, a letter must convey a courteous, positive tone. Look at the situation from your readers point of view and adjust the content and tone to meet the audiences needs.
Students, we have talked much about the verbal skills, now in this lecture let us learn about writing skills particularly letter writing. You need to be equally good in writing as you are in your speaking skills. Tell me how many of you have writing letters, I am not talking about personal letters. Is there anyone in the class who have written a letter to any company to enquire about its products and services? Did you get a reply to it ? with all the queries answered. I guess not for a simple reason that while writing letters we tend to forget that we are actually writing a letter and not an essay or writing notes. Meaning to say we tend to write too long a letter or too short a letter which will wither confuse the receiver as to what do you want to know. Therefore students, lets us today hone our letter writing skills.
Audience Definition
An audience is a group of readers who reads a particular piece of writing. As a writer, you should anticipate the needs or expectations of your audience in order to convey information or argue for a particular claim. Your audience might be your instructor, classmates, the president of an organization, the staff of a management company, or any other number of possibilities. You need to know your audience before you start writing.
Definition of a Business Letter

The business letter is the basic means of communication between two companies. It is estimated that close to 100 million Business Letters are written each workday. It is a document typically sent externally to those outside a company but is also sent internally to those within a company. Most business letters have a formal tone. You should write a business letter whenever you need a permanent record that you sent the information enclosed. Because you generally send business letters to other professionals, always include a formal salutation and closing.
Determining your Audience Type

Writers determine their audience types by considering:
Who they are (age, sex, education, economic status, political/
social/religious beliefs);
What Level of Information they have about the subject
Purpose of a Business Letter

You will write business letters to inform readers of specific information. However, you might also write a business letter to persuade others to take action or to propose your ideas. business letters even function as advertisements at times. Consider the letters long-distance phone companies send to those not signed up for their services or the cover letter to your resume. Both of these serve to promote or advertise. Business letters can be challenging to write, because you have to consider how to keep your readers attention. This is particularly the case if your readers receive large amounts of mail and have little time to read. Writing business letters is like any other document: First you must analyze your audience and determine your purpose. Then you gather information, create an outline, write a draft, and revise it. The key to writing business letters is to get to the point as quickly as possible and to present your information clearly.
(novice, general reader, specialist or expert);

The Context in which they will be reading a piece of writing
(in a newspaper, textbook, popular magazine, specialized journal, on the Internet, and so forth). Youll need to analyze your audience in order to write effectively.
Three Categories of Audience

Three categories of audience are the lay audience, the managerial audience, and the experts. The lay audience has no special or expert knowledge. They connect with the human-interest aspect of articles. They usually need background information; they expect more definition and description; and they may want attractive graphics or visuals. The managerial audience may or may have more knowledge than the lay audience about the subject, but they need knowledge so they can make a decision about the issue. Any background information, facts, statistics needed to make a decision should be highlighted.
Audience Analysis
Writing a business letter is like any other type of technical communication. First you have to analyze your audience and
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The experts may be the most demanding audience in terms of knowledge, presentation, and graphics or visuals. Experts are often theorists or practitioners. For the expert audience, document formats are often elaborate and technical, style and vocabulary may be specialized or technical, source citations are reliable and up-to-date, and documentation is accurate.
Teacher as Audience
For most academic papers, the teacher is the explicit audience. But even within the same discipline, professors might expect quite different formats for papers. For example, in sociology, one professor might ask you to write mainly about your own experiences and your reactions to your experience. Another professor might want you to do library or field research about a social problem and never refer to your own experiences or attitudes toward that problem. Teachers will often try to give students more experience with writing to different audiences by targeting particular readers for a given paper. Then students address the target audience (class members, members of a business community, congressional representatives, and so on), including the teacher as a secondary audience. When asked who their audience is, many students say, Its my teacher. I think its useful for students to widen their sense of audience in order to realize that their specific teacher is, in fact, a representative reader from a particular academic field or discourse community. Their teacher may be a composition teacher, an English literature teacher, a historian, a chemist, a psychologist, or a biologistand they want and expect writing that is appropriate for their field. In terms of their expectations about effective writing, each of these teachers wants something slightly different, and those differences reflect the expectations of different academic areas. A composition teacher may want an introduction that gradually leads into the topic; a journalist may want an article that begins immediately with the most startling fact or event; a chemist may want to begin with a review of the research. Psychologists, literature professors, and historians may or may not want you to use your own personal experience, depending on the level (informal to formal) of the writing. Not all-academic writing has the same requirements, and those requirements are not so much personal whims (Professor Jones hates it when I use first-person or I!) as they are the expectations of that particular academic discourse. So when you are writing an essay, imagine writing not just for your teacher, but for your teacher as a representative of a larger group of readers who belong to that particular academic area. That awareness may help you see that the requirements of that assignment are not just strange or quirky, but make some sense in the larger context of that particular academic discourse.
Academic Audiences
Assuming you are writing a paper for a class, ask yourself who is the reader? The most important reader is probably the instructor, even if a grader will look at the paper first. Ask yourself what you know about your teacher and his or her approach to the discipline. Do you know, for example, if this teacher always expects papers to be carefully argued? Has this teacher emphasized the importance of summarizing cases accurately before referring to them? Will this professor be looking for an argument synthesis, showing how the cases all support one point or will this professor be more interested in seeing how the cases complicate one another? In other words, take the time to brainstorm about what youve learned about the teacher to help you meet his or her expectations for this paper. You probably know more about the teacher than you think, and asking questions about how the teacher treats this material in class will help you remember those details to help you shape your paper.
Nonacademic Audiences
Nonacademic audiences read your writing for reasons other than to grade you. (Some teachers assign papers specifically asking students to write for nonacademic audiences). They will gain information from your writing. Think about writing a newsletter or a resume: an audience read these for information, only how they use the information varies. A nonacademic audience involves more than writing. Consider the following:
Youll have to determine who the audience is. Youll have to think about what is an appropriate format to
use.
Youll have to consider what is and is not an appropriate
topic for your audience. (If you dont have one already.)
Youll have to determine how your topic will fit the format.
Audience Invoked Versus Audience Addressed

An audience addressed versus an audience invoked is basically your real audience versus the reader you create through your text and introduction. In a way, you tell the reader who you want them to be. In a conference paper Im writing, I start off by assuming that were (the reader and myself) sharing some presumptions. By saying that, Im almost telling the reader who I want them to be. Im creating an audience position that Yes, there exists some reality. But Im also trying to create it for people who are going to approach this and say, Okay there are things I think we all hold in common. I dont say that in my text, but my text invokes it. The other audience, the real audience, is those who will be at the conference. Whos at the conference and who reads the journal are not always the same.
General Format
When you write a business letter, you will follow a general format. However, your instructor or your company may have specific requirements that you must use. For instance, a company might have a particular way of presenting a salutation or may even use a specific type of letterhead. Because a business letter is an effective way to communicate a message, its format should allow readers to quickly grasp information. Information should stand out to readers as they scan the document. Remember, a business letter reflects your professionalism.
Heading or Return Address Inside Address
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Attention Line Subject Line Salutation Body Complimentary Close and Signature Reference and Enclosure Lines Copy Line
Department of Journalism, New Horizon University ABC Lane,Banglaore Attention: Dr. Anil Mehta, Department Chair
Subject Line
Use a brief phrase or keywords to describe the content of the business letter: Department of Journalism, New Horizon University ABC Lane,Banglaore Attention: Dr. Anil Mehta, Department Chair Subject: Admission Requirements
Letterhead or Return Address

Readers should always be able to quickly locate your contact information. This information is located at the top of the business letter in the return address or by using the companys letterhead. This includes:
Name Address Phone number Company logo or letterhead
Salutation
A business letter should always include a salutation. This is to whom the letter is addressed. Salutations add a personal touch to your letter. If unsure to whom you should address a letter, always call an organization to find a contact. You should also use a colon rather than a comma because a comma is less professional. Dear Dr. Mehta: Dear Sir or Madam: If you have no attention or subject line,put the salutation two lines below the inside address. The traditional salutation is Dear followed by the readers courtesy title and last name. When addressing a group of people, use one of the following salutations: Ladies and Gentlemen: Gentlemen: (if all the readers are male) Ladies: (if all the readers are female)
The letterhead and the date the letter will be sent (usually printed two lines below the letterhead) make up the heading. When printing on blank paper, use your address (without your name) and date as the heading. Print only the first page of any letter on letterhead stationary, with subsequent pages on blank paper, with the heading looking like this: Ms.Lata Maheshwarit Page 2 May 23, 1999 Do not number the first page.
Inside Address
The inside address is your readers full address. This includes the readers:
Name Position Organization (as the company calls itself) Complete mailing address
Body
The body of a business letter is typically single-spaced and has three paragraphs:
Introductory paragraph One or more body paragraphs Concluding paragraph
If your reader has a courtesy title, such as Professor, then use it. Otherwise use Mr. or Ms., unless you know the reader prefers Miss or Mrs. These should also appear identically on the envelope. For example: Dr. Ram Malhotra, Professor ICU Technical College New Delhi, 110004
Like essays written for college courses, a business letter introduces one main idea and then supports this idea. At the end of the letter, always include a way for your readers to contact you. Finally, consider how your letter looks. If you have nothing but paragraph after paragraph of text, you might use lists to draw attention to specific information. Lists are effective ways to present information because they break down large amounts of text and are visually pleasing. Lists are especially useful when you have to convey steps, phases, years, procedures, or decisions, and can be bulleted or numbered. When creating a list, consider writing phrases, fragments or even questions and answers. By avoiding full sentences in a list, your information is concise and more likely to engage your readers. For example, to receive a degree in engineering, you must complete the following: Core Courses
Elective Courses
Attention Line
When you cannot address a business letter to a particular person, use an attention line: Attention: Human Resource Manager Use the attention line if you want an organization to respond even if the person you write to is unavailable. In this instance, put the name of the organization or division on the first line of the inside address, and the attention line immediately afterwards:
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Senior Design
Empathy
Empathy means to care about someones feelings or ideas. A well-written business letter will convey the feeling that the writer does care about the reader and is genuinely interested in working together to solve a problem or discuss a concept. To write a good letter, put yourself in the readers shoes and try to anticipate the readers reaction to your comments. By doing this, you are more likely to choose more appropriate words and use the correct tone.
Complimentary Close and Signature

Business letters should end with a closing, such as:
Sincerely, Cordially, Best regards, Yours very truly,
Capitalize only the first word in the complimentary close, and follow all phrases with a comma. You should also remember to sign and type your name under the closing.
Persuasion
Every business letter is in some degree a sales letter, because you are always requesting a response or course of action. Therefore, the following principles of persuasion will help you compose and efficient and effective Business Letter:
Plan according to the readers reaction Write with the you attitude- the state of mind where you
End Notations
If someone else types your letters, the reference line identifies this person, usually by initials. It appears a few spaces below the signature line, along the left margin. The writers initials come first, and they are capitalized. For example, if Nina sharma wrote a letter that Ajay Singh typed, it would appear like this:
always emphasize the benefits to the reader and subordinate your interests. This can be accomplished by using empathy and the words you and your often
Adjust the language to the reader and use terms and
NS/AS.
If the envelope contains any documents other than the letter itself, identify the number of enclosures: Enclosure or Enclosure (1), which means two documents In determining the number of enclosures, count only the separate items, not the number of pages.
concepts that the reader is familiar with

Write positively and with confidence
Tone
Tone is the use of accent and inflection to express a mood or emotion in speaking or writing. Many times it is not what you say in a business letter, but how you say it. It is a good idea to always consider your tone so that you do not risk upsetting the reader, thereby lessening the chances your requests and comments will be respected. You can avoid making mistakes with tone by using the following techniques:
Avoid the I attitude by having more emphasis on the
Copy Line
The copy line is used to let the reader know that other people are receiving a copy of the document. Use the following symbols:
c: for copy pc: for photocopy bc: blind copy
reader and not yourself

Avoid extreme cases of humility, flattery, and modesty Avoid condescension Avoid preaching your ideas
Follow the symbol with the names of the other recipients, listed either alphabetically or according to organizational rank. If you do not want your reader to know about the other copies, type bc on the copies only, not the original.
Effective Writing
Even though no one formula exists for a perfect business letter, some basic guidelines will help you, regardless of the form, purpose, and audience of the document. Many executives still prefer a written document over other forms of communication, because the document can serve as a contract, the facts will be on record in writing, and executives do not have to rely on memory. This is why it is important to write a good business Letter, and the principles below will help you do so.
Empathy Persuasion Tone Service Perspective
Facts about the business letter

n n n
n n
One of the cheapest forms of comm. Permanent record Conveys a professional & business -like impression Allows you time before replying Can reach where no telephones or fax machines are available
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Applications of the business letter

To persuade: e.g. sales letter persuade: e.g. sales letter To express an opinion: e.g. letter to the press n To get somehing done: e.g. letter of n complaint n To supply somebody else with information: n somebody else with information: e.g. letter of invitation / application n To obtain information: enquiry n information: enquiry
n n n n
Five ways to make a business ways to make a business letter more readable
n n n n n
A clear subject line clear subject line Short sentences Short paragraphs Simple vocabulary Enough spacing
12 Rules for Writing GREAT Letters
Five secrets of effective effective business letters

n n n n n
Write simply, briefly and clearly Write as you speak Check twice Create a favourable impression Be courteous and polite courteous and polite
You write letters to request information, request action, provide information or describe an event, decline a request, and express appreciation. When you write letters to the school, you want to express concerns and educate your reader about your childs problems. You want your letters to create a good first impression. This
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article, 12 Rules for Writing Great Letters, will help you accomplish your objectives. 12 Rules is the companion article to The Art of Writing Letters. 1. Before you write a letter, answer these questions. Why? Why am I writing? What am I trying to accomplish? What? What do I want? What are my goals? Get three blank sheets of paper. On the first sheet write WHY? Why am I writing this letter? On the second sheet write WHAT? What are my goals in writing this letter? On the third sheet write Other Thoughts. Brainstorm. Write down your thoughts. Make lists. Dont worry about writing in sentence or prioritizing. Your goal is to dump your thoughts from your brain onto these sheets of paper. Write down any additional ideas and thoughts on the third sheet of paper. You will write down your important thoughts in less than ten minutes. Do not allow yourself to obsess about details. You are interested in the Big Picture. 2. First Letters are Always Drafts You write letters to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Make a request Clarify an event Decline a request Express appreciation Create a paper trail
Kathryn would have learned to communicate through sign language and lip reading. All of Kathryns friends communicate by oral speech, not sign language. Kathryn would not be able to speak, listen, giggle with her friends. Do you see how Kathryns mother begins her letter Id like to share a story with you . . . Gradually, the letter shifts as the mother makes her case. She leads the reader into agreeing that placing Kathryn in a class where children dont speak or listen is not appropriate. 3. Allow for cooling off and revision time. After you write the first draft, put your letter away for a few days. DO NOT SEND IT! Firing off a letter is one of the most common mistakes parents make. You must give cooling off and revision time. Later, parents say But they said I had to respond right away . . . Ninety-nine percent of letters from the school system DO NOT require you to respond immediately. A cooling-off period allows you to look at your letter more objectively. If you send a letter without allowing for cooling off and revision time, youll probably damage your credibility and your position. Sometimes, this damage is impossible to repair. 4. You are always negotiating for services. As you are learning, you negotiate with the school for special education services. If you are negotiating with the school for special services or with a car dealer for a car, the principles are the same. You never begin negotiations by telling the other side what your bottom line is. In negotiations with schools, parents often make the mistake of being too open. Parents think they have to share everything with the school - immediately. They hope that by sharing everything, theyll be rewarded with the help their child needs. This doesnt happen. You need to share the results of all evaluations and any other new information with the school, as soon as you receive it. However, you do not need to share your wish list or your bottom line. 5. Never threaten. Never telegraph your punches! Youll remember that in the first chapter of this Tactics section, the parents wrote two letters. In their first letter, they made several threats. In their second letter, they made no threats, and told their story in a compelling way. If you make threats (i.e., were going to call our lawyer), you may experience temporary relief but youll pay a high price later. As a negotiator, one of the most powerful forces you have on your side is the Fear of the Unknown. When you threaten, you are telling the other side what you plan to do. If you tell them what you plan to do, you have told them how to protect themselves. At that moment, you lose your advantage - which is the wonderful, powerful Fear of the Unknown. Never telegraph your punches you will destroy their power and effectiveness.
Some letters have more than one purpose. Because letters you write to schools are so important, you need to do it right. If you anticipate resistance, you may begin by telling a story to get the readers interest. Lets see how Kathryns mother used the story telling method to begin an important letter to the school: Id like to share a story about Kathryn with you. This year, when Kathryn turned four, we had a birthday party for her. She looked very grown-up in her pink dress. More than a dozen friends from pre-school and dance class came to her party. You can imagine what this was like. The children were laughing, singing, shouting, and creating a huge ruckus. We had a big chocolate birthday cake. The children were covered with icing. As we watched our daughter with her friends, we felt so proud of her. She was laughing, shouting, giggling with her friends. Only we knew how hard she worked for this day. Kathryn is hard of hearing. With hearing aids, she can hear at almost the same level as normal children. But if Kathryn had gone into the public school program with hearing impaired children, she wouldnt be able to have a birthday party with friends who laugh, and sing, and shout. In the public school program, the children dont learn how to sing or shout or speak. Their classroom is very quiet. If we had allowed her to attend the public school program,
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EXAMPLE of Fear of the Unknown You went to the doctor to get the results of your annual physical, including your lab work. As your doctor, I come in and tell you that: The results of your blood work are very concerning. However, Im behind schedule right now. We need to admit you to the hospital as soon as bed space is available probably tomorrow or the next day. I dont have time to discuss the results with you right now. Im behind schedule and have other patients waiting. Ill be in to talk with you after you are admitted. Fear. Panic. What happens now? Youll imagine the worst case scenario. Now, lets change the facts. You are at the doctors office to get the results of your physical. As your doctor, I come in and tell you that: Some of your blood work is not clear. Its probably only ABC and if it is ABC, we have nothing to worry about. The worst case scenario is that you have XYZ. XZY is inconvenient but its certainly not life threatening. Nine times out of ten, people have ABC. However, its still important for us to rule out XYZ. Unfortunately, we cant run the additional tests here. We just arent equipped to do it. So, we need to send you to the hospital where they have more sophisticated equipment. We can schedule your admission tomorrow or the next day. This is not so important that we have to do it today. Can you feel the difference? When you know what youre facing, is your fear as intense? No. If you dont fill in answers if you dont telegraph your punches - then the fear of the unknown will force the other side to attribute more power to you. Because theyll be in the fear of the unknown, theyll wonder what youre going to do and theyll imagine a worst case scenario. 6. Assume that you wont be able to resolve your dispute. A special education due process hearing will be held - and you will not be able to testify or tell your side of the story. These are important assumptions. These assumptions are one of the keys to successful letter writing. Assume things will get worse. Assume that success in securing services for your child depends on how well you describe the events that cause you to write to the school. A letter you write today may sit in your childs file for months or years. If things blow up later, these letters can be the most compelling evidence in your favor. Bobs letter at the beginning of this chapter shows how letters can work against you. 7. Make your problem unique. If you are writing a letter about a specific problem (i.e., a teachers refusal to follow an IEP), present your situation as unique. You want the person who reads your letter to see your problem as different. You want them to think Wow! Weve never had this problem before!
By presenting your problem as unique, youre trying to avoid We ALWAYS handle ABC situations this way. We ALWAYS have handled ABC situations this way. We ALWAYS will handle ABC situations this way. We cant make exceptions for you. If you present your situation as unique, it wont be listed in the Bureaucrats Big Book of Rules and Procedures. Remember: bureaucracies are inflexible and rule-bound. By presenting your situation as unique, you can sometimes get people in the system to see things differently. If they see things differently, they may be able to handle things differently. 8. You ARE writing letters to a Stranger. You are NOT writing letters to the school. When you write a letter to the school, you are really writing a Letter to the Stranger. Why? You have to assume that someone outside your school system will decide this issue. This person will have no personal interest in you or your child. This person wont care what program your child is enrolled in. When you write letters, keep this Stranger in your minds eye. Who is this Stranger? What does he look like? How does he think? The Stranger is an older person who has worked hard all his life. Hes conservative, fair, and open minded. He knows that life is often difficult and unfair. He doesnt have much patience with complainers. Hes more sympathetic to people who have a plan to solve problems. He dresses casually. When he sits down to read your letter, he sips a cup of tea and lights his pipe. The Stranger doesnt know you, your child, or your situation. Your letter gives you the chance to sell the Stranger on the justice of your cause. You can describe the problem and tell the Stranger what should be done to make things right. Judges are Strangers. Most judges arent knowledgeable about special education or children with disabilities. When you write letters, you are also trying to educate and inform this person. 9. You write business letters to the school. When you write business letters, you use tactics and strategy (your brain). You do not demand, threaten, ventilate anger or frustration (your emotions). If you are writing an important letter to the school, you want it to be smooth, polished, and professional. Begin your letter chronologically and develop it chronologically. To see how this is done, go back and read the original Letter to the Stranger at the beginning of this section. The letter began like this: Dear Mr. So and So: We received a letter from you dated February 1, and were very perplexed by the content. To put my letter into the proper context, let me go back to the beginning . . .
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Do not attack or express anger. Resist the urge to take cheap shots. 10. Never make judgments. What a jerk you were! You didnt have enough guts to be straight-up with us! NO! Never be judgmental. You want the Stranger to be interested, not anxious. Provide information logically, then let the Stranger draw conclusions. You want your Stranger to conclude What a jerk! 11. You are telling a story. Write your letter chronologically. Dont broach the main issue in the first paragraph of your letter. Tell your story chronologically, weaving in your facts. Your objective is to write a letter than is interesting, and easy to follow. Remember, when you write a letter to the school, this is your chance to present your case and tell your story. The Stranger wont understand the background or history unless you provide this information. You can provide background information very naturally and easily by going back to the beginning and writing a chronological story. For example: On DATE, our son entered your program because . . . You can move the clock earlier if this helps you tell the story. We realized that our daughters problems were serious when she was unable to communicate with others by her third birthday. Where should you begin? Begin wherever you want. In your mind, you know when things began. Then, continue to tell your story: Then this happened . . . When she started school . . . You are telling a story and you are using your facts. Select your facts carefully and keep your opinions to a bare minimum. As you tell the story, youre planting seeds in the memories of Strangers who read your letter later. Let these Strangers water the seeds using their own imaginations! There is another reason to write chronologically. If you jump from issue to issue, the reader will get confused, then frustrated. Readers have negative reactions to people who write letters that are hard to follow. The Stranger may get angry at you if he cant figure out your point. If the Stranger gets frustrated, he will quit reading and hell blame you for this frustration. You dont want this to happen to you. 12. Write letters that are clear and easy to understand. Letters provide you with an opportunity to make your case while you create a positive impression. An important part of the impression you make will depend on how you express yourself. We dont like to think that our writing skills need improving. Unless you are a professional writer or editor, you will need to spend time improving your writing skills in four areas: clarity, brevity, interest, accuracy.
ALWAYS read your letters aloud. This is a valuable tip from professional editors. ALWAYS have at least one outside person read your letters. Your reader should be someone who will tell you the truth, especially when you dont make things clear or you need to tone the letter down. Ask your reader to pretend that he or she is a Stranger. You want your reader to tell you if answered the three questions we listed at the beginning of this chapter: What am I trying to accomplish? What do I want? What are my goals?
The answers to these questions must be clear. After your Stranger has read the draft of your letter, ask the person to answer these questions. If the reader cannot answer these questions clearly means you havent expressed yourself clearly. Remember: your letter is to the Stranger, not the special ed supervisor or the building principal. If you find yourself explaining your real point to the reader, stop, and write down the explanation. Incorporate this into your letter.
Letter Writing Tips

Make It Clear Its incredibly easy to get side-tracked when writing letters. This is especially true if youre feeling upset or emotional. Remember: Youre writing to make a point, clarify an event, make a request, and create a paper trail. Refer back to the sheets of paper you used during the brainstorming stage. Have you answered these three questions?
Why are you writing? What is the point you want to make? What do you want?
Talk out loud. Avoid vague words, jargon, and long rambling sentences. Use short words when possible. If you naturally use long words to express yourself, try substituting short words that mean the same thing. Long rambling letters put people off because they are hard to read. You dont want this to happen. You want the reader, your Stranger, to enjoy reading your letter. Make It Short Say what you have to say. Be succinct. Most people dont have the time to read long letters. If you repeat yourself, youre wasting the readers time and your letter will generate a negative response. Keep your message short and to the point. There is one exception to this rule. If you are writing a letter to request a due process hearing, then the letter needs to be a comprehensive Letter to the Stranger. This letter should tell story, from the beginning, using visual imagery. Make It Alive Speak directly to the reader. Use the same words and figures of speech you use in your day-to-day speech. Think about the Stranger as a real person. Visualize the Stranger and imagine yourself talking with him about your problems. This is the person you are writing to. Youre not firing a letter off to the person who chaired the IEP meeting and didnt have the
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courage to tell you that the school had just suspended your child, as you see in the example below. Use words like you, we, us, our to make your letter more personal. Everyone who reads the letter will feel that the message is directed at them. Make it RIGHT Letters filled with errors are distracting. Readers get so distracted by misspelled words and poor grammar that they miss the point. If you send a letter thats filled with mistakes, your real message is that you are sloppy and careless. If you prepare your letter on a computer, it will be easier to read. The Stranger will thank you for little touches like this. Your goal is to eliminate all spelling, grammatical, and formatting errors from your letters. The problem? We dont notice our own errors! The solution? Always have at least one other person proof-read your letters. Try to locate more than one proof-reader. Buy a book about How to Write Business Letters. Letter writing is an art. A well written letter is a pleasure to read. Its also very hard work.
About the Authors

PamWright is a psychotherapist who has worked with children, adults, and families for more than 30 years. Her training and experience in clinical psychology and clinical social work give her a unique perspective on parent-child-school dynamics, problems, and solutions. She has written many articles about raising, educating, and advocating for children with disabilities. Pam designed the Wrightslaw web site at http://www.wrightslaw.com/ and publishes The Special Ed Advocate newsletter. Pete Wright represented Shannon Carter before the U. S. Supreme Court in Florence County School District Four v. Shannon Carter where he received a unanimous decision in Shannons favor.
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LESSON 14: TYPES ON BUSINESS LETTERS

By the end of the lesson you will
Know the various types of business letters Know the general format of a acknowledgement letter Know the general format of a Inquiry letter
Identify Your Reader

The identity of the reader to whom you are sending an acknowledgement will be found in the complimentary close of a previous response letter. That persons name should be placed in the salutation and the inside heading of your reply. It should also be included on the top line of your envelope. Remember that people do business with people first, businesses second. When you address your reader by name, you are recognizing their individual importance, their value as a human being. In the inside heading of the sample acknowledgement letter the reader is identified by both his name and the position he holds.
Students, in business we need to write various types of business letters . In this lesson we will focus on acknowledgment letter and inquiry letter. Can anyone tell me when do write an acknowledgement letter and when do we write a inquiry letter? The very word acknowledgment and inquiry says it all.
Types of Business Letters

The following are the most common types of business letters. Keep in mind that the purpose and audience of your business letter effects, which form you, choose.
Establish Your Objective

The objective of an acknowledgement letter is to let the reader know you are in receipt of whatever it is was that you requested. You should be brief. In the body of the sample acknowledgement letter, the writer mentions a specific point, clarifying for the reader that it is an important part of her overall objective, letting him know that further discussion will be expected in their upcoming meeting. Briefly mention what you have received, when you received it and that you appreciate the senders effort. Sentence fragments are fine for this exercise. Save and edit this list as you work. On completion your objective will be clearly stated.
The Acknowledgement Letter The Inquiry letter Response to an inquiry letter Complaint letter Order letter
Acknowledgement Letters
A letter of acknowledgement is good public relations maneuver. Though not always required, they can go along way. Remember, its the thought that counts. The objective is to let the reader know you are in receipt of whatever it is was they sent; usually something requested in an inquiry letter. It can be viewed as a response to a response. The actual scope of an acknowledgement letter need only include a small detail, such as what day something arrived, and an expression of appreciation. Its most important function is to say thank you, a mark of professional courtesy. In the sample acknowledgement letter the writer confirms receipt of information and appreciates the senders promptness. She also references a specific point to which she is sure to return in an as yet, unscheduled appointment. Here are the steps to follow when writing an acknowledgement letter. Each link provides tips and a blank editing box in which you can practice your writing skills. You will be able to save and edit the contents of these boxes while working on your writing project.
Determine Uour Scope

The scope of an acknowledgement letter encompasses very little. It provides the reader with a short line or two, the objective of which is to notify that a request has been satisfied. Should it be useful, the scope may be broadened to include new information, particularly if a continuing dialogue is desired. In the body of the sample acknowledgement letter the writer provides the name of her assistant, a second contact person with whom he can speak should she be unavailable to take his call. This establishes a line of communication that indicates her serious interest in exploring a further business relationship. Make a simple list of what you want to tell your reader. Sentence fragments are fine for this exercise. Feel free to delete or add items. You can save and edit this list as you work. On completion you will have determined your scope.
Identify your reader. Establish your objective. Determine your scope. Organize your letter. Draft your letter Close Your Letter Review and Revise Your Letter
Organize Your Letter

Organizing an acknowledgement letter is a simple procedure designed to help you draft your request. You have established your objective and determined the scope. Refer back to them. Together they make up the main components in the body of your letter. A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably do the job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place, either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Put each item where it belongs. With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of your
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thinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task. You wont be worried about forgetting something important. Its already on your list. You wont be worried about in what order things should appear. Your list is already organized. When you begin the rough draft your outline will become a checklist
Draft Your Letter

Working from an outline is the simplest way to draft a adjustment letter. Refer back to your list and turn each fragmentary sentence into a full and complete sentence expressing a single thought or idea. Concentrate on communicating your objective to your reader. Be certain that you describe the scope of your solution with an appropriate amount of information. Keep in mind that you are writing a rough draft. For an overall sense of cohesion, be as quick as you can. Spelling, grammar, sentence and paragraph structure need not be perfect. Those details will be tuned up in the final step when you review and revise your work. Start with the point that you feel the strongest or most confident about and then do the others. Remember to do this quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited. Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are most confident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do the others. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited.
confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at all and affectations, clichs and trite language serve no real purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all that is not helpful. And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion now is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the body of your letter with a firm statement about the subject of your inquiry and enough supporting information to keep the reader reading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objective with a question that calls for an action.
Sample Acknowledgement Letter

__________Better Widget Makers, Inc.__________ 5555 Widget Avenue Silver City, CO 80456 October 1, 2003 Mr. Russ Hamilton Vice President, Sales and Marketing Golden Bread Company 123 Loaf Street Silver City, CO 80451 Dear Mr. Hamilton: I received your price information packet today and appreciate its prompt delivery. It seems to have everything I need. You mentioned deeper discounts in consideration of an annual contract. I am looking for just such an arrangement. Should I be unavailable when you call on Friday, please speak with my assistant, Annie Getz. She keeps my calendar and will assist you in making an appointment. Thanks again, Ida Mae Knott Purchasing Agent CC: Annie Getz At the beginning of the sample acknowledgement letter the writer mentions that she had received what she had requested and lets the reader know that she appreciated his promptness. At the end of the sample acknowledgement letter the writer names a second contact person, someone with whom to speak in her absence, effectively widening the lines of communication.
Close Your Letter

An acknowledgement letter should close with a professional tone and style. Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a complimentary close such as Sincerely or Thank you, and your printed name. If your acknowledgement letter is written in conjunction with an official duty, place your title below the printed name as in the sample acknowledgement letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks, notification of attachments and copies sent to other individuals should be placed beneath your title line. In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.
Review and Revise Your Letter

Reviewing and revising your acknowledgement letter is the final step in the writing process. You will check your draft in this step, making sure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Put yourself in the readers shoes as you examine the rough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to comprehend the request quickly and if enough information has been included to enable a timely response. Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice is not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiry to be strong, so write with an active voice. The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness of the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style are consistent throughout the text. Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to
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Complaint Letters
A complaint letter, also known as a claim, advises a business that an error has been made or that a defect has been discovered. The objective is to provide detailed information regarding the error or defect. It also serves as a legal document notifying the recipient that a correction or adjustment is being requested. Keep in mind that your reader is most likely a trained customer service professional and not the person responsible for the error or defect. Rather than being angry, use a firm but courteous tone when stating your complaint. Remember, it is results you
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are after. The scope of a complaint letter should include only the relevant facts validating your claim and a request that appropriate corrective steps be taken. The scope may also detail the options that you are willing to accept in satisfaction of the claim. In the sample complaint letter the writer explains that an incorrect shipment was received and that a promised correction has not materialized. He then proposes two equally satisfactory solutions.
Make a simple list of your complaints. Be specific. Attention to detail is very important. Feel free to delete or add items. You can save and edit this list as you work. On completion you will have determined your scope.

Organizing a complaint letter is a simple procedure designed to help you draft your request. You have already started this task. You have established your objective and determined the scope. Refer back to them. Together they make up the main components in the body of your letter. A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably do the job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place, either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Put each item where it belongs. With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of your thinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task. You wont be worried about forgetting something important. Its already on your list. You wont be worried about in what order things should appear. Your list is already organized. When you begin the rough draft your outline will become a checklist

Although a clearly identified reader is not absolutely necessary, a complaint letter should be addressed to the person who is most able to resolve an unsatisfactory situation. In a very small business the owner is generally the contact person. In a mid-size company a vice president or upper level management person solves problems. Large companies often have a Customer Service department to whose attention a complaint can be addressed. In these cases, the inside heading should contain just the name and address of the company. The salutation will then be replaced by a simple attention getting device such as that shown in the sample complaint letter.
Draft Your Letter


The objective of a complaint letter is to prompt an action that resolves a conflict. You should avoid threats and accusations when providing the details of your complaint. Stick to the facts and your reader will comprehend what went wrong and what action you expect to have implemented. Any company or business organization with a legitimate complaint lodged against them will act quickly to resolve the problem. Doing so fulfills a primary business goal: keeping the customer satisfied. In the first sentence of the sample complaint letter, the writer clearly states that he has received an incorrectly filled order, establishing legitimate grounds for both his complaint and request for corrective action. Briefly list your complaints. Sentence fragments are fine for this exercise. On completion your objective will be clearly stated. You can save and edit this list as you work.
Close Your Letter

A complaint letter should close with a professional tone and style. Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a complimentary close such as Sincerely or Thank you, and your printed name. If your credit letter is written in conjunction with an official duty, place your title below your printed name as shown in sample complaint letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks, notification of enclosures and copies sent to other individuals should be placed beneath your title line. In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.
Determine Your Scope

The scope of a complaint letter should encompass the relevant information necessary to resolve a problem, correct an error or repair a defect. It should provide the reader with exact descriptions, including dates, times and places. It should reference purchase orders, invoice numbers, payment records and even dollar amounts when appropriate. In the body of the sample complaint letter the writer politely expresses dissatisfaction that a problems promised resolution is long overdue. He supports his claim with facts.
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Reviewing and revising your complaint letter is the final step in the writing process. You will check your draft in this step, making sure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Put yourself in the readers shoes as you examine the rough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to comprehend the request quickly and if enough information has been included to enable a timely response. Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice is not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiry to be strong, so write with an active voice. Keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness of the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style are consistent throughout the text. Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at all and affectations, clichs and trite language serve no real purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all that is not helpful. And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion now is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the body of your letter with a firm statement about the subject of your inquiry and enough supporting information to keep the reader reading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objective with a question that calls for an action. As shown in the sample complaint letter, the writer opening paragraph states the problem and the closing paragraph requests a specific solution. Sample Complaint Letter __________Dandy Manufacturing, Inc.__________ 2525 E. 34th Street Greeley, CO 80631 February 18, 2004 Better Widget Makers, Inc. 5555 Widget Avenue Silver City, CO 80456 Attention: Customer Service Department On February 9th I received an incorrect shipment of Widgets fulfilling the order I placed on February 3rd. Rather than the 300 Deluxe Yellow Widgets (Ref. # XT111) that I ordered, the shipment contained 300 Regular Yellow Widgets (Ref. # XT101). As per the instructions we received on the telephone, the unwanted Regular Widgets were shipped back the same day. It was promised that the correct items would be shipped out the very next day, February 10th, and be delivered freight free the following week.
As of this date we have not yet received our shipment of Deluxe Widgets. This was a COD order, paid for with check #250564 in the amount of $1,913.50, which has already cleared through our bank. If these Widgets cannot be shipped February 20th, please cancel the order and send a refund check in the amount of $1,368.00 for the unfulfilled portion of the order. I have enclosed a copy of the original order. Thank you, Jim Dandy, Jr.
General Manager
Enclosure: Order Letter dated February 3, 2004
Inquiry Letters
A letter of inquiry is a letter of request. The objective is to get the reader to respond with an action that satisfies the request. The action taken can benefit either the writer or the reader, and sometimes both. That being the case, the scope of an inquiry letter must include enough information to help the reader determine how best to respond. In the sample inquiry letter there is a benefit to both the writer and the reader. In it the writer asks for some information and some help. She also makes an offer to the reader that provides an incentive to act. Here are the steps to follow when writing an inquiry letter:

An inquiry letter should be addressed to a specific person whenever possible. Doing so improves your odds on receiving a reply. Naming a person in your letters salutation, and on the inside heading and envelope informs the reader that you have done your homework. It announces that you have identified them as being the likely contact person to whom you can direct your request, and to whom you can turn for help. Identifying your reader is not always possible, but often a quick phone call will do the job. Most businesses and organizations will supply names and contact procedures over the phone. It is especially important to check on procedures, as it is not unusual for large companies to have specific protocols for contacting their employees and associates. You will be expected to follow them. Remember that people do business with people first, businesses second. Valuable time can be lost when an inquiry letter is sent to the wrong person or address. In the inside heading of the sample inquiry letter the reader is identified by both his name and the title he holds. In situations where you do not
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have the name of a contact person to address, consult the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

The objective in an inquiry letter is communicated by one or more questions to which the writer desires a response. The question(s) will either ask the reader to provide something beneficial to the writer, or ask the reader to take advantage of a benefit that the writer has to offer. Phrase your question(s) in a tone and style that is both courteous and straightforward. Be specific and brief. If you are asking for multiple pieces of information you might consider placing them into a bulleted list. This tactic acts like a snapshot highlighting the components of your objective. In the body of the sample inquiry letter, the writer states her objective by asking the reader for help in compiling information. She then outlines the scope of her needs in a bulleted list immediately following her request. Answer the questions raised by the sample statements or build your own. You will end up with a list of things you want the reader to do or provide. Sentence fragments are fine for this exercise. On completion you will have shaped your objective. You can save and edit this list as you work.
before making a decision. Sentence fragments are fine for this exercise. Feel free to delete or add items. On completion you will have determined your scope. You can save and edit this list as you work.

Organizing an inquiry letter is a simple procedure designed to help you draft your request. You have already started this task. You have established your objective and determined the scope of your inquiry. Refer back to them. Together they make up the main components in the body of your letter. A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably do the job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place, either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Put each item where it belongs. With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of your thinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task. You wont be worried about forgetting something important. Its already on your list. You wont be worried about in what order things should appear. Your list is already organized. When you begin the rough draft your outline will become a checklist. Consult the points you have established in your objective and scope and decide where they belong. Are they part of the beginning, the middle or the end? Organize the information point by point in an order that makes sense. If it does not flow naturally, you may have something out of order. Feel free to move things around. On completion you will have a simple outline that can be saved and edited.

The scope of an inquiry letter is contained in the information you provide for the specific purpose of helping the reader grasp your objective. You may safely assume that your reader is a busy person, so getting to the point is important. Your goal is to have the reader make a decision quickly and respond in a timely manner. Information that is not related to your objective should be left out. Consider your targeted reader. Make it your business to now something about that person. What is their title or position? Are they the president of the company or the shipping clerk? Do they have what you want? Can they do what you ask? Give them the relevant background informationneeded in order to make an informed decision. Let the reader know who you are and something about your motive. If you are to receive some benefit, it may help to explain for what purpose the benefit will be used. If the reader is to receive some benefit, it may help to offer an incentive to respond. Put yourself in the readers shoes and ask yourself what and how much background information is needed in order to take the action you are requesting. Would you already know everything you need to know, or would you need a little more? While you are in their shoes you might also ask yourself how much persuasion you would you need in order to be moved to act. This will help you determine whether you have supplied too much information, or not enough. It will also help you determine what information needs to be qualified or amplified for the readers benefit. In the body of the sample inquiry letter the writer supplies relevant logistical information that the reader will need in order to respond quickly and effectively. Make a list of relevant information that explains the reason for your inquiry. Think about what your reader will need to know
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Draft Your Letter

Drafting an inquiry letter is a process by which your outline notes become sentences and paragraphs. Keep in mind; its O.K. to be sloppy, you are writing a rough draft. Your spelling can be imperfect, your sentences can be grammatically incorrect and your paragraph structure can be less than impeccable. These things will be accounted for in the final step when you review and revise your work. Write without fear. Your only concern is getting the point of your objective across to the reader and providing the relevant scope of information that supports your request. A draft will get it all down on paper. Best advice; be quick about it. Enlarge each sentence fragment in your outline until it expresses a complete thought. Gather your thoughts into paragraphs and then give yourself a rest. Thats right-take a break. Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are most confident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do the others. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited.
Close Your Letter

An inquiry letter should close with a professional tone and style. Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a complimentary close such as Sincerely or Thank you, and your printed name. If your inquiry letter is written in conjunction with an official duty, place your title below the printed name as in the sample inquiry letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks, notification of attachments and copies sent to other individuals
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should be placed beneath your title line. In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.
Example Inquiry Letter Dept. of English Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80523 May 23, 1999 Ms. Dawn Snyder, Professor ICU Technical College Portland, ME 04101 Dear Ms. Snyder: I am a professor in English at Colorado State University organizing a seminar on concept mapping for a colloquium coming up in December. Based on your experience in this area, I was wondering if you would be interested in attending. The deadline for admission is August 13. It would be a great honor to have you in attendance. Enclosed is an admissions form and more information on the colloquium. Thank you for your time, (signature here) I.B. Writing, Professor, CSU IW/gt Enclosure(4)

Reviewing and revising your inquiry letter is the final step in the writing process. You will check your draft in this step, making sure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Put yourself in the readers shoes as you examine the rough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to comprehend the request quickly and if enough information has been included to enable a timely response. Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice is not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiry to be strong, so write with an active voice. The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness of the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style are consistent throughout the text. Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at all and affectations, clichs and trite language serve no real purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all that is not helpful. And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion now is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the body of your letter with a firm statement about the subject of your inquiry and enough supporting information to keep the reader reading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objective with a question that calls for an action. At the beginning of the sample inquiry letter the writer introduces a situation and announces a compelling opportunity from which the reader stands to gain. At the end of the sample inquiry letter the writer reiterates her request for help, establishes a timeline in which she would like the help to be offered, asks for a meeting and strongly reinforces the benefit to the reader. As the title indicates, the purpose of this form is to obtain information from the reader. If the reader is expecting the letter, your task is easy. For example: Could you please send me the admission requirements for your program so I can apply for next fall semester? A secretary or school official in the college department receives many of these requests each month and would have no problem comprehending the meaning or necessary actions. If the reader is not expecting your letter, then it is more difficult. In this case, following these four guidelines will be helpful:
State your purpose List your questions or requested action Offer something in return to encourage action Follow up with a thank you note, e-mail, or phone call to the person who helped you with your request
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LESSON 15: TYPES ON BUSINESS LETTERS

By the end of the lesson you will
Learn about how to write a response to an inquiry letter Learn about the format of a complaint letter and order letter. Learn about the format of a complaint letter and order letter. Get tips as to how do you draft a good business letter.
Students now that we have learnt about acknowledgement letter and inquiry letter we will today learn about responding to an inquiry letter, complaint letter and sales letter.
The scope of an order letter should include only the information needed to fulfill the order. Keep in mind that in most cases the seller does not need to know why you are placing the order, what it is going to be used for or for whom it is intended. Such information is unnecessary when placing an order. In the sample order letter the writer purchases three specific widgets from an out of date vendor catalogue. The reader can infer that either an infrequent customer or a new customer is placing the order.
Response to an Inquiry Letter

When you receive an inquiry letter, answer the questions as clearly and as concisely as possible. If you cannot answer the questions, explain the reasons and offer to assist with alternate methods. Example Response to an Inquiry Letter Dawn Snyder, Professor ICU Technical College Portland, ME 04101 May 27, 1999 Professor I.B. Writing, Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80523 Dear Mr. Writing: I would be honored to attend your colloquium on concept mapping in December. I think you know how strongly I feel about that paradigm and the role the great state of Maine has played in its development. I am enclosing the admissions sheet sent to me, as well as the articles you requested that I have recently published on the subject. Good luck on organizing the event- I cannot wait to be there! Sincerely, (signature here) I.B. Writing, Professor, CSU DS/ls Enclosure(114) c: Scott McRae, Dean of Department of Journalism

An order letter does not necessarily need a clearly identified reader. In fact, most first-time and one-time-only orders are just addressed to the attention of the Sales department within a company. In these cases, the inside heading of the letter will contain just the name and address of the company to whom the order is being sent, and the salutation will be replaced by a simple attention getting device such as that shown in the sample order letter. Establishing an account with a company will announce that your intention is to have an ongoing business relationship. At that time a specific contact person, to whom all future orders can be directed, will be assigned to handle your account. In situations where you do not have the name of a contact person to address, consult the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

The objective of an order letter is to clearly indicate to the recipient that you are making a purchase. You should be brief. In the body of the sample order letter, the writer begins by saying that he is placing an order. He concludes his order with some specific instructions.
Order Letters
An order letter, also known as a PO (purchase order) begins the paper trail of a specific purchase. The objective is to provide detailed instructions to a vendor fulfilling an order. It is also serves as a legal document recording the transaction. It should be written with careful attention to detail. Your intentions need to be clear and concise. The reader will fill your order only according to your instructions and your satisfaction will depend largely upon their accuracy.

The scope of an order letter should provide only that information relevant to accomplishing the objective of making a purchase: what the item is, the terms of the purchase and any specific shipping instructions. It provides the reader with an exact description of what is expected. In the body of the sample order letter the writer has formatted his list of purchases in a table and provided a brief instruction linking his payment instructions to his shipping instructions.
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He has also included a phone number at which he can be reached should there be any difficulties fulfilling the order. Make a simple list of what you want to purchase. Be specific. Attention to detail is very important. Feel free to delete or add items. You can save and edit this list as you work. On completion you will have determined your scope.

Organizing a order letter is just a practical way to begin drafting a written notification of pending purchase. You have already started this task by establishing your objective and determining the scope. Refer back to them. Together they make up the main components in the body of your letter. A simple outline will get you organized. Make a list of the things that your credit letter will include and put them in a sequential order that will best help your reader comprehend your response. If the information does not flow naturally, you may have something out of order. Feel free to move things around. On completion you will have a simple outline
Draft Your Letter

yourself in the readers shoes as you examine the rough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to comprehend the request quickly and if enough information has been included to enable a timely response. Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice is not as commanding as an active one. You want your order to be strong, so write with an active voice. The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness of the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style are consistent throughout the text. Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at all and affectations, clichs and trite language serve no real purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all that is not helpful. And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion now is the time. The introduction should lead into the letter with a firm statement about the details of your order. The conclusion should reiterate your objective and, when appropriate, contain any explicit instructions. This is the most common form of business communication, and it is written for a manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer. When writing an order letter, include all the information the reader will need to identify the merchandise, such as
Quantity Model number Dimensions Capacity Material Price
As shown in the sample order letter, the actual details are formatted into a table bracketed by very short opening and closing paragraphs.
Example Order Letter

Dept. of English Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80523 May 23, 1999 Ms. Dawn Snyder, Professor ICU Technical College Portland, ME 04101 Dear Ms. Snyder: Would you please send me the following articles via COD? According to your Web site, all articles are in your possession and all is needed is the article name, date, and number of pages.
Close Your Letter

An order letter should close with a professional tone and style. Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a complimentary close such as Sincerely or Thank you, and your printed name. If your order letter is written in conjunction with an official duty, place your title below the printed name as in the sample order letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks, notification of attachments and copies sent to other individuals should be placed beneath your title line. In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

Reviewing and revising your order letter is the final step in the writing process. You will check your draft in this step, making sure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Put
110 Copy Right: Rai University 11.234
Article "Role of Maine in the fishing strike of 1867" "Effect of Maine geography on the War of 1812" "World War II: From Androscoggin to York"
Date 1987 1969 1997
Pages 47 121 4
Types of business letters

n n n n n n
Thank you very much, (signature here) I.B. Writing, Professor, CSU IW/gt
Sales Letter
When writing a sales letter, it is important to have a good attitude in order to sell your product or service, because the reader will want to know why they should spend their valuable time reading the letter. Therefore, you need to provide clear, specific information that will explain to the reader why they should be interested in buying your product or service. Sales letters usually have a four-part strategy Catch the readers eye: it is very crucial in a sales letter to attract the readers attention or else you will probably fail to sell your product or service Describe the product or service you are trying to sell Convince your reader that your claims are accurate: back up your comments with research and facts Give the reader opportunities to learn more about your product or service: provide the reader with a phone number, a Web site address, or some way for them to seek out information on their own
Letter of enquiry Letter of complaint Letter of invitation Letter to the press Letter of acknowledgement Letters of goodwill or public relations
Example Sales Letter

Closet Care 1248 SE Lancaster Blvd Tigard, OR 97225 July 7, 1999 Professor I.B. Writing, Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80523 Dear Mr. Writing: Are you having trouble organizing your clothes into your existing closets? If you are like most Americans, you have trouble finding your favorite shirt when you really need it. This is why it is important to have an organized closet system. At CLOSET CARE, we have the skills and experience to come in and help you with your closet needs. May we stop by and offer you a FREE estimate at how much it would cost you to rebuild your closet? If so, give us a call at 555-1212 and set up an appointment with one of your friendly operators. Sincerely, (signature here) Kent Lenoir President KL/jt
Letter of enquiry
n
Introductory paragraph
Create goodwill with a friendly opening
Other paragraphs
Explain what information is required List questions / information required
Closing paragraph
Promote goodwill
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Reply to a letter of enquiry

n
Reply to a complaint
n
Acknowledge receipt and express appreciation
Acknowledge receipt and thank the customer
Other paragraphs
Answer all questions in detail Recommend someone to help if you are if you are not able to help
Other paragraphs
Explain the cause of the problem Apologize if needed Apologize if needed Explain how you plan to solve the problem
Closing paragraph
Promote goodwill, offer further assistance
n
Closing paragraph of goodwill
Letter of complaint
n
Letter of invitation
n
Create goodwill, positive note Create goodwill, positive note
Create goodwill, explain why invited explain why invited
Other paragraphs
Explain problem, provide all necessary problem, provide all necessary information Describe inconvenience or loss Suggest a solution to the problem
Other paragraphs
Provide info about function (type, date, time, place) Info about audience (gender, age, background, interests, expected number of people) people)
Closing paragraph
Promote goodwill, willingness to help Promote goodwill, willingness to help
The Seven CS of Business Letter Writing

Effective letter writing boils down to knowing why you are writing a letter, understanding your readers needs and then clearly writing what you need to say. Every letter should be clear, human, helpful and as friendly as the topic allows. The best letters have a conversational tone and read as if you were talking to your reader. In brief then, discover the Seven-Cs of letter writing. You should be
Clear
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Concise Correct Courteous Conversational Convincing Complete
You need to know how to turn passive verbs to active verbs.

Keep Your Sentence Average Length Low
Sentence length is crucial to good writing. Almost everything written by good writers has an average sentence length of between 15 and 20 words. This doesnt mean writing every sentence the same length. Good writers naturally vary the length and rhythm of their sentenceslonger sentences balanced with shorter onesbut they keep their average sentence length well below 20 words.
When you write a letter, you are trying to convince someone to act or react in a positive way. Your reader will respond quickly only if your meaning is crystal clear. Put yourself in the readers shoes and write in a friendly and helpful tone. Dont represent your company as one that cannot make a mistake and must always be in the right. Try not to reply in the normal bland and defensive way of organizationswrite a sincere and helpful letter. Show you are interested in the readers circumstances. If he or she has mentioned something personal in the letter, refer to it in your reply. This builds a bridge between you and the reader. Read the original letter carefully and see if there is something you can put in your letter to show your interest.
Compare These Examples
Long Sentence
I refer to my letter of 13th June and am writing to advise you that if we do not receive your completed application form within the next fourteen days, I shall have no alternative but to arrange property insurance on the bank's block policy. (One Sentence45 words)
Shorter Sentences
I have not yet received your reply to my letter of 13th June. If we do not receive your completed application form within fourteen days, I shall have to arrange property insurance on the bank's block policy. (Two sentences13 words and 24 words)
Writing Your Business Plan in Plain English

Good writing is effortless reading that makes you want to read more. It is clear and concise, uses short sentences and simple words. It keeps to the facts and is easy to read and to understand. Plain English is clear English. It is simple and direct but not simplistic or patronising. Using plain English doesnt mean everyones writing must sound the same. There is no one right way to express an idea. Theres plenty of room for your own stylebut it will only blossom once you have got rid of the poor writing habits that are typical of most business writing Here are some of the key techniques to help you write in plain English:
Use Simple Words Rather than Complex Ones

Many writers have difficulty keeping their message simple and clear. Instead of using everyday words they use complex or unfamiliar words. Simple, everday words will help you get your message across. Too often we use words such as additional, indicate, initiate and proliferate for extra, show, start and spread.
Use Active Verbs Rather Than Passive Verbs

Using active verbs rather than passive verbs is the key to good writing. Why? Because passive verbs are longwinded, ambiguous, impersonal and dull. Active verbs make your writing simpler, less formal, clearer and more precise. Heres an example: Passive: It was agreed by the committee... Active: The committee agreed... Passive: At the last meeting a report was made by the Secretary... Active: At the last meeting the Secretary reported... Passive: This form should be signed and should be returned to me. Active: You should sign the form and return it to me. In switching your style from passive verbs to active verbs throughout your writing, you face several problems.
Complex words
As we noted in the preceding section, if you purchased additional printer options, such as a second printer tray, it is a requirement you verify its correct installation.
Simple words
As we noted in the previous section, if you bought extra printer equipment, such as a second printer tray, you must check you install it correctly.
Edit Wordy Phrases

Padding is the enemy of good writing. Unnecessary words and phrases clutter up sentences and obscure meaning. By comparison, economy of words is the mark of good writing. You have to learn to make every word count in technical documents. You must edit ruthlessly, cutting any word. Set yourself a target of cutting 10 to 20 percent of the words in your document.
You must accurately spot them. Often writers miss passive

verbs or try to change verbs that are already active.
You need to measure your use of passive verbs. One or two

passive verbs a page will not ruin your style, nine or ten will.
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Look for wordy phrases such as these in your writing and replace them with a single word or cut them out completely:
Avoid Abstract Words and Phrases

One habit you should avoid, common to many writers, is overusing abstract words. Heres a list of the most common ones to avoid in your writing.
Wordy
at a later date at the present time for the purpose of have no alternative but in addition to In order to in relation to on a regular basis
Concise
later now for must besides, as well as, also to about, in, with, towards, to regularly
Abstract words to avoid in technical writing Activities Amenities Amenity Aspects Concepts Devices Elements Facilities Factors Functions Inputs Operations Outputs Processes Resources Sectors Structures Systems Variables
Avoid Jargon and Technical Terms

Its up to you to judge how much you need to explain your industry jargon and specialist terms by putting yourself in your readers shoes. Dont overestimate your readers understanding of terms because they may have a hazy idea of the true definition. It doesnt insult the intelligence of your readers to explain terms clearly. Imagine a customer was sitting with you when you mentioned a technical term and asked Whats that? You would explain in everyday language. Do the same when you write.
For example, what is a device, output or facility. Such words are so abstract they become meaningless to the reader. String them together, such as output device and you have instant jargon for the word printer. Add them to acronyms and you can produce CAS Facility which in turn means Civic Amenity Site Facility, pure jargon for Council Recycling Site.
Avoid Abbreviations
The most common and irritating form of jargon is overuse of abbreviations. Here are some abbreviations. How many do you know?
Acronym Meaning
CRA DPI DTP PMS SC UGD Camera-ready Artwork Dots Per Inch Desktop Publishing Pantone Matching System Spot Color User Guide Documentation
How many did you get right? Two out of six? Probably DPI for dots per inch and DTP for desktop publishing as these are industry terms. Many people would not recognize these two. As for CRA, camera-ready artwork would be better. SC for spot color is an unnecessary shortened form and UGD for User Guide Documentation is jargon for a manual.
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LESSON 16: PRACTICE EXERCISES ON BUSINESS LETTER

By the end of the lesson you should Be perfect in writing letter particularly business letters. Students, just learning the tips and format of letters will not help you in the long run. As you all know practice makes a man perfect this lesson will help you remember what you studied in lesson 14 and 15 and try to put your learning into practice. I am sure at the end of the lesson youll have more confident in writing business letters. So lets start the exercise
UNIT 2 CHAPTER 4: BUSINESS LETTER
Procedure : Students will work from a format and prepare a sample business letter. Parts of that business letter will be discussed. Different formats of typed business letters will be discussed. Here is the form that will be used: 4 blank lines from top of page ( Heading ) skip line (Inside Address/address to recipient) _____________________________ _____________________________ 1 blank line Dear Sir or Madam: (Salutation or Greeting) 1 blank line(Body) Please send me any information that is available on the events in (City name) during the month of June. My mother, father, brother, and I plan to visit the area and will also need a list of accommodations and restaurants. Sometimes we camp if there is a nearby campground. Please supply this information, also. Directions to places and maps of the area would be helpful. 1 blank line Do you have a web site where I might learn more about your city? 1 blank line I will appreciate any pamphlets or information sheets that you could send me along with the activities, accommodations, and their directions to help us plan a fun and meaningful vacation. 1 blank line Very truly yours, (Closing) 3 blank lines for your handwritten (Signature) (Your Name) Now students will discuss possible business letters that they may want or need to write in the future. Envelopes will be prepared during this class, also.
Practice Exercise on Personal Letter Writing Skills

Overview : Students need to practice writing a friendly letter. Activity Time: 50 minutes Objectives: 1. As a result of this activity, the students will 2. Better understand parts of a greeting letter and envelope. 3. Be able to address an envelope. 4. Be able to write a letter to a friend.
Materials
Poster of a letter and envelope Labels to identify the parts of the letter and envelope Piece of paper and a envelope for each student in the class Activities and Procedures 1. Call on different students to point out different parts of a letter and envelope. 2. The class will discuss writing a letter together (e.g., the class could discuss writing to a person in the class or the principal of the school). 3. Have students write a friendly letter and address an envelope to anyone they would like to write. Evalution : This letter will be put into the student letter portfolio. On the fifth day spent on friendly letters, students will choose one of theirs to read aloud to the class. If this letter is chosen, students will type the letter and spell check it on the computer. The chosen letter will be graded according to the teachers rubric for letter writing evaluation.
Practice Exercise on Business Letter Writing Skills

Objective 1. Students will become familiar with business letters and the difference between a business letter and friendly letter. 2. Students will know how to address an envelope for sending business mail.
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Evaluation Plan for Letters

Rubric for the Friendly Letter
Score
1
Letter is unattractive or inappropriate. Text is difficult to read. It does not have proper grammar or punctuation for a friendly letter. Information is poorly written, inaccurate, or incomplete.
2
Letter appears busy or boring. Text may be difficult to read. May have some grammar and or punctuation that indicates it is a friendly letter.
3
The letter is eyecatching and attractive. Text is easy to read. Grammar, style, and punctuation is indicative of a friendly letter.
4
The letter is creatively designed with easily read text. Grammar, style, and purpose all excellent for a friendly letter.
Layout/ Design
Information, style, audience, tone
Some information is Information is well provided, but is written and limited or interesting to read. inaccurate. Most friendly letter elements out of place or missing. Information mislabled or missing. Inaccurate punctuation or grammar. Students occasionally leave area without permission.
Accurate Parts of the Improper form is Friendly Letter used.
Information is accurate and complete, is creatively written, and is cleverly presented. Some friendly letter Letter is complete elements may be with all required missing. elements. Style, purpose, audience, grammar, and punctuation all fair and indicative of a friendly letter. Excellent job on presentation, style, grammar, and punctuation.
Letter
Grammar, Punctuation, and choice of words for the friendly letter Following Classroom Guidelines and Directions Grammar, punctuation, and choice of words poor for a friendly letter. Students are often out of their area without permission and are disruptive to the class.
Students are always on task, stay in their Students stay in own area, and work their area and talk quietly. Students quietly to their own followed project partner only. directions and classroom directions.
Suggested Point Scale

Heading Inside Address Greeting Body Closing Signature 15 points 15 points 10 points 40 points 10 points 10 points
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Rubric for the Business Letter
Score
4
The letter is creatively designed with easily read text. Grammar, style, and purpose all excellent for a business letter.
Layout/ Design
Letter appears busy The letter is eyeLetter is unattractive or boring. Text may catching and or inappropriate. be difficult to read. attractive. Text is Text is difficult to May have some easy to read. read. It does not have grammar and or Grammar, style, and proper grammar or punctuation that punctuation is punctuation for a indicates it is a indicative of a business letter. business letter. business letter.
Information is Information is poorly Some information is Information is well accurate and Information, style, written, inaccurate, or provided, but is written and complete, is creatively audience, tone incomplete. limited or inaccurate. interesting to read. written, and is cleverly presented. Most business letter Some business letter Letter is complete Accurate Parts of the Improper form is elements out of place elements may be with all required Friendly Letter used. or missing. missing. elements. Information Style, purpose, Grammar, Grammar, Excellent job on mislabled or missing. audience, grammar, Punctuation, and punctuation, and presentation, style, Inaccurate and punctuation all choice of words for choice of words poor grammar, and punctuation or fair and indicative of the friendly letter for a business letter. punctuation. grammar. a business letter. Students are always Students are often on task, stay in their Students stay in their Following Classroom out of their area Students occasionally own area, and work area and talk quietly Guidelines and without permission leave area without quietly. Students to their own partner Directions and are disruptive to permission. followed project only. the class. directions and classroom directions. Letter appears busy The letter is eyeLetter is unattractive or boring. Text may catching and The letter is creatively or inappropriate. be difficult to read. attractive. Text is designed with easily Text is difficult to May have some easy to read. read text. Grammar, Layout/ Design read. It does not have grammar and or Grammar, style, and style, and purpose all proper grammar or punctuation that punctuation is excellent for a punctuation for a indicates it is a indicative of a business letter. business letter. business letter. business letter.
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LESSON 17: RECRUITMENT AND EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE

On completion of this lesson you will
Know the importance of recruitment correspondence
UNIT 2 CHAPTER 5: RECRUITMENT AND EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE
particularly job application letter.

Understand the tips on drafting an effective cover letter.
the job advertisement again. In one paragraph (two at the most) you need to summarize your experience and skills, at the same time, you need to respond to the position requirements as per the advertisement. Analyze your career and summarize it in a few sentences, highlight what you specialize in, or how many years in the industry you might have, or even the level that you have reached. This paragraph should direct the reader to your CV and should sell you on some unique points that you might have. A good way to start this paragraph is with a statement like this: You will see from my enclosed CV.... then go ahead and tell them something about your career which will immediately get their interest. The next part of the body of the letter should be a brief description of your personal skills. Again read the advertisement and respond to their needs. If they are asking for someone with good co-ordination skills, then ensure you mention something to that effect. If it is communication or perhaps leadership skills they value, then tell them that you have these. Use adjectives like demonstrated ability, well developed, and strong.
Students, all of you after completion of your course will either go for higher studies or go for jobs. This lesson will make you familiar with the components of recruitment correspondence which includes job application letter , preparation of CV and interviews. We will focus on the job application letter, which is also known as the cover letter.
Writing Job Application Letters

The job application letters sole purpose is to get the recipient to read your CV. It should be clear, concise and straight to the point. Here you are simply telling the employer that you are worth having a look at. The application letter should be brief, no more than one page in length. It should be easy to read and flow through. It should include only the absolute necessary information. Like most other things, there is a formula that works extremely well for preparing job application letters. Following we discuss each paragraph and give you some guidelines.
Job Application Letters Closing Paragraph

The closing paragraph should ask for some action from the recipient. This is where you ask for an interview. It should also state where and how they can reach you, and it should thank the recipient for giving you the opportunity to apply. You can include things like should you require further information... . Finish the letter by adding a closing remark, either yours sincerely, yours faithfully or whatever you feel comfortable with and obeying general letter writing etiquette. Leave a few spaces for your signature and then place your full name. Before you mail the application letter, read it over again, making sure that it is perfect. Special attention should be placed to ensure the letter
It is not too long. There are no grammar or spelling errors. That you have answered the job requirements. The application letter flows and is easy to read.
Addressing Job Application Letters

The style you choose is not important, there are many different styles of job applications and professional letters, this comes down to personal preference. However somewhere on the top, whether it is on the right or left hand sides, there should be your address and the date. Following this, on the left hand side you should address it. Ensure you include the name of the person, their title, company name, address and any position reference number. This is probably obvious, but ensure that you spell their name correctly, nothing worse than receiving a letter incorrectly addressed or misspelled. It gives a poor first impression.
The Introductory Paragraph

The first paragraph should simply state why you are writing to them. If it is an advertised position, mention the position title and where it was advertised. If you are cold calling a company then you should specify that you are applying for any current or future employment opportunities. An easy way to start this paragraph is with the following statement: Please find enclosed my CV, which I am forwarding to you as an application for the position of.......
The Main Body of Job Application Letters

The main body of the letter should be two to three paragraphs at the most. Here is where you tell them what you have to offer and why they should read your CV. This is a good time to read
You might have to type and edit the letter many times before you are happy with it, but just remember that the job application letter is just as important as the CV itself. The letter should invite the recipient to read the resume, in turn the resume should raise enough interest for them to want to interview you. The Interview is where you will demonstrate your skills and abilities.
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Cover Letters : How to Sell Yourself

Your application letter is one of your most important jobsearch documents. An effective letter can get you a phone call for an interview, but a poorly written application letter usually spells continued unemployment. The difference can be a matter of how you handle a few key points. The following are some tips to help you develop effective application letters.
Highlighting Your Qualifications

Organize the middle paragraphs in terms of the qualifications that best suit you for the job and the organization. That is, if your on-the-job experience is your strongest qualification, discuss it in detail and show how you can apply it to the needs of the company. Or if you were president of the Marketing Club and you are applying for a position in marketing or sales, elaborate on the valuable experience you gained and how you can put it to work for them. If special projects youve done apply directly to the job you are seeking, explain them in detail. Be specific. Use numbers, names of equipment youve used, or features of the project that may apply to the job you want. One strong qualification, described so that the reader can picture you actively involved on the job, can be enough. You can then refer your reader to your resume for a summary of your other qualifications. If you have two or three areas that you think are strong, you can develop additional paragraphs. Make your letter strong enough to convince readers that your distinctive background qualifies you for the job but not so long that length will turn readers off. Some employers recommend a maximum of four paragraphs.
Individualizing Your Letter

Give your readers some insight into you as an individual. In the example below the writer chose to describe particular experiences and skills that could not be generalized to most other recent graduates. Draft your letter to show how your individual qualities can contribute to the organization. This is your letter, so avoid simply copying the form and style of other letters youve seen. Instead, strive to make your letter represent your individuality and your capabilities.
Addressing a Specific Person

Preferably, the person you write to should be the individual doing the hiring for the position youre seeking. Look for this persons name in company publications found, if the name is unavailable in these places, phone the organization and ask for the persons name or at least the name of the personnel manager.
Other Tips
Refer to your resume. Be sure to refer to your enclosed
Catching Your Readers Attention

Your introduction should get your readers attention, stimulate interest, and be appropriate to the job you are seeking. For example, you may want to begin with a reference to an advertisement that prompted your application. Such a reference makes your reason for contacting the company clear and indicates to them that their advertising has been effective. Or you may want to open by referring to the companys product, which you want to promote. Such a reference shows your knowledge of the company. Whatever opening strategy you use, try to begin where your reader is and lead quickly to your purpose in writing.
resume at the most appropriate point in your letter, for example, in the discussion of your qualifications or in the closing paragraph. Conclude with a clear, courteous request to set up an interview, and suggest a procedure for doing so. The date and place for the interview should be convenient for the interviewer. However, youre welcome to suggest a range of dates and places convenient to you, especially if you travel at your own expense or have a restricted schedule. Be specific about how your reader should contact you. If you ask for a phone call, give your phone number and the days and times of the week when you can be reached.
Be professional. Make sure your letter is professional in
First Paragraph Tips

Make your goal clear.
If youre answering an advertisement, name the position
stated in the ad and identify the source, for example: your advertisement for a graphic artist, which appeared in the Times of India, May 15, 1998,... If youre prospecting for a job, try to identify the job title used by the organization.
If a specific position title isnt available or if you wish to
format, organization, style, grammar, and mechanics. Maintain a courteous tone throughout the letter and eliminate all errors. Remember that readers often deselect applicants because of the appearance of the letter.
Seek advice. Its always good idea to prepare at least one
draft to show to a critical reader for comments and suggestions before revising and sending the letter.
Sample Letter
311 Nestor Street West Lafayette, IN 47902 June 6, 1998 Ms. Christine Rennick Engineer Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis, Inc. P.O. Box 233 Gulltown, MD 21038 Dear Ms. Rennick: Dr. Saul Wilder, a consultant to your firm and my Organizational Management professor, has informed me that Aerosol Monitoring and
apply for a line of work that may come under several titles, you may decide to adapt the professional objective stated in your resume. Additionally, in your first paragraph you should provide a preview of the rest of your letter. This tells your reader what to look for and lets him or her know immediately how your qualifications fit the requirements of the job. In the example letter, the last sentence of the first paragraph refers to specific work experience that is detailed in the following paragraph.
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Analysis is looking for someone with excellent communications skills, organizational experience, and leadership background to train for a management position. I believe that my enclosed resume will demonstrate that I have the characteristics and experience you seek. In addition, Id like to mention how my work experience last summer makes me a particularly strong candidate for the position. As a promoter for Kentech Training at the 1997 Paris Air Show, I discussed Kentechs products with marketers and sales personnel from around the world. I also researched and wrote reports on new product development and compiled information on aircraft industry trends. The knowledge of the aircraft industry I gained from this position would help me analyze how Aerosol products can meet the needs of regular and prospective clients, and the valuable experience I gained in promotion, sales, and marketing would help me use that information effectively. I would welcome the opportunity to discuss these and other qualifications with you. If you are interested, please contact me at (317) 555-0118 any morning before 11:00 a.m., or feel free to leave a message. I look forward to meeting with you to discuss the ways my skills may best serve Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis. Sincerely yours,
What Is a Cover Letter?

A cover letter expresses your interest in and qualifications for a position to a prospective employer.
Purdue University Writing Lab
First Lastname Enclosure: resume
Cover Letters
A presentation brought to you by the Purdue University Writing Lab
What Should My Cover Letter Accomplish?

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Your cover letter should introduce the main points of your resume. It should also help you to sell your qualifications to the prospective employer.
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Header
Emma Markley Human Resources Director St. Luke's Medical Center 729 S. Paulina Chicago, IL 60612
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Introductory Paragraph
Address your letter to a specific person, ideally to the person who will interview you. Look for the persons name in company publications, or phone the organization and ask for the persons name or for the personnel manager.
Dear Ms. Markley:
Your first paragraph should: l Get the readers attention, stimulate interest, and be appropriate for the job you are seeking. l Make your goal clear to readers. l Preview the rest of your letter. Highlight the qualifications you will discuss throughout the letter.
Preliminary Research
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Solicited Application Letters

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Find out * General job information * Desired qualifications and skills * Key values and words
Check with * Placement office files * WWW * Trade journals, magazines, and newsletters * Directories * Professors * Company literature
Solicited application letters are letters written in response to an advertised job opening. It is appropriate to mention where you learned of the opening in the first paragraph.
I believe that my knowledge of public relations and my proven communication and leadership skills make me a strong candidate for the position of Media Relations Coordinator that was posted by the Delta Airlines Job Opportunities Program.
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Unsolicited Application Letters

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Goals of the Body Paragraphs

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Unsolicited application letters are written to companies that have not posted a job opening. It is important to gain the readers attention and persuade them that you can contribute to the companys goals.
As a member of one of the fastest growing publishing houses in the world, do you have an opening in your acquisitions department for a recent college graduate with a major in English and publishing and editing experience? Purdue University Writing Lab
Highlight your strongest qualifications for the position for which you are applying. Demonstrate how these qualifications will benefit the employer. Refer employers to your enclosed resume.
Detailing Your Experience

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Using Active Language Donts

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Show (dont tell) As a banking employers your representative at Bank qualifications One, I provided quality customer service while Include specific, credible promoting the sale of examples of your products to customers. qualifications for the I also handled upwards position. of $20,000 a day and Use numbers, names of was responsible for equipment you've used, balancing the banks or features of a project ATM machine. that may apply to the job you want. Purdue University Writing Lab
Dont be vague in your descriptions. Dont use weak verbs such as endeavored, tried, hoped, and attempted. Dont use sexist language such as chairman and manpower.
Vague: I worked as a ramp agent at Comair . Weak: I attempted to attract customers.
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Using Active Language Dos

l l
Concluding Your Letter

I would welcome the opportunity to discuss these and other qualifications with you. If you are interested, please contact me at (317) 555 0118 any morning before 11:00 a.m., or feel free to leave a message.
l l
Use concrete words to describe your experience. Use present tense to discuss current activities and past tense for previous job duties or accomplishments. Be as specific as possible in descriptions; list dollar amounts and figures when you can.
V a g u e : I worked as a ramp agent for COMAIR. Specific : As a ramp agent, I assisted in loading baggage, oversaw fueling the aircraft, and stocked commissary items on the aircraft. W e a k : I attempted to attract customers. Strong: I initiated a program to attract customers to Pizza Hut, which resulted in a 5% increase in sales for the month of June.
Conclude by asking for a personal interview. Be flexible regarding a date and time for the interview. Be specific about how the interviewer should contact you. Include a thank you.
Organizing Your Letter

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Mailing Your Letter With Your Resume

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In general, cover letters should be no longer than one typed page. Organize your body paragraphs to emphasize your strongest and most relevant qualifications. Only include the two or three strongest qualifications from your resume. Make it easy for readers to scan your letter by beginning each paragraph with a topic sentence.
Coordinate the design of your letter with the design of your resume. Be sure to send both to prospective employers; they both reveal different kinds of information about you.
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Key Points to Remember

l l l l
ized cover letter shows that you are serious about working for the company. The letter should mention something specific about the company and should be address to a specific individual whenever possible. The cover letter is an excellent vehicle to brag about your special skills and accomplishments. Cover Letters can also be used effectively to make you stand out from the crowd and to show how you would be a valuable addition to the company. But the cover letter is no place for negative information personality conflicts with previous managers, pending litigation, or knocking your previous employer do not belong in either the resume or cover letter. If the advertisement asks for salary history or willingness to relocate you can say something like My salary requirements are in the range of $ to$, depending upon the duties and requirements of the position plus the overall benefit package offered and I am willing to relocate to the geographic areas of and . If the advertisement is silent on salary requirement or relocation, never include such information. One of the most effective tools of a cover letter is that it allows you to be proactive. You can state that you are available to fill immediate or anticipated needs; you can provide a variety of ways to communicate with you (home number, cell phone number, email address or even a friend if you are traveling). You can also note that you will follow up by telephone to provide additional information if necessary. You can even say Please keep this resume and cover letter on your desk and I will call you Friday morning (or other specific date or time). If so, dont forget to call. Jerry Bills, IJCTC, CPRW, MBA, Ph.D., is President of the Resume Center, Inc., a leading resume writing service providing resumes, cover letters, Internet posting, career transition counseling, and other professional services. www.1GreatResume.com
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Appeal to company values, attitudes, goals, projects, etc. Elaborate on the information in your resume. Provide evidence of your qualifications. Proofread carefully for grammatical and typographical errors. The letter should be error-free.
How to Write a Winning Cover Letter

by Dr. Jerry Bills, IJCTC, CPRW, MBA, Ph.D., www.1GreatResume.com A cover letter introduces your resume and spells out your reason for sending the resume. It also presents your qualifications and availability to prospective employers. If written in a succinct, appealing format, it is your first opportunity to make an impression with the hiring authority or HR department. By sending a cover letter with your resume you tell the reader you are serious about your job search. It should entice the reader to review your resume over the many others received for each open position. Professional resume writers are regularly asked, Do I really need a cover letter? We always answer yes because sending a resume through the mail is like showing up at your physicians office without an appointment you will probably get nowhere. Your resume should arrive on the decision-makers desk with a cover letter that introduces you and presents your qualifications in such a manner as to entice him/her to actually read your resume. Cover Letters should be clear and to the point so that they can be quickly scanned by the reader. They should include the specific job title you are applying for. They should provided a list of reasons why your experience makes you a good fit with the position. They should provide a brief summary of your career highlights. Some resume writing firms and some Internet job search firms offer Broadcast Cover Letters where the cover letter is canned. Successful cover letters are personalized. A personal-
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LESSON 18: CURRICULUM VITAE

3. You might want to use it if you are dramatically changing careers. This will allow you to emphasize your transferable skills rather than your growth in a certain kind of industry or job 4. You should use this type of resume if your skills have been learned through schooling rather than work experience. 5. You should use this type of resume if you are switching career tracks or returning to the workforce after a hiatus.
By the end of this lesson you will: Know what Curriculum vitae is.
Learn different types of CVs Learn how to prepare a CV
Students, now that you have learnt how to write a covering letter, you also need to know about curriculum vitae. CV as it is most commonly known, as is the first hurdle in getting a job.
Combination Resume (Transition Resume)

Combines the best features of both of the former (though that does not necessarily make it better) by allowing applicants to highlight their skills and accomplishments in one section and their Work History in another (minus descriptive details). My personal dislike for this form stems from the fact that it is harder to picture exactly how the persons skills fit with their experience. It requires the employer to be a detective to some extent, and with a mass of resumes on their desk, chances are theyll give up before they have a positive picture of your abilities. Points to remember about using a Combination Resume are: 1. It can help you overcome some of the same difficulties a Functional resume can, while maintaining the comfortable structure of a Chronological Resume. However, it tends to abstract skills from experience which can call your expertise into question
3 Types of Resume
There are three types of resume most commonly described. They are:
Chronological Resume
The Chronological Resume is the most traditional method of summarizing your employment information and it is the one that this guide advocates. Its key feature is the fact that it arranges your work experience chronologically and usually elaborates on skills and accomplishments within the body copy of the Work Experience section. Its weakness is the fact that it cant help you hide a recent position youd rather forget you ever accepted. Points to remember with a Chronological Resume are: 1. You should ideally relate your Work History to your current targeted position 2. You should have a stable Work History with few gaps and nothing to be ashamed about 3. Your Work History should demonstrate a logical progression toward your current objective
Self-Preparation Before (Re) Writing a Resume

Before you start thinking about the actual content of your resume, you really need to ask yourself a number of key questions.
Functional Resume
The Functional Resume differs from the Chronological Resume in the way it presents information. Unlike a Chronological Resume, which leaves you vulnerable to gaps in your work history, the Functional Resume can help you hide a past position that youd rather forget. The Functional Rsums key feature is the fact that it highlights your skills and achievements without referring those skills to any particular past position. For this reason, the Functional Resume is a favorite with people who have something to hide. This is a very good reason for not using the format if your past Work Experience is nothing to be ashamed of as recruiters/interviewers will be aware of the benefits of a Functional Resume as well. Points to remember about a Functional Resume are: 1. You should use it if your Work History is repetitive and your past positions lack variety 2. You should use it if your Work History is composed of differing kinds of position types that do not form a cohesive whole
What is Your Ideal Position?

Think about the perfect job. Everybodys is different. What is it about the job you like? Working with people or not working with anybody?. Having plenty of projects or do you prefer repetitive tasks which free you mind?
What Kinds of Things Do You Like Doing?

Think about your hobbies. Think about what you do at home in your sparetime that makes life worth living. Can you do it and get paid for it somewhere or in some form? It might not be quite the same, but if your job evens contains an atom of what you enjoy, youll find you like the job.
Think About Your Favorite Job in the Past; What Was It You Liked About It So Much?
Was there a part-time job that you really enjoyed? Maybe the job only lasted a few months, but you really liked it. What was it about that job that made you enjoy it so much? Could you find those things in another job?
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Are There Gaps In Your Employment?

If there are, its not the end of the world. Are those gaps legitimate? What were you doing during that time? Can you turn your absence from the workplace into a positive virtue? For example, if you were travelling during a gap of three months or so, what did it teach you. Try to sell it as a gain, rather than as a loss.
A good resume should not only demonstrate your skills and experience, but should also give the reader a good indication of the type of person you are. It needs to have personality. Following are some helpful hints on getting started, Definition of a Resume and Types of CVs.
Reasons For Leaving Each Position?

Figure out the best way to explain why you left each position. The idea is to present your move in the best light possible. Above all, be honest. Getting caught in a lie is far worse than having to admit that you didnt like a particular job. Remember, at some point your potential employer will contact your past employer to get their side of the story.
Getting Started
Lets start at the beginning, what exactly is a CV and what is its purpose. The sole purpose of a CV is to show the reader what you are capable of. The CV is your selling document. It needs to be able to show your prospective employer that you are the person that they are looking for. This goes beyond experience, training and skills. It needs to demonstrate your personal strengths, capabilities and the type of person you are. It also needs to be a concise document. Most employers will skim through all the CVs and put aside only 5-10 that might be worth reading. On average an employer will only spend around 1-3 minutes on each CV. In other words your CV has to stand out from the others. This does not mean that the CV should be full of graphics, colours or printed on coloured paper. Employers feel that if you have to use gimmicks to impress them, then you probably dont have anything to offer. The CV needs to have a clean, professional look about it. It needs to be easy to read and should look balanced. The format or style you choose depends on the type of CV that you require, but no matter which one, the resume should always be easy to follow and read.
Resume Dos & Donts Do

Keep to one or two pages depending on experience Describe your main functions, not what you did incidentally Emphasize those duties that are most relevant to your
present application Include any special recognition, accomplishments or projects you were involved with
Describe your former/current employer, including size of
company, type of industry, etc.

Write about yourself in a positive light Strive to be concise and target your information to the
employer
Dont
Try to fit too much on the page. (Leave some space on the
page) List personal information such as marital status, race, age, etc.
Leave suspicious gaps in your Work History Include salary requirements (leave that until an interview or
Types of CVs
The type of CV you decide on will depend entirely on the type of position you are applying for. The key is to analyze what the employer will be looking for and ensuring your CV will sell you in the best possible way. For example if you are applying for a Project Manager position, then the projects that you have handled in the past will be important. Your CV needs to list the type of projects, your responsibilities and any achievements. It is important to show the relevance of what you have done in the past as it relates to the position you are applying for. On the other hand, if the position you are applying for is more a hands-on type of job, and then your CV needs to demonstrate your hands-on experience in these areas. Again highlighting the relevance to the position. The Chronological CV is the easiest to write. It should always be written with your current or most recent position first. Showing your responsibilities and achievements that would be relevant to this position. If the job is more of a technical nature, then you need to prepare a technical style resume. There are other types of resumes, Graduates need to use a different approach. A different approach would be used for someone seeking a career change. The style that you choose will depend on which one will serve you best.
later)
Put a photograph on your resume (even if you do have a
scanner)
Use negative expressions or comments about previous
employers
Include any health information Include references (separate sheet please) Include reasons for leaving a previous job (save your reasons
for the interview)
Preparing the CV
Resume writing seems to be the part that gives people the most trouble. It isnt that hard if you follow some guidelines. At some stage or another during your life, you will need to prepare a CV. If you are like most people, you will have many attempts at preparing your resume before you actually get anything decent together. The problem is generally due to a lack in planning. The key to resume writing excellence is in presenting it the right way. Most people make the error of just listing their experience and qualifications, this ends up being a rather boring document.
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The Graduates CV
To successfully sell yourself to a prospective employer, as a graduate, you need to show him your strengths and minimize your weaker points. The way to do this successfully is to emphasize on your studies and the relevant experience you have. At this stage of your career, it is probable that your recent graduate studies are your biggest selling point and therefore they need to be at the forefront of the CV, The CV should be formatted in a way so that straight after your personal details and the career statement, your education is listed. The order in which you list your subjects is very important. Subjects that are relevant to the position you are applying for should be listed first, highlight any special marks or achievements in each subject. Thesis and papers written should also be mentioned just as you would with any achievements. If you have failed or not completed any subjects, do not mention these, if need be they can be mentioned at the interview. The CV should also mention any work experience (paid or not paid) that you have. Start by listing the most relevant work first and work your way through others. Employers like to know what you are capable of, and even if you were paying your way through College by cooking at the local diner, the fact that you held a responsible position and have some skills becomes relevant. The key here is to try and turn your skills around and demonstrate how they are valuable to the new job. Dont expect the employer to see the relevance here, it is up to you to highlight them. For example lets say you worked at the local video store, not very relevant to Engineering right? Wrong, it is how you present the information that makes all the difference. Mentioning things like customer service, inventory control, working under stressful conditions or even maintaining accurate records can take on a new meaning when applied to the Engineering profession. What you want to achieve with this graduate CV style, is to demonstrate that you have the qualifications, some relevant experience and most importantly the right attitude. Throughout the CV you should be displaying an eagerness to learn and a high degree of motivation. This is what a prospective employer will be looking for. Someone that is willing to learn, study further and adapt easily. When applying for a position, ensure you have a good application letter, written specifically for the position and highlighting your qualification and most importantly the right attitude. The same applies with the interview, you need to demonstrate these skills and an enthusiastic attitude, that will get you the job!
elements like interviewing methods, what to expect, how to handle those tricky questions, preparation, what to take with you, what to discuss and what not to discuss. The job interview is a time for them to get to know you better. They have already decided that you have the experience and knowledge that they require, that is why they want to meet you in person. What they really want to see at the interview is who you are. Your attitude and personality are going to be the most important factors in the decision making process.
Preparing For Job Interviews

Preparing for job interviews is probably the most important aspect. Do this right and you will breeze through it, go unprepared and you will fail miserably. Preparing for a job interview means getting your mind right and feeling confident. Remember you are the best person for the job, you just have to show them that. Firstly do some research on the company and its products, know who their customers are and what the companys objective is. Once you have this information, then make a list of what skills or knowledge you have that would be valuable to them. You cannot sell yourself to them if you dont know what it is you are selling. Next thing to prepare is your physical appearance. You have to dress right for job interviews, dont wear anything too flashy, neat and clean are more important than the latest fashion. The aim is to look professional without overdoing it. If you are not comfortable with a shirt and tie, it might be best not to wear one, unless the job will require you to dress this way. It is important that you feel comfortable, the last thing you want is to be worried about your appearance during the interview. It will only make you nervous and you will quickly lose confidence. Work out what you need to take with you. A copy of your CV, originals (and copies) of your qualification papers, copies of references, samples of your work (if applicable) and anything else that they may want to see. Again make sure everything is well organised and neatly presented. Dont take a pile of paperwork that you have to sift through for ten minutes to find something, that will give them the impression that your are disorganised.
Interviewing Methods
As the job market becomes more competitive, so do screening methods. Employing a new person is an expensive exercise and companies want to ensure they do it right. When the job market becomes more competitive, new interviewing methods are introduced. It is not uncommon these days to be put through a series of tests and interviews before a company makes the final decision. Some of the processes that you might experience include: Aptitude tests: These tests are designed to find your personality traits. They would be looking for a particular type of person and this test will show them if you fit their profile. You cant cheat in these tests, if you attempt to formulate your answers, the results of the test will show. Be honest here, you cant hide who you are.
Guide to Successful Job Interviews

Handling job interviews is probably the most critical part of the whole job searching process. There are numerous books on the subject and just about everyone has something to say on the matter. Mention job interviews and most people will have a horror story to tell you about some experience they had. This section has been written to give you some practical advice on handling job interviews successfully. Well discuss various
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IQ/Thinking tests: These have been prepared to work out your analytical and logical thinking patterns. To some extent general knowledge would be useful, however they are really geared towards finding out how you analyse data and find solutions to problems. Again it is impossible to cheat on these tests, but a little preparation would go a long way. Prepare for this test by doing some logical thinking puzzles. There are lots out there in the bookshops. General knowledge : Tests in this section include mathematical, grammar, spelling and general knowledge. Preparing to take some of these will include doing a revision of you school work. Forget the calculator and go back to pencil and paper. If you are a wiz at maths, then you should have no problem, but if you are like the rest of us that reaches out for the calculator, then get some practice prior to attending. Panel Job Interviews : These can be nerve wracking types of interviews, however, most job interviews these days include a panel. The panel might just 2 people or it can be as many as 10. To handle this interview well, you must appear to be confident, dont hesitate too long before you give an answer. Watch your posture and try not to fidget too much. When answering a question make eye contact with one or two of the people. Find a friendly face and use that person for most of your eye contact, it will help in making you feel more relaxed. One on one job interviews : These type of interviews are easier to handle, they are generally more informal. The best way to handle these type of interviews is to relate to them as a form of conversation. You should ask questions and exchange information as you would during a normal conversation. Offer your own information as needed without waiting to be asked. Handling job interview questions: There are various types of questions asked at a job interview. Most job interviews start with chit-chat type of questions, these are designed to break the ice and get the conversation flowing. Questions like did it take you long to get here, did you find the place alright, were you able to find parking. Most of these just require a yes, no problem type of response, you can elaborate more if you wish, however ensure that you dont provide information that will give them a bad impression. Saying something like It took me ages to get here, traffic was so bad, I hate travelling to this side of town.. would not make a good impression. If this is the place where you would be working, they would automatically be worried that you will be late to work everyday. Most questions will be geared towards finding out a bit more about you. They might be historical questions regarding your previous employment or education, or they may be hypothetical questions what if.... These are geared to finding out how you would handle a situation or to find out your personal views to certain areas. Whenever answering a job interview question, give as much information as you can. Tell them why, where, when and how. In other words use samples to prove what you are saying. Make a statement, then qualify it by giving a sample of a situation and how you handled it.
There are times that you will be asked a hard question during a job interview. Dont panic, there is a reason why these questions are asked and that is to see how you handle a difficult situation. Being prepared is always the best policy. Following are some samples of questions and some advice on how to handle them efficiently. How would you handle a difficult customer?: Be careful here, dont say that you have never had a difficult customer as anyone who has dealt with customers knows that is impossible. Use a sample to demonstrate how you handle a difficult customer. Talk about an incident at a previous job (where, when), explain the situation, how you handled it, and what the outcome was. Why should we choose you? : Ask yourself why you applied, what makes you prefect for this position, what can the company gain from hiring you, what have you got to offer, how would you handle this job. This is what they want to know, so go ahead and tell them. Tell me about yourself: Split your answer into two, the professional and the personal level. Both are just as important, how you move from one to the other depends on what you have to say. The best way to answer this job interview question is to give a brief summary of your life, professional and personal, less emphasis on the early past, more emphasis on the present and the future. What are your weaknesses?: Dont say I dont have any. Everyone has weaknesses and it takes strength to recognize them. Say something relevant but not hugely important to the specific position, and always add a positive. Something like I havent had a lot of exposure to on-site maintenance, however I am looking forward to being more involved in dealing with customers directly and learning their needs. What are your strengths?: Customize your answer to meet the position requirements, remember the things they asked for in the advertisement? Tell them your strengths but also demonstrate them and show them how they would apply to this job. Use samples of how your strengths were valuable, use the why, where, when, how demonstrate and prove your strengths. Job interviews are not that bad, so long as you are prepared. Maintain good eye contact and ensure that you have some questions to ask. job interviews are a two way process, a conversation where they want to get to know you better and you want to find out more about the position. Above all, try and keep calm, smile and show professionalism.
E-mailing Resumes
Submitting a resume to an employer via e-mail requires a little thought if you are going to avoid some of the more common pitfalls. Do you send your resume in the body of an e-mail or as an attachment? If you are sending an attachment, what format should it be in? Perhaps you want to take advantage of the web and demonstrate your online savvy by serving your resume straight off the Internet?
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E-mailing Your Resume in the body of an E-mail

You may have spent hours on Word or WordPerfect nicely formatting your resume, but when you send it in the body of an e-mail, guess what? All your hard work gets turned into crazy ampersands, dollar signs and *@*&**$.
the body of your e-mail for easy reference but also attach a properly formatted version for later use if the employer wishes to pursue you as a potential employee. Some advice on creating attachments might also be useful here. Try to create your attachment in a format you know a large number of people will be able to access. Word is good for most businesses, while WordPerfect is ideal only if you are sending your resume to a legal firm. Try to avoid creating and attaching your resume as MS Works files or Wordstar, etc. You may use these programs to create basic .txt or .doc files though, which anyone should be able to view. Some people attach their resumes as HTML files. This has the advantage of being almost as universal as a text or document file because most businesses have a browser on their workstations. HTML files are restricted in their formatting though and do not always copy nicely to other text based programs, especially those used as resume databases by companies.
How Do You Avoid This?

Prepare a special copy of your resume for inclusion in the body of an e-mail. Create your resume in a plain text (ASCII) format with an application like Windows WordPad or Notepad. If you prefer to use your favorite Word Processor (Word, Works, WordPerfect), theyll also allow you to save your resume to plain text. No matter what operating system or e-mail client application the employer is using, theyll be able to read your resume if its in text form. While including your resume in the body of an e-mail gives it near guaranteed accessibility, there is the problem of formatting. Somehow or other, e-mails invariably look worse once theyve gone through the wringer known as the Internet. A perfectly justified e-mail message with bolding and italics becomes a series of jagged text edges and lost formatting. Appearance is very important in a resume and although potential employers realize the nature of e-mail is disorganized when it comes to style, they still like to see a nice looking resume. Its the nature of employers. How do you achieve both goals - universal readability and presentability? First, keep the resume simple. Align all the text to the left of the page. Dont make it more complicated than that. Forget tab spaces. Forget bolding and italicizing. Use upper-case letters and line breaks to create headings rather than differing sizes of fonts. Choose a basic font that exists on everyones machine: Times Roman, Arial or Courier are common examples. Make sure no line exceeds 72 characters; after that it may break awkwardly and create an odd pattern of sentences on down to the bottom of the resume. Finally, e-mail yourself a copy of your resume and proof-read it. Does it make sense? Good, start sending it out to companies.
Serving Your Resume off the Web

You want to show employers you are web savvy so you take your resume and turn it into a website. Now you send prospective employers an e-mail, directing them to your site, If you want to see my resume, click here. Big mistake. What busy employer is going to take the time to connect to the Internet to download the resume of a person they know nearly nothing about? Do not expect an employer to do your hard work for you. If you send an employer an e-mail directing them to your resume, you are committing a gross breach of business etiquette (not to be confused with netiquette). What you are doing is the offline equivalent of mailing an employer a letter which says, If you want to see my resume, send a stamped addressed envelope to such and such address and Ill mail it back to you. Not all employers have easy access to the web. Many companies prohibit internal use of the web owing to productivity issues. Other times, your vaunted webpage will come back Not Found or your page may take forever to load. Perhaps your resume is linked to other pages on your site with less than savory material. Even if the potential employer does visit your site, copying your resume as HTML can be a pain (forget about formatting, its every word for itself). In most cases, the employer will probably not bother with your resume at all. It is, however, acceptable to include a link to your online resume as long as you also send a text copy with the e-mail. Indeed, your web resume might well contain more information or samples of your work than it would be possible or desirable to include in a normal resume.
E-mailing Your Resume as an Attachment

What about sending your resume as an attachment and avoiding the trouble of converting your resume to a text file? Here are some of the disadvantages associated with e-mailing your resume as an attachment: i. Opening an attachment can be time-consuming if you are an employer answering hundreds of applications a day. ii Attachments are sometimes corrupted by the time an employer tries opening the file. iii. Attachments are sometimes created in formats the employer cannot open (i.e. Works, Wordstar). Ever wonder how many employers never got back to you because they couldnt/wouldnt open your resume? Scary thought, isnt it? All those missed opportunities. So, should you resist sending your beautifully formatted Word document altogether? The answer is no. Include your resume in
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Ten Keys to a Dynamite Resume
Letter of appointment
n
To help you construct a better, more powerful resume, here are ten overall considerations in regard to your resumes content and presentation: 1. Position title and job description. Provide your title, plus a detailed explanation of your daily activities and measurable results. Since job titles are often misleading or their function may vary from one company to another, your resume should tell the reader exactly what youve done. (Titles such as account manager, business analyst, and internal consultant are especially vague.) 2. Clarity of dates and place. Document your work history accurately. Dont leave the reader guessing where you were employed, or for how long. If youve had overlapping jobs, find a way to pull them apart on paper, or eliminate mentioning one, to avoid confusion. 3. Detail. Specify some of the more technical, or involved aspects of your past work or education. Have you performed tasks of any complexity, or significance? If so, dont be shy; give a one or two sentence description. 4. Proportion. Give appropriate attention to jobs or educational credentials according to their length, or importance to the reader. For example, if you wish to be considered for a position at a bank, dont write one paragraph describing your current job as a loan officer, followed by three paragraphs about your high school summer job as a lifeguard.
Intro
Create goodwill by congratulating on appointment
Other paragraphs
Provide complete info about position Job title, conditions of service, salary conditions of service, salary scale, working hours, leave, fringe benefits, memberships, commencement date, time, place, contact person
Letters of appointment
Indicate whether the applicant should reply telephonically or in writing and when contract should be returned
n
Closing
Express hope that the applicant will accept the offer and that you hope to spend many years working together
5. Relevancy. Confine your curriculum vitae to that which is jobrelated or clearly demonstrates a pattern of success. For example, nobody really cares that your hobby is spear fishing, or that you weigh 137 pounds, or that you belong to an activist youth group. Concentrate on the subject matter that addresses the needs of the employer. 6. Explicitness. Leave nothing to the imagination. Dont assume the resume reader knows, for example, that the University of Indiana you attended is in western Pennsylvania, or that an M.M. is a Master of Music degree, or that your current employer, U.S. Computer Systems, Inc., supplies the fast-food industry with order-taker headsets. 7. Length. Fill up only a page or two. If you write more than two pages, it sends a signal to the reader that you cant organize your thoughts, or youre trying too hard to make a good impression. If your content is strong, you wont need more than two pages. 8. Spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Create an error-free document that is representative of an educated person. If youre unsure about the correctness of your writing (or if English is your second language), consult a professional writer or copy editor. At the very least, use a spell-check program if you have access to a word processor, and always proofread what youve written. 9. Readability. Organize your thoughts in a clear, concise manner. Avoid writing in a style thats either fragmented or long-winded. No resume ever won a Nobel Prize for
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literature; however, an unreadable resume will virtually assure you of starting at the back of the line. 10. Overall appearance and presentation. Select the proper visual format, type style, and stationery. Resume readers have become used to a customary and predictable format. If you deviate too much, or your resume takes too much effort to read, itll probably end up in the trash, even if you have a terrific background. Resume writing can be tricky, especially if you havent done it before. I suggest you write several drafts, and allow yourself the time to proofread for errors and ruminate over what youve written. Practice, after all, makes perfect. If you have a professional associate whose opinion you trust, by all means, listen to what he or she has to say. A simple critique can save you a great deal of time and money. I worked with a candidate recently who had the most beautifully written resume Ive ever seen. When I asked him about it, he said that he sharpened his skills by writing and rewriting his wifes resume. After he got the hang of it, he worked on his own and kept revising it on a monthly basis.
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LESSON 19: OFFER OF EMPLOYMENT

I look forward to welcoming you to the staff of Moonlit Holdings plc. Yours sincerely Ankita Sharma Human Relations Manager Encs Copy: Bhasker Pandey. Marketing Manager
By the end of this lesson you will

Understand the meaning of a job offer letter and
resignation letter.
Learn the structure of these letters. Understand the role of Job descriptions in recruitment.
Students can you tell me how do you apply for a job? Yes, you need a very attractive CV and a job application letter, which is also called as a cover letter. On the basis of the CV you will be called for an interview and then finally selected or rejected. If selected the company will give you an offer letter, which you need to sign and give a copy of it back to the company. In this lesson we will learn about the format of a job offer letter and resignation letter. Lets start by job offer letter.
Think
Does companies issue a formal contract of employment? What issues are covered in this?
Offer of Employment
After all the interviews have been conducted a shortlist may be drawn up and second interviews held. Once a decision has been made on the successful candidate, a formal offer of employment will be sent to the successful applicant. Depending on the size of the organization, a separate contract of employment may be drawn up. Here we will deal with a simple offer letter enclosing a job description. Moonlit Holdings plc Temple Street, Delhi ll Tel: +91(1)2542555 Fax: +91(1)2 555 4444 LD/ST 20 June 2000 Miss Anita Gupta 26 Gandhi Nagar Calcutta Dear Miss Gupta Telephone Executive (Marketing) Thank you for attending the recent interview. I am pleased to offer you this post commencing on Monday 2 August 2000. Full details of the post are shown on the attached Job Description. The terms and conditions of employment will be as laid down in our Contract of Employment which is also enclosed. Please let me have written confirmation of your acceptance of this post as soon as possible. Two other telephone Executives will start work on the same day . The 2nd of August will be spent on an induction training course. Please report to out reception on at 09:00 and ask for my Secretary, Miss Madhu Chopra. Email: moonlit@cfb.co.in
Job Description
A job description states the title of the post and to whom the person reports, as well as giving full details of the duties and responsibilities involved. Moonlit Holdings plc
Job Description
Job Title Location Responsible to Main purpose of job Telephone Executive (Marketing) Marketing Department, Head Office Marketing Manager To telephone customers with the objective of identifying opportuni ties where business can be increased
Main Duties and Responsibilities

1. Two achiev e daily call rate targets and any target set for sale campaigns. 2 To have a good telephone manner and be courteous to customers at all times. 3 To carry out any administrative requirements generated by the telephone calls in an accurate and efficient manner. This may include sending letters, fax messages reports, product literature, etc. 4 To undertake training courses to make good use of telephone selling techniques. 5 To undertake training on the companys products and services and to promote associated products where appropriate. 6 To carry out competitor market research by contacting their branches to gather information on pricing, product availability etc as directed by your supervisor.
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7 To communicate clearly and effectively with other employees in the company an necessary. 8 To carry out any other tasks as requested by your supervisor. LD/ST 20 June 2000
Testimonial (letter of recommendation) It is useful to ask previous employers for testimonials, as there will be useful when applying for future posts.
Calcutta Technical College

16 Gandhi Nagar Calcutta Telephone: 5 876789 Fax: 5876889 HB/GB 28 June 2000 To Whom It May Concern Miss Anita Gupta has been part-time Administration Assistant in our General Office from 24 May 1999 to 28 June 2000. We asked her to join us on a permanent part-time basis after she had been with us for several short periods of work experience during her Business Administration course. Miss Gupta carried out a wide range of general office duties including opening and distributing mail, photocopying, filing, dealing with general telephone and walk-in enquiries and entering data into out computer systems. A conscientious, hard-working and reliable employee, Miss Gupta set herself very high standards in her work. She had a pleasant telephone manner and was always courteous when dealing with her colleagues and external contacts. She was a good timekeeper and had a good attendance record. Miss Gupta has a friendly, outgoing personality, a good sense of humor and she works well as part of a team. I feel sure that Miss Gupta will be an asset of any organization. Helen Bradley (Mrs.) Administration Manager
Think
Discuss the difference between a job description and a job specification
Letter of acceptance
Letter of acceptance as the word says it all, is given to the company accepting the job offer as well as the terms and conditions. It is writing a formal letter to the company accepting the post. Keep it simple. 26 Gandhi Nagar Calcutta 25 June 2000 Ankita Sharma Human Relations Manager Moonlit Holding plc Temple Street Delhi Dear Mrs. Sharma
Telephone Executive (Marketing)

Thank you for your letter of 20 June 2000. I am please to confirm my acceptance of this post as detailed in the job Description and Contract of Employment. I shall look forward to joining the staff of Aurora Holdings plc. Yours sincerely Anita Gupta (Miss)
Letter of Resignation
When you have been in employment and want to leave for whatever reason. It is usual to write a formal letter resigning from your post. 25 June 2000 Mrs. Ruby Bhatia Administration Manager Moonlit Holdings plc Temple Street, Delhi ll Dear Mrs. Bhatia Further to our discussion today I regret to inform you that I wish to give one months notice of my resignation from the company. My last day of work will be Friday 30 July. I have been very happy working here and found my work very varied and enjoyable. I have gained a lot of experience in many areas which I am sure I shall find useful in future employment. Thank you for your help and guidance. Yours sincerely Anita Gupta (Miss)
Writing a Letter of Resignation

Keep Your Letter of Resignation Simple Writing a letter of resignation may be an unpleasant task, but theres really not that much to it. In its simplest form, you just date your letter of resignation, say when and what youre resigning, sign it, hand it over, and thats it. Five minutes, and youre done. Unless you possess the judgment of an attorney and style of a professional writer, dont write much more in your letter of resignation, if you wish to use your soon-to-be ex-employer as a reference. Theres really no need to explain your reasons for resigning anyway. For one thing, its really nobodys business but your own. For another, however honorable your reasons may be, its very hard to strike just the right tone in writing. For example, if you write in your letter of resignation that youve found a more challenging career opportunity, it implies that youre bored with your current job. If you write that youre having family or health problems, you just documented that you might be a risky hire. Your words may haunt you down the road, when a potential employer contacts your former employers as references.
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In other words, try not to leave anything up to the interpretation (or rather, misinterpretation) of the reader when writing your letter of resignation.
applicants should be assessed at the shortlisting, test and interview states. The criteria must:
Be specific Be justifiable in relation to the job needs Not be unnecessarily restrictive (for example, in relation to
Guidance on Writing Job Descriptions & Person Specifications

Job Description 1 A job description should clearly and accurately set out the duties and responsibilities of the job. It should include:
The job title The department The grade Work relationships - to whom the post holder reports and
qualifications required) Criteria are categorized as essential or desirable Essential criteria are those which a successful appointee must possess, otherwise, they will be unable to adequately perform the job; inflation of the job requirements (for example, the amount of previous work experience required) should be avoided.
Desirable criteria are those that may enable the candidate to
for whom the post holder is responsible

Brief summary of job function or main purpose of the job Main duties and responsibilities with indication of % of
perform better or require a short familiarization period. Care should be taken to avoid indirect discrimination in person specifications, for example by setting unjustifiable age limits. (see below).
time spent
Occasional duties with indication of % of time spent Any special working conditions (e.g. shift or weekend
Elements of the Person Specification

Knowledge can be derived in a number of ways, for example education, training, or experience Skills are practical abilities gained through study or practice Aptitude is the ability to attain knowledge or to develop a skill
working, call out arrangements, periods when leave cannot be taken, etc.)
Purpose and frequency of contact with others Signed agreement by postholder and date
Qualifications/Training
There are a wide variety of educational, vocational and
2. Items which should be considered for inclusion in job descriptions are:

Actively follow UCL policies including Equal Opportunities Attend staff meetings and training as required Maintain an awareness and observation of Fire and Health &
Safety Regulations
Carry out any other duties as are within the scope, spirit and
purpose of the job, the title of the post and its grading as requested by the line manager or Head of Department/ Division Note: This job description reflects the present requirements of the post. As duties and responsibilities change and develop the job description will be reviewed and be subject to amendment in consultation with the postholder. 3 The language used in job descriptions should:
Avoid jargon and unexplained acronyms and abbreviations Be matched to the type of job and be readily understood by
professional qualifications (together with their foreign equivalents); for some jobs a particular qualification may be essential, while for others no single qualification may be most appropriate and experience may be of just as much importance as a formal qualification. Where qualifications are deemed essential these should reflect the minimum basic educational requirements necessary to carry out the job to an acceptable standard. Candidates will increasingly come forward with National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs). The qualifications recognize the achievement of employment-led standards of competence. Where possible, requirements for specific employment competence should be expressed in terms of possession of the relevant NVQ at the required level.
Previous Experience
The type of experience applicants are required to have should
the employees concerned

Avoid ambiguity about responsibility and be clear about the
be specified; however, stipulating length of experience required should be used cautiously because quality of experience is more important than length of experience.
Note that experience can sometimes be transferable from one
post-holders accountability for results and resources
Drawing Up The Person Specification

The following notes give guidance on drawing up a person specification. The associated selection criteria pro forma may be used for the purpose of developing the person specification and recording how applicants measure up against the specification. The Person Specification should be derived from and therefore drawn up after the job description and before advertisement. The criteria set out in it are the only criteria against which
area of work to another, in which case skills may be more important than a narrow definition of experience.
Other Requirements
It may be necessary to specify availability to attend evening
meetings or possession of a driving license, but you should distinguish between need and convenience and weigh up need against discriminatory effect.
Remember the possibility of adaptations or aids to enable a
disabled person to fulfill a requirement.

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You Won the Race! You have the JOB of your dreams! Now its time to write the JOB ACCEPTANCE LETTER!
Purpose n What to Include n Specifics Specifics n Format Format n Tone
n
What to Include:
n n
Appreciation for the Offer Statement of Acceptance Acceptance Brief Reaffirmation of Employment Conditions Any Instructions Based on Employment or Based on Employment or Notices
n n
n n
n n
The Purpose
Accepts a job offer n Briefly reaffirms the offer to complete the legal contract between you and the firm you and the firm n May request clarification
n

What to Include:
1. Appreciation for the Offer

Placement: First Paragraph Be appreciative and sincere Reaffirm Offer: Clearly restate the job offer you received. received. For Example: Thank you for offering me a Sales Associate offering me a Sales Associate Position at Denmark Inc.
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What to Include:
2. Statement of Acceptance
n n
Can I still negotiate job conditions in my acceptance letter?

n n
Placement: Follows the Appreciation for the Offer in the First Paragraph Clearly state that you accept the position that was offered to you
n n n n
n n
n n
Any issues or job details that may be negotiable, should negotiable, not be addressed for the first time in a job acceptance letter. letter. When accepting a position, the applicant should have a complete understanding of the position and related details. understanding It is not appropriate to address serious issues or concerns serious issues or concerns after accepting a position. The applicant should discuss any questions or concerns he/she may have with the employer before accepting a job employer before accepting a job offer.
What to Include:
What to Include:
3. Reaffirmation of Employment Conditions

n n
4. Instructions Based on Employment or Notices

n n n n
n n n n
Placement: Within the body of the letter, in the paragraphs following in the paragraphs following the first paragraph paragraph Restate the conditions of your employment: These should of your employment: be pre -determined and accepted by both parties. preboth parties. This is not the time to include critical items or concerns include critical concerns you have. It is recommended to address any questions or is recommended address questions issues you may have, prior to accepting a position.
Placement: Place after the Reaffirmation of Reaffirmation Employment Conditions and before closing before closing Possible information to request: u Starting date of employment employment u Where to go? u Who to contact?
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A Winners Attitude: Tone

n
Tone: Writing with Confidence

An employer will welcome a confident attitude and a selfselfassured personality. n However, an over-confident attitude may affect the way a n However, over - confident attitude message is perceived. It may sound arrogant or presumptuous. For Example: Example: NOT: I am a valuable addition to your team and will meet am a valuable addition and surpass your expectations. INSTEAD: I look forward to joining your team and striving striving to meet and surpass the job expectations.
n n
The tone is the writers attitude toward the reader and attitude toward the subject of the message. subject The tone that the writer uses The tone that writer uses will affect the way the message of the letter is message of the letter is conveyed and how effectively the reader will understand and act upon this message.
What kind of tone should I use?

confidently Write confidently---but not too confidently n Be courteous and sincere n Use nondiscriminatory language language n Stress the You Attitude Attitude n Utilize an appropriate level of difficulty
n
Tone: Courteous & Sincerity

n n
When writing a job acceptance letter an applicant must show their appreciation for the offer in a way that is sincere
For Example: Example: NOT You are truly wonderful for offering me such a prestigious position. INSTEAD Thank you for offering me a Sales Representative INSTEAD Thank position.
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Tone: Use Nondiscriminatory Language

The applicant should never use language or convey a message that discriminates against any group or individual. n It is unprofessional to exhibit prejudicial behavior or to stereotype individuals.
n
Tone: Utilize an appropriate level of difficulty

n
The text and message in the letter should match the readability and knowledge level of the reader
For Example: For Example: An acceptance letter for an internship position in Aviation Administration: An acceptance Administration: NOT I look forward to learning about airplanes. NOT airplanes. INSTEAD I look forward to learning about the manufacturing of a ircraft INSTEAD and engines and working with marketing divisions of various marketing divisions of various airlines.
Tone: Stress the You Attitude

n
A Winners Gameplan: Format

n n n n
Emphasize the employer and company interests rather than the interests of the writer
For Example: Example: NOT I hope to gain valuable experience as a Sales Representative at Forest Foods International. Foods International. INSTEAD As a Sales Representative, my objective is to a Sales Representative, my objective is to maximize client relations. relations.
Block Form Components u Personal Address u Recipient Address Address u Salutation u Body Body u Closing u Signature u Notations Notations
n n n n
Size 12 12 Fonts Fonts u Times New Roman u Helvetica u Arial u Garamond Garamond
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Resignation Letter
Begin with main idea: confirming your resignation. If appropriate, provide a brief explanation for your decision including resignation date and other details. Maintain goodwill by restating your appreciation for your work experience at the company.
to quit your job, say your piece and leave your bridges intact behind you. If you have any concerns about getting a good reference (your new job may depend on it), maintaining good relations with friends who are also colleagues or keeping your good reputation intact, think about what you commit to paper. Its simple: keep your criticism constructive, dont get too personal and if you must express your criticism of an individual or department use only civil, businesslike language. Compare these two extracts from a pair of letters sent to us in the last few months. The first is from someone who has decided, reluctantly, to leave his job in the telecommunications industry: The very fact that we have let our infrastructure erode to such a level that many systems have become redundant or severely downgraded through lack of investment and or maintenance has always perplexed me. This apparent philosophy will always ensure that we come second best to companies that concentrate on the fabric and foundations of their business first, thus ensuring that they have a solid platform to go forward into the market place. I hope the company is able to find a formula for success and move out of this cycle of melancholy and become the brand leader, which all other companies will use as yardstick within the industry and so I wish you all the success in the future. Fair enough - this employee has given his companys predicament a lot of thought and seems to be leaving out of sheer frustration. He can see how the company should be doing better. If things improve, he might even be persuaded to return. Conversely, can you detect a hint, the merest hint of bitterness in the following extract? It was bad enough that our 28 year old director has an ego the size of the corporate debt, but it was completely impossible to sit through any more of his lectures on sacrificing for the company as he sat there drawing in over 65k a year doing nothing but giving wise lectures to more experiences people. Note to self - its who you know, not WHAT you know. This second extract doesnt reflect well on the writer - its personal, anecdotal, smacks of jealousy, bad blood and illtemper. The manager in question is probably glad to see this employee go. It would have been possible to raise the same concerns with more diplomacy and tact. Yes, the inexperience of the director and inequity of the pay structure would be fair game, but bringing up his age is probably unnecessary. The message is lost amid the bile. That last extract is relatively mild in its personal attack compared to others we have received. Sometimes an employee goes nuclear and disses everyone they have ever worked with one by one: Sally, though not a particularly pleasant human being was a good manager, but then I supposed she had to take up the slack for that total dickhead Larry (did you know hes been falsifying records?) And how those arseholes in human resources can sleep at night Ill never know... This is the sort of thing we get sent all the time. We only hope that theyre beefed up versions of the letter they actually sent. Its becoming more common to hand in ones notice by email (we recently heard from someone who had been sacked by
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Chapter 9 Slide 21
Effective Communication for Colleges, 10 th ed., by Brantley & Miller, 2005
Your Resignation Letter: How To Have The Last Word

By T.J. Snaith In most cases, we recommend that you keep your letter of resignation concise, formal and polite. Your name, date, the person it is addressed to, a notice of termination of employment, when this is effective from and finally, your signature will suffice. The resignation letter is a formality first and last - you can expect your boss to read it quickly, acknowledge it and then file it away with all the other quitters. However, there may be an occasion when you really, really want to tell your boss something else. People leave jobs for a many different reasons: they decide to continue their career elsewhere, they need more money, theyre bored of their work, personalities have clashed too often, and so on. Your own reason for leaving can usually be expressed in a few sentences, if at all. What were going to deal with here is how to handle the urge to get something off your chest. How should your boss be made aware of a problem that he or she would otherwise fail to notice or refuse to face up to? Weve seen hundreds of letters that set out with this intention but which get bogged down in unpleasantries. Its unfortunate that in these cases the final correspondence with an employer is used as an opportunity to issue personal abuse, whinge and score points - a letter of revenge rather than resignation. We never, ever advocate resorting to this in your own letter. It can only do you harm. We also receive letters where the advice if youve nothing good to say, keep quiet is abandoned with some style. It is possible
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means of text message). This is doubly dangerous because there is a misperception that email is more disposable and therefore less meaningful than a paper letter. On the contrary, emails are simply easier to retrieve at any moment and easier to duplicate. Insults and accusations hammered out on a keyboard and then sent without due care and attention could bring your career and reputation crashing down - you might even make the evening news! We published a letter of this type and received a terse missive from the companys lawyers within three days. Other firms were begging us to send them a copy, but of course we had to refuse. There is a time and place for serious accusations - and its not in a resignation letter. Another writer thinks about what her letter says and, after making a number of recommendations about how the business is run, concludes: If this rings any bells with anyone in upper management, maybe some good will come of it. Bell-ringing and whistle-blowing is an admirable purpose for your parting shots but think through what you plan to say and cover your back. So here are our four points for resignation letter writing: 1. If you have worked up yourself into a lather about quitting, the chances are that you wont be thinking as clearly as you would normally. Youll want to say things that, in the cold light of the future, wont sound as reasonable as they do today. Theyll make you cringe when you look back at them, and youll probably make some spelling errors. 2. Dont get personal. If you do, prepare for the possible consequences which could mean a bad reference, uncomfortable notice period or punch-ups. 3. Try to adhere to the I-resign.com maxim of remaining Magnanimous and Dignified throughout. 4. Finally, if you do have some constructive criticism that youd like to share with your boss before you leave, maybe the best place to do this would be in the Exit Interview rather than your resignation letter. Remember that by writing something down, youre giving it a permanence, which may come back some day to haunt you.
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Learning Outcomes
Hone your skills on preparing curriculum vitae, job application letter, job offer letter and resignation letter.
Resume Goals:
To convince an employer to interview you in under 30 seconds. To summarize your skills, abilities, and interests in a clear/concise manner. To write a resume that is targeted to a certain field or position. To target the skills/experience listed in the position that is being advertised.
Students , business communication is a subject which demands a lot of practice classes. Just learning about CVs , job application letters , offer letters in theory will not help you in anyway until and unless you put it into practice. Lets us do 3 small exercises in this lesson. In an advertisement dated 14th May 2004 in Times of India, Success Industries has advertised for the post of a management trainee in the area of HR, Write a letter applying for the job. Exercise 1: Prepare you curriculum vitae and a job application letter Exercise 2: Write a fifteen-word career objective for a job in this company if the vacancy had been in the area of: a. Marketing b. Finance. c. Operations Exercise 3: Prepare a job offer letter the company will provide you if selected.
The 3 Rs: Research, Research, Research

v v
Research Yourself: Assess your skills, abilities, interests. Research the Position: Find out what the employer is looking for so you can tailor your resume to show them you can meet their needs. Research the Organization: Use the Internet or literature in the FSU Career Center library.
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Headings
w Most Common Headings
-
Personal Data
Necessary Info: Name, Address, Zip, Phone, E-mail
Bob A. Cat Email: bcat0@frostburg,edu Current: 100 Braddock Road Frostburg, Maryland 21532 (301) 687 -7000 Permanent: 100 Constitution Ave Washington, DC 2000 (555) 776 -7890
Objective Education Experience Skills Summary
w Additional Headings

Relevant Coursework, Research, Academic Honors & Awards, Computer/Technical Skills, Languages Internships, Volunteer Experience, Travel... Organizational Memberships & Activities, Significant Presentations... Experience Highlights, Professional Background, Publications
Also include your personal web-site address if available.
Resume Styles
w Chronological
-Experiences are in reverse, chronological order -Good choice if you have solid work history * Format most widely accepted by employers*
Career Objectives: Be Specific!!!

v
w Functional
-Concentrates on functional skill areas related to your job objective -Usually focuses on three skill areas or more -Work history section may only contain job titles
w Combination (Chronological/Functional)
-Has skills, relevant experience , and/or other work experience sections * Most appropriate for recent grads*
A brief description of the position you wish to be considered for - emphasize how you can help the company. v May be stated by the job title, by level or type of responsibility, in terms of skills you wish to develop, or a combination of all three. v Avoid being overly restrictive or vague! v Examples of Career Objectives
Detail-oriented Business Administration/Finance grad with excellent team and interpersonal skills seeking analyst position in public or private sector. Dynamic public speaker/presenter with advanced technical knowledge seeking to leverage these strengths as an award-winning computer instructor into an entry level software position where I can increase sales.
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Education & Coursework Examples

EDUCATION Bachelor of Science, Wildlife & Fisheries Minor, Forestry Frostburg State University Frostburg, MD RELEVANT COURSE WORK: Environmental Planning May 2003 GPA: 3.5
ExperienceIt All Counts!!!

v Experience can include: - Jobs, fieldwork, internships, clinical work, student teaching, volunteering, research or class projects. - It can be paid or unpaid v On your Resume include: - Job/Experience Title, Company, City, State, No Zip, Dates v Emphasize Skills/Accomplishments in action
Ecology
Animal Physiology
Forest Science Dendrology Herpetology Genetics Plant Diseases Hydrology _____________________________________OR _______________________________________ EDUCATION Bachelor of Science Degree in Psychology May 2003 Frostburg State University, Frostburg, MD GPA: 3.5
v v
Research: Female Eating Disorders and the Media, Attention Deficit Disorder in Elementary School Students Relevant Course Work: Research Methods I&II, Introduction to Counseling, Child and Adolescent Disorders, behavioral Approaches to Human Problems, Social Psychology, Drugs and Human Behavior, Health Psychology, Human Cognition
verbs
Skills/StrengthsHighlights
v Titles can be: Skills Summary, Highlight of Qualifications, v
Sample Experiences
Relevant Experience:
Computer Science Tutor Student Support Services, Frostburg State University w Organized and scheduled tutor sessions for 50 students
w
Strengths, Abilities. Skill sections that can be used: organizational, interpersonal, managerial, communication, leadership, creative, and computer.
September 2001 - May 2003
Examples:
Computer Skills:
-
Designed practice exercises to help tutees problem solve January 2001- May 2001
Systems: DOS, Windows, NT Software: Microsoft Suite, Netscape Database Management: Access, Excel, FoxPro.
Teaching Internship Meyersdale High School, Meyersdale, PA w Maintained daily attendance and evaluation records
w w
Skills Summary:
-Able to utilize communicative abilities to coordinate efforts in a team environment. - Efficient in organizing and creating group activities to promote cohesiveness and productivity. - Act as leader to communicate delegation of group tasks in order to accomplish goals established by company.
Observed daily classroom activities for grades 8 and 9 Monitored study halls June 1999 - August 2002
Summer Volunteer Deep Creek State Park, Oakland, MD w Conducted nature tours for groups of over 50 campers
w
Implemented concept of Leave No Trace to park guests and employees to promote park maintenance
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-
The Reference Page

References for Bob A. Cat
Name of Reference Job Title Name of Organization Address Work Phone Number E-mail Address
Electronic Resumes
w Employers now search a database, using
keywords. (i.e. an employer will type in business major into the database and look at hits )
w Resister with www.collegecentral.com/frostburg
and view your resume.

w Guidelines if it will be scanned or uploaded from
* 3-5 references is an appropriate amount. Remember to ask people whom you know will provide a good reflection of you and in a timely manner. Remember to provide copies of your resume and send thank you notes!
disk:
-
Choose keywords and place in order of importance Choose basic fonts Avoid italics, graphics, underlines, bolds Light colored paper is best
Resume Checklist
v Length: (Depends on Industry)
One page for recent graduates Two for experienced candidates
v Layout/Appearance: (Professional)
Neat, concise, easy to read, Balance of text and white space Use of bolds, underlines, different fonts (standard) Absolutely NO spelling/grammar errors
v Content: (Dynamic, Persuasive)
Action-oriented verbs, emphasize skills Grammar, present/past tense Lead w/ strengths/accomplishments
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LESSON 21: INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
UNIT 2 CHAPTER 6: INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Explain the purpose of memos, circulars and notes Understand the structure of memos, circulars and notes. Tips on preparation of memos, circulars and notes.
Students , today we will learn about the importance of memorandums, circulars and preparing notes. Along with this now a days organizations are more comfortable using emails as the primary tool of communication (refer to lesson 4 ). Lets start by memos:
Why Memos?
Affectionately called a memo this is a written communication from one person to another (or a group of people) within the same organization. Memos serve a variety of purposes:
To inform of decisions To request decisions, actions, etc To provide information of any kind To remind someone of action required.
Major issues that must be addressed or solved: Many times significant issues will be implicit rather than explicit and are linked to larger policy and management issues. Part of your task is to point out the significance of the larger issues. Identify relevant alternative courses of action: There are always at least two options (taking no action is always an alternative). Limit the number of options but be sure to cover the full range of choices; Evaluate the alternatives: Be sure to critique the relative strengths and weaknesses of the options and make a balanced presentation to the decision maker (remember that he/she may prefer an alternative course of action); and, Recommend a specific course of action: Be sure to clearly state the recommended course of actions and the consequences you expect to flow from the selected course of action.
Preparing a Memo Memos standard form of communication in many public and are a nonprofit organizations. Memos are often used to help decision makers: understand the critical issues requiring their attention recognize what are available what a staff recommendation is and 4) what the basis or support for your recommendation is. It helps if you follow a fairly fixed pattern when preparing memos. For example, it is often useful to summarize the main issues and recommended course of action in the first paragraph rather than making the reader wait until the end of the memo (it isn't a mystery novel). A useful structure (subject, of course, to variation and adaptation when appropriate) for these memo assignments:
State the issue/problem as clearly as possible: Trying to state the issue or problem as a one-sentence statement is a useful habit to get into. When necessary, this can be followed by a brief explanation or clarification (no more than a paragraph or two). If more than one issue is presented, use bullets to summarize and then explain in more detail in subsequent paragraphs. If extensive background is required, you would use an attachment;
Remember that the point of analyzing cases is to draw out the pertinent issues, some of which will be implicit rather than explicit, and link them to broader management and/or policy issues. It does not mean that you simply rehash the facts of the case or summarize what has occurred. That will get you a poor grade on these assignments. Instead, you are asked to analyze a situation and present your recommendation for a specific course of action. You should then use the facts and examples from the case or other readings to support your analysis and conclusions. It is also important that you are specific when analyzing issues and presenting your recommendations such that they are communicated effectively.
Structure
The four point plan for structuring all business documents should also be applied to memos. Subject heading Give a brief indication of the topic, for eg: Confirmation of meeting Departmental meeting, 20 June Letter of complaint Kodak Camera model X345 Main body of memo Introduction Background information - Incorrect - Correct - Incorrect - Correct
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+ briefly give the reason for writing + refer to previous communication + who? What? Where? When? Details Facts and Figures + logical sequence + separate into paragraphs - each one dealing with a separate aspects of the main theme Response An action statement: + action you want the reader to take + action you will take + deadline ? Close A relevant one liner.
Tone
As you most likely know your recipients fairly well, memos are usually written in an information style. You should aim to put over your message as concisely as possible while still being courteous , clear, concise and correct. The major consideration in composing memos should be the status of the sender and recipient in the organization, and of course the topic of the memo. Try to adopt a tone which reflects these factors.
Tips
Avoid being abrupt or impolite (add Please..) Avoid over- politeness (do not say I should be very grateful
.)
Avoid unnecessary expressions (do not say Thank you or
Warm Regards)
Use these standard headings and align all the details neatly Dont forgot reference and date Leave 3/4 line spaces before the heading (but dont put Re!)
MEMORANDUM
To From Ref Date
Tripta Kaur, Administration Assistant Maggie Ong. Executive Secretary MO/ST 12 July 2000
IN-HOUSE METHODS OF DISPLAY Congratulations on recently joining the staff in the Chief Executives office. Here are some general guidelines on the format of correspondence preferred in this office: 1 LAYOUT OF DOCUMENTS All documents should be displayed in the fully blocked style with open punctuation. Some specimen documents are attached which will guided you in these requirements. 2 SIGNATURE BLOCK (LETTERS) On outgoing letters the Chief Executive prefers his name and title in lower case with initial capitals, ie Peter Nunn Chief Executive On some personal letters, no salutation or complimentary close will be required, but Mr Nunn will usually give instructions about this. NUMBERED ITEMS 3 No complimentary close is necessary Leave a space here for the sender to sign or initial the memo Dont forget Encs Encs When items need to be numbered they should be typed alone with no full stop or bracket. Subsequent enumeration should be decimal, eg 3.1, 3.2, etc. I hope that these guidelines will be useful but if you have any questions please speak to me.
Separate the body into paragraphs, using numbered points and sub-headings if relevant
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Circulars
A circular letter is one which is sent out to many people at the same time. The letter may be prepared once only and then duplicated . With modern technology , however , it is more likely that each letter could be personalized to look like an original . Circular letters may be sent for many reasons:
Introduce a new product /service Open a new branch Change of address Seasonal discounts
Increase in price, etc
The tone of the circular is always in the form of a request instead of a command. It needs to have a heading, date, and circular no and signed by the authorized person. When writing a circular letter remember these important guidelines:
Keep it brief, otherwise it may not be read Ensure the letter is informative and direct Use individual terms, e.g. you and not you
MM/et Reference and date (month and year only) November 2000 Dear Student I thought you might like to keep this example showing the correct layout of a circular letter. A circular may be sent to all customers of a company announcing something new, eg 1. a move of premises 2. introduction of new goods/services 3. a forthcoming sale or special event Internally a senior executive may send out a circular letter to all employees. This is sometimes called an Open Letter. Use individual expressions in the body, i.e. you NOT all of you or you all Although a circular letter will be sent to many people, the term you is used in the body of the letter. Never use the wording all of you or all customers. Remember that only one person will read each letter so it must be worded in a personal style. Not that as many copies are required it may take a while to print out all the letters, so only the month and year are shown in the date. I hope this example is useful to you. Yours sincerely may be used Yours sincerely Manish Malhotra Training Consultant
Use singular expressions here (not students)
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Circular with Tearoff Slip

Line of hyphens and scissors symbol separate main text from tear-off portion Include date for return and name/address details
" -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Please return by 28 November 2000 to Mr Preeti Arora Sales Manager Arora Holdings (Asia) Pte Ltd Peak Towers 210 Peak Road Banglore
OPENING OF NEW SHOWROOM WEDNESDAY 18 DECEMBER 2000 Heading will probably be the same as the main document Keep it simple and precise I shall/shall not* be able to attend the Cocktail Evening to mark the opening of your new showroom at 1930 on Wednesday 18 December. Signature . Date Name (in capitals) Use double spacing for the section to be completed Use this footnote when appropriate Company .. Telephone Fax . * Please delete where appropriate
Notes Writing Notes

Sandeep applied to a housing finance company for a house loan of Rs. 5,00,000. He deposited the relevant application form, his income-tax returns for last three year, proof of his residence, and estimated cost of the house, which he was going to buy. Sudhakar, the loan officer reviewed all these papers. He found that as per the Sandeeps income scale he is entitled to the maximum of Rs. 4 lac loan. He noted on the file that intimate Sandeep that he is entitled to Rs. 4 lac loan only, and marked this note in the name of his junior for action. This note was an order of Sudhakar for his junior. He intimated the same to Sandeep. Sandeep met Sudhakar and convinced him that his salary is going to increase in one month time, which would make him entitled to Rs. 5 lac loan. Sudhakar agreed in principle but he had no power to sanction this amount. Sudhakar prepared a note detailing all the relevant matter about Sandeeps case, and recommended Rs. 5 Lac loan in the note. He put up this note in the Board meeting. The Board approved the note. This approval note became part of the file papers. Now Sudhakar again wrote a note, Rs. 5 lac loan may be sanctioned as
per Boards approval via note.. And marked the file to legal department for completing other legal formalities. Office notes are written remarks recorded on a paper under consideration to facilitate its disposal In fact noting is the way by which the concerned officer gives his suggestion or decision on the given problem/project. This is widely used in public sector enterprises. A note may consist of precis of all relevant papers (like Sudhakars note put up before the Board contain summary of Sandeeps case), a statement or analysis of the question regarding the given case, suggestion, or order (like Sudhakar ordered his assistant to send an intimation of the relevant decision to Sandeep).
Characteristics of a Good Note

1. A note should be concise and to the point. 2. It should be deterministic, conveying decision of the note maker clearly. 3. It is to be assumed that the officer to whom the case is submitted will read the paper under consideration and the previous notes, if any. The reproduction of verbatim (copy)
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of extracts from the attached papers is not required. Just give references. 4. It Should be written in a courteous language free from personal remarks. 5. If any information to be included in the note a very lengthy, it should be incorporated in a separate statement, and can be referred to as appendix to the note. 6. The note must be signed by its maker with his name and designation below it. It must be clearly marked to another person or department for further action.
Review your notes and other background material Review your reading assignment
Reading should be done BEFORE class
Think through what has happened in the class to date Generate enthusiasm and interest
Increased knowledge results in increased interest A clear sense of purpose on your part will make the course content more relevant Acting as if you are interested can help Dont let the personality or mannerisms of a speaker put you off
What, not how, is important
Effective Note Taking

Note Taking is a Skill
This takes understanding of what youre doing It takes practice, which involves effort
Be ready to understand and remember Anticipate what is to come, and evaluate how well you were
Note Taking is Difficult Because

Spoken language is more diffuse than written Speakers organisation is not immediately apparent Immediate feedback seldom occurs Spoken language is quick, and does not exist for long
able to do this We learn from failure
Decide How Much You are Going to Do

Are notes necessary?
Dont be lulled into a sense of security by an effective presentation
This makes analysis difficult
Hearing a thing once is not enough. Memory requires Review
Four Purposes For Note Taking

Provides a written record for review Forces the listener to pay attention Requires organisation, which involves active effort on the
and Understanding
While Taking Notes

Dont try for a verbatim transcript
Get all of the main ideas Record some details, illustrations, implications, etc. But remember that the speaker may serve as a model But dont allow preconceived notions to distort what you are hearing Underscore or star major points
part of the listener

Listener must condense and rephrase, which aids
understanding
Paraphrase Integrate with other knowledge you already have
Physical Factors
Seating
Near the front and centre

Vision is better Hearing is better
Use form to indicate relative importance of items Leave plenty of white space for later additions Note speakers organisation of material
Avoid distractions
Doorways, window glare, etc. Peers
Organisation aids memory
Materials
Two pens
Ink easier to read You have a reserve
Organisation indicates gaps when they occur Be accurate Listen carefully to what is being said Pay attention to qualifying words like sometimes, usually, rarely, etc. Notice signals that a change of direction is coming but, however, on the other hand Ask questions and discuss if its permitted If not, jot questions in your notes Seek out meanings. Look for implications beyond what is being said
Wide-lined, easy-eye paper Conference/Meeting date, and topic clearly labelled

May use dividers
Plenty of blank paper in back
Be an aggressive, not a passive, listener
Before Taking Notes

Prepare yourself mentally
Be sure of your purpose and the speakers purpose

They may not be the same
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Develop a suitable system of mechanics

Jot down words or phrases, not entire sentences Develop some system of shorthand and be consistent
Be selective. Some things are more important than others. Be alert for speaker emphasis through
Tone or gesture Repetition Use of cue words such as remember, most important, etc. Illustration on board Reference to text Note especially new words and ideas
in its use (e.g. Hr s sntnc wth vwls lft t - Here is a sentence with vowels left out!)
Leave out small service words Use contractions and abbreviations Use symbols +, =, &, @
Try to get the hang of listening and writing at the same time. It can be done.
You may practice listening to the news on TV and
Note especially those ideas which conflict with your own
taking notes
picture of the world

After Taking Notes

Review and reword them as soon as possible
Odd ideas are difficult to understand initially and require extra effort You remember things which support your existing concepts, and forget those things which disagree
You should consider this in scheduling your work load

Dont just recopy or type without thought Reminiscing may provide forgotten material later Rewrite incomplete or skimpy parts in greater detail Fill in gaps as you remember points heard but not
Question
Nothing will generate interest so much as an appropriate
question
Unusual or different ideas will be difficult to understand
recorded
Arrange with another colleague to compare notes or
debrief if appropriate
Find answers to any questions remaining unanswered Write a brief summary of the event
initially and will require extra effort since you have a tendency to remember what you accept and forget what you disagree with.
Review
Glance back over material from time to time to see if a
We forget 50% of what we hear immediately; two months later, another 25% is gone. Relearning is rapid if regular review is used Compare the information in your notes with your own experience Dont swallow everything uncritically Dont reject what seems strange or incorrect. Check it out. Be willing to hold some seeming inconsistencies in your mind over a period of time Make meaningful associations
pattern is emerging, if consistency is being maintained, etc. If possible, clarify points during or after the meeting/talk

Give the speaker a reasonable chance to make the point clear Avoid sidetracking the speaker. You are the loser when this occurs
Some Specimen Notes

Consider the, case of Sandeep taken up by Sudhakar. The note put up by him before the Board is as follows:
Note
Mr. Sandeep Aggarwal has applied for a house loan of Rs. 5,00,000. His present salary is Rs. 4 lac per annum. As per our rules, the maximum loan we can give to a person for housing is equal to his annual salary. Thus he is eligible for a maximum loan amount of Rs. 4 lac as on today. All other credentials of Mr. Sandeep Aggarwal has been checked, and they are found in accordance with our rules. Mr. Sandeep Aggarwal met me and showed me his salary increment order. From one month hence that order would be effective, and his annual salary would become Rs. 5.25 lac. A copy of his increment letter is attached as annexure I. In my opinion, we can give him Rs. 5 lac house loan, because the main reason of the said clause is to ensure the repayment capacity of the loanee. Since we have a confirmed proof of increase in his annual income within one month, and it will take us one months time to process the loan papers, we may consider the case for sanction.
Sharpen your note taking technique by looking at your
colleagues notes. How are they better than your own? How are your notes superior? Practice those skills you wish to develop
TLQR Note Taking Technique Tune-in

Listening takes energy Listening effectively requires you to get intellectually involved. Try to focus your attention and forget about other work
issues or distractions
Look & Listen

Look at the speaker
Mannerisms will give extra clues Looking helps focus attention
Listen to the speaker
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Sd/-Sudhakar Sinha Finance officer 16-08-2002 Chairman, Board
bkgd background mvmt movement prblm problem

Form the plural of a symbol or abbreviated word by adding
s. Examples: custs customers fs frequencies /s ratios

Use g to represent ing endings. Examples:
Hints of Creating Your Own Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviation involves using shortened versions of words to represent the complete form of the word. Symbols, such as our alphabet, are abstract representations of some word or idea. Shorthand makes use of both abbreviations and symbols. The gleaning strategy involves representing the main ideas of a book (or meeting) in shorthand version. With gleaning, vowels are omitted, words are shortened, and symbols are used to represent the main ideas of the text. These strategies are useful in note taking because they allow one to write more quickly, once symbols and shorthand systems have been internalised. Directions for using abbreviations, symbols, and shorthand when taking notes are summarised below.
Use standard maths, accounting, and science symbols.
decrg decreasing ckg checking estblg establishing

Spell out, rather than abbreviate short words. Examples:
in but as key
Leave out unimportant verbs. Examples:
is was were
Leave out unnecessary articles. Examples:
Examples: + plus // parallel

Use standard abbreviations and leave out full stops.
a an the
If a term, phrase, or name is initially written out in full
Examples: eg example IT dept Information Technology department UK United Kingdom

Use only the first syllable of a word. Examples:
during the talk or meeting, initials can be substituted whenever the term, phrase, or name is used again. Example: January Advertising Campaign Budget JACB
Use symbols for common connective or transition words.
mar marketing cus customer cli client

Use the entire first syllable and the first letter of the second
Examples: @ at 2 to 4 for & and w/ with w/o without vs against

Create your own set of abbreviations and symbols. You may
syllable. Examples: subj subject budg budget ind individual To distinguish among various forms of the same word, use the first syllable of the word, an apostrophe, and the ending of the word. Examples: techgy technology genion generalisation dely delivery
Use just enough of the beginning of a word to form a
wish to develop separate sets of symbols and abbreviations for different courses or subjects.
Other Symbols and Abbreviations

as a result of / consequences of <> resulting in > and / also + equal to / same as = following ff most importantly * less than < greater than > especially esp
recognisable abbreviation. Examples: assoc associated ach achievement info information

Omit vowels from the middle of words, retaining only
enough consonants to provide a recognisable skeleton of the word. Examples:
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WRITING MEMOS
What is a memo? When Should I write a memo? How should I do it?
HOW DO I WRITE A MEMO? Choose a template: fill in the heading information Organize the sections of your message into these parts: - the main information - supporting information - contact/follow up requests
WHEN SHOULD I WRITE A MEMO? When you need to communicate with someone you work with When you distribute specific information such as : - a new project/ development - a progress report - a recommendation
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because temporal considerations are of primary importance. Translation: Our research people need your answer today. Avoid Smothered Words Van Skiver explains that these are simple root words with fancy endings tacked on to puff them up. Favorites are tion, ance, ent, ment, ize and ility. For example: The continuation of our issuance of incentives is dependent upon the prioritization by employees of company objectives. Loosely translated: If you want to keep getting incentives, meet company goals. If Youre Not Sure, Check If theres an error in the memo, it will probably be in names, dates, or numbers, cautions Booher, and such mistakes may cost you dearly. One of Boohers clients, an oil company, was sued by the families of two employees killed in an on-site accident. A specialist on the scene said that the company was to blame, but when the specialist described the incident on paper, he got the date wrong. This cast doubt on his credibility regarding everything he said he had witnessed, and the upshot was the company settled out of court. Dont Be Trite One hackneyed expression Booher sees regularly is, Were sorry for any inconvenience this may have caused you, which just sends people up the wall, she says. Nothing could be more insincere. Please dont hesitate to call is another phrase that gets no results and turns people off. A more sincere ending is, If you need help, Im available. Give me a call. Visualize the Reader Memos are usually written from the writers point of view, not the readers. Yet the reader usually has to do something when receiving a memo, and, not being a psychic, he is often not sure what it is. Experts suggest you pretend youre having a face-toface discussion or a telephone conversation with the memo recipient. Make the Bottom Line the Top Line Memos often begin with a statement of a problem, proceed to discuss why the problem exists, suggest a course of action, and conclude with something wishy-washy, like I would like to hear from you soon. The action you want the reader to take should be spelled out in the first line (or at least the first paragraph). Dont Give Too Many Whys Its necessary to explain why you want something done, but dont overdo it. One expert cautions that a reader can probably only absorb no more than six or seven reasons at once. If you must cite more whys, put them on a separate sheet of paper, and staple the sheets together. This way, the basic memo message doesnt get lost in a sea of details.
This practice class will give you tips on preparing a memo and will also help you practice you skills in preparing a circular with a tear off slip.
How to Write Memos!

Excerpted from Quick, Take This Memo by Neil Chesanow The Washington Post 9/17/87 I love being a writer, quipped novelist Peter Devries, What I cant stand is the paper work. When it comes to writing memos, most business people would agree. Mounting evidence shows that memos may be small, but they give big headaches to everyone from secretaries to corporate officers. They are hard to write quickly and clearly, are like War and Peace to read, require Miss Marple to figure out, and, if written in the wrong tone of voice, can make the nicest people sound heartless. In the office as well as out, your personality is often judged by how you write. Muddled memos can cost you dearly in career advancement. Communication skills are a top priority for business leadership often more important than financial, marketing and technical know-how. To keep getting raises and promotions, experts like Van Skiver and Booher say you need to literally write your own ticket. Heres how: What is a Memo? What its not is a school essay. A memo is a written document that stays inside the company; if it goes outside, its a letter. A memo is also short. Most experts say two pages should be tops after which a memo starts to turn into a report. If you can boil down even a two-page memo to two paragraphs that take up only a half page and still convey the same facts, you get an A+ in business. Equally important, memos are written to get someone to do or understand somethingbe it to spend money, meet a deadline, constructively criticize, or say yes or no. Get Personal Use words like I, you, and we. Its a lot more human to say, I would like you to do this. To get action, write in the active, not the passive, voice. Be Conversational Write the way you talk. Use contractions, says Holly Church, a business consultant who trains Fortune 500 executives. You probably say Im happy more often than you say I am happy. Dont Show Off Avoid scholarly words, technical jargon, and just plain gibberish like as per your request when you simply mean Heres what you wanted. Or how about this: R & D wants your input
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Keep Paragraphs Short Limit each paragraph to five lines or less. Put each reason in a separate paragraph rather than bunching them up in a forbidding 20-line block of type. Close with a Call to Action Many memos dont close with anything, leaving the reader hanging. If you want a response by Friday at 3 p.m., say so
Exercise
You work for Healthy Life, a magazine which is published monthly . Write a circular letter which may be sent to all subscribers of the magazine informing that their subscription is due to expire . State the last issue they will receive. These readers can renew their subscription for the special annual subscription price for six bi-monthly issues of only Rs 300. If they renew now they will receive an exclusive discount card which entitles them to 10% off selected health farms and supplements available from Healthy Life Healthy Stores; 15% Discount at all Green Cuisine cafs ; 20% off allergy testing at Scanhealth Ltd (further details about this in next months issue) Design a circular, which includes a tear-off potion for readers to send back to you with their subscription. Compose any details which you feel are needed.
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LESSON 23: REPORT WRITING

Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to:
Discuss the role and importance of reports in business environment. Understand the role of report planning. Implement the tips given the lesson while preparing reports.
and time of the problem before reaching any conclusion. This would entail tracing in brief the downward curve of the sales graph. It may be asked: When am I going to write the report? The time factor is very important. Chalking out or revision of strategies should be done prior to the marketing season or entrance of new players in the market. Where would the reader be at the time when he receives the report? Would the reader read the report in a meeting so as to provide information on the causes for decrease in sales or read it within the confines of his room? There would definitely be a difference in the manner of approach. Finally, how would the report be written? What information is to be included and what is to be excluded Which graphs and charts would be used/ avoided? All these queries need to be satisfied before beginning a report. They give the report a particular direction and help the writer to concentrate on the acceptability of the report by the audience to which it is aimed. Let us take a look at a project report to be prepared by a financial institution. In a report such as this, queries of the following nature could be raised: Why - Why should project A be supported? What - What is the justification of a loan for project A? Who - Who would read the report? Would it act as precedence for further similar loans to be sanctioned? Or would it remain just one of the usual reports written within a standard format? Answers to these queries would also bring about a change in the writing style. When - When would the loan be sanctioned? Is the report being written close to the time of sanctioning of the loan, or is it merely an informative one, providing information on the various factors leading to the sanctioning of the loan? Where - Where would the report be read? The degree of formality or provision of details would vary in response to these queries. How-If the sanctioning of the loan is important, persuasive language can be used to get the ideas and message across. All details should be provided and meticulous care should be taken to ensure that nothing unwarranted is included.
Students, reports are an integral part in a written communication. You need to know what are reports, its types and to understand the need of report planning. Lets start by knowing what does the term report mean?
Introduction
A report is a presentation and summation of facts and figures either collated or derived. It is a logical and coherent structuring of information, ideas and concepts. As a neatly structured piece of work, the report, for greater ease in comprehension, is segregated into various sections. Understanding the important of these sections, coupled with logical conjoining of the various parts, results in a well written and presented report.
Five Ws and One H

Prior to commencing work on a report, a few queries should be raised by the report-writer and satisfactorily answered. This enables the writer to produce a highly focused report. The queries centre on the five Ws and the one H. What is the problem? What is it that needs to be ascertained? Clarity along these lines helps in eliminating any redundancies that might crop up. Identification of the genesis of the problem helps in streamlining the approach. The problem could, for instance, be one that has to determine the cause for the decrease in sales. Why is the issue important? What is its relevance and significance to the department in specific, and organization in general? The issue is important because a decrease in sales is a cause for concern to the entire organization. Strategies need to be chalked out for redemption of the situation. Why (purpose) should the problem be analyzed? What are the benefits that will accrue as a result of this particular report-to the department, the organization, and the self? The report would probably lead to a suggestion of various strategies that could be implemented. This, in turn, would, as suggested in the report, lead to increase in sales. Who is involved in the situation? This could take into account both the reader(s) and the writer. In case there is a third party involved, it would also account for that. Who is going to be my reader? With a change in the reader, a change is visible in the manner of approach in the report. The marketing and the production department people would probably be the readers in this particular case. Further, when did the trouble start? In case it is an analytical report, one would also need to address oneself to the source
Report Planning
The planning stage is the most crucial one. Spend as much time as possible in collecting material, synchronizing details, and ensuring that nothing has been left out. If the planning is done in a detailed manner, there are very few chances of missing out errors at the final stage. In fact, planning for a report is as important as the process of writing itself. The various steps involved in report planning are as follows: 1. Define the problem,and the purpose. The problem and purpose had already been identified at the stage when the answers to the question what and why were
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attempted. It is essential at this stage to understand the nature of the report whether it is informational or analytical. In an informational report the writer would stress factors contributing to collation of information at the time of stating the purpose. However, in an analytical report the writer would need to prepare a problem statement, the analysis of which becomes the thrust area of the report. With a variance in the type of the report, there is bound to be a difference in the definition of the problem and purpose. 2. Outline the issues for investigation. In a problem solving or analytical report, all issues pertaining to the problem need to be highlighted in the initial stage. None of the alternatives or variables should be ignored or sidetracked. Once the issues have been clarified, delineation of the points becomes easier. Further, if the report is of an informational nature, all issues to be exemplified need to be outlined. Even the methodology adopted for exemplification has to be understood. There should be a basic pattern that has to be observed and it should clearly emerge in the reading of the report. 3. Prepare a work-plan. What is the best procedure to collect the data? How should the writer proceed? What are the strategies that need to be observed? These are a few of the questions that need to be well answered before taking the final plunge into conducting research on the topic. 4. Conduct research, analyze and interpret. The modus operandi at the time of conducting research should be well examined. This should, however, be taken care of at the stage of preparing a work-plan. The manner in which research is conducted is contingent upon the problem defined in the initial phase of report writing. Once the research has been conducted, begins the process of analysis and the subsequent interpretation, which happen to be the toughest parts in report making. An attempt should be made to bring about accuracy in the analysis and make the interpretation objective and unbiased, as far as possible. 5. Draw conclusions. Subsequent to the stage of interpretation of data, certain conclusions need to be drawn and recommendations or suggestions made. This comprises the last stage of the report and the tone of it is determined by the position held by the report writer. For instance, if it is a report being written by a subordinate, he can only make suggestions. However, if it is one being written by superiors, it would definitely have in the terminal section a rather well developed part comprising recommendations.
1. Introduction 2. Text 3. Terminal section However, there is a major difference in the structuring of these three sections. This stems primarily from the nature of the task attempted in the two different types of reports.
Informational Report
An informational report, as the name suggests, entails provision of all details and facts pertaining to the problem. For instance, it could be a report that attempts to trace the growth of Company X in the automobile industry. In a report of this kind, the presentation of all details that led to the growth of Company X should be listed in a chronological order. The sequential arrangement of issues or topics in an informational report could observe anyone of the following ways of presentation. It could be, as stated earlier, by
Chronology Importance Sequence/procedure Category Alphabetization Familiarity
As the presentation of information is the basic purpose of the report, details are worked out in a systematic and coherent manner. The structural orientation in an informational report should be clearly evident to the reader and its significance also grasped. In a report of this kind, the various sections are simple and selfexplanatory. The introduction is followed by a presentation of information or facts and a summary thereafter where all the details are collated in brief for a recall or recap of earlier sections.
Hints and Tips on Business Report Writing

Questions to ask when designing your report
Who is your audience? What does your audience know? What do you want them to know?
Facts Conclusions (recommendations)
Design Issues
Coherence
Each fact is in its logical place Relationship of each fact to other facts and to overall report
Types of Reports
Basically there are two types of reports: 1. Informational 2. Analytical Broadly speaking, both types of reports contain similar components in terms of, structure or organisation. The three major sections in a report are:
is clear
Organization
Inductive order - moving from known to unknown
Orientation (introduction) Facts (perhaps including their analysis) Summary or conclusion Recommendation
Deductive Order - start with conclusions, then present
Is the document free of typographical errors and
support facts and analysis. Often preferred for short reports.

Chronological Order - combine with one of the above, but
misspellings?
list facts in chronological order

Organization by Division
Organization
Is the document ordered in a logical way? Are the parts of the document logically separated from each
Division by time period (e.g., quarter) Division by place (e.g., sales region) Division by quantity (e.g., sales by categories of amounts) Division by conceptual factors (e.g., worker availability, transportation facilities, etc.)
other (good), or do the same issues appear unnecessarily in multiple parts of the document (bad)?
Do the subparts logically fit under this major part? Does each paragraph and section show unity of purpose? Is the purpose of the document introduced appropriately?
Presentation
More than just making it pretty, good presentation makes
Content Issues
Is the analysis covered sufficiently to allow the reader to
your document more understandable.

It is highly related to the organization of the document.
follow your logic? Are facts and opinions clearly distinguished?
A well-designed document Creates an immediate positive impression for the reader,

Highlights the major topics of the document Helps the reader read effectively (faster and more efficiently).
Style
Is the style of writing appropriate to your audience and
purpose?
Presentation
Has information been presented in a clearly understandable
Elements of Design
Text
Headings
manner, using tables and graphs as appropriate?

Are headings and bullets used appropriately?
For helping the reader find a topic or component Making transitions

establish order can use multiple levels of headings
Report Components
Table of Contents
Show beginning page number where each report heading appears Connect page numbers with leaders (spaced dots)
Fonts
Variations in fonts can be used to set off pieces of text (headings, quotes, etc.) Do not get carried away with use of fonts - too distracting
Indentation and justification
As with headings and subheadings, can be used to show relationship/hierarchy of topics Bullets

Excellent for lists Excellent for emphasis Make sure they use parallel structure (i.e., text in each is worded similarly)
Graphics
Tables - Used to list values of at least two variables - excellent
for comparison
Pie charts - how parts relate to the whole Bar graphs - for comparing values, showing trends Line graphs - for showing trends Illustrations and photographs
Checklist for Business Reports

Grammar and Spelling
Is the writing grammatically correct?
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Report Components
Executive Summary
One of most important parts of report Synopsis (overview) of report Concentrate on what management needs to know Summarizes
Purpose Scope Methodology Findings Conclusions Recommendations
Executive summaries should be the last pieces of reports to be written since they are the most important sections of the reports!
Report Components
Executive Summary
Organized same as report Style and tone same as report Avoid unexplained jargon/abbreviations Do not refer to figures/tables presented later Should not contain exhibits or footnotes Include headings/make skimmable Use transitional words Length should be generally 1/10 of whole report
Report Components
Introduction
Explain problem motivating report Describe its background and significance Clarify scope and limitations of report Describe data sources, methods, key terms Close by previewing reports organization
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Report Components
Body
Discuss, analyze, interpret research findings Arrange findings in logical segments following outline Use clear, descriptive headings/skimmable
Report Components
Appendix
All items must be referred to in the text and listed on the table of contents Items of interest to some, but not all, readers
For example, data questionnaires or computer printouts
Report Components
Recommendations
Make recommendations on suggested action to be taken
Report Components
References
List all references in section called Works Cited or References Include all text, online, and live sources Follow style manual for citing sources
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160
Other Specifics on Report Writing

Single- or double-spaced About 2500 words (not counting appendix) Tables of Contents will help you organize and write reportwrite early! Headings of same level must be consistent
First, second, third levels
Visual Aids
1. Introduce 2. Label/Number/Informative Title 3. Discuss
Headings
Same-level headings must be written consistently! (For example)
Level 1: CENTERED UPPER-CASE Level 2: Centered Upper-case and Lower-case Level 3: Centered, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case Level 4: Flush left, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case Level 5: Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph heading ending with a period.
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LESSON 24: TYPES OF REPORT

However, inductive patterning, while normally followed for organization based studies and experiments, suffers from a major drawback. As it is not based on any universal truth, it holds valid only up to the point there is discovery of an issue that proves contrary to the findings in the report. It is by nature only relevant in the present and no universal claims to the same can be made. . On the other hand, a deductive ordering observes a reverse ordering where it proceeds from the unknown to the known. Universal truths are taken as the formulation point for the problem. The various alternatives are suggested, evaluated and conclusions drawn, keeping in mind the original problem stated. To take a look at the manner of approach in deductive methodology, let us take an example. Conclusion
Analytical Terminal section Introduction Text
Upon completion of this lesson you will

Learn about various types of reports and their structures. Know the difference between an analytical report and an informational
report.
Learn about the usage of visual aids in reports
Students , this is a continuation of lesson 23 wherein we will study about different types of reports and their structure.
Types of Reports and Their Structure

Types Informational _ Structure Introduction Text Terminal section
All men are mortal. Ram is a man and he is mortal Shyam is a man and he is mortal
Syllogism 1 Syllogism 2 Syllogism 3 Sy1logism n
Analytical Report
The analytical report comprises stages in which there is a proper identification of the problem, analysis and subsequent interpretation. Recommendations or suggestions are then incorporated in the report, depending upon what is required by the report writer. Thus, in a problem solving method, the steps observed are as follows 1. 2. 3. 4. Draft Problem Statement Evolve criteria Suggest alternatives and evaluation Draw conclusion(s) and make recommendations The structure of an analytical report could follow any of the two patterns deductive or inductive. An inductive ordering follows a simple, logical arrangement in which you proceed from the known to the unknown. There are two premises or syllogisms that conjoin to yield a final conclusion, e.g. Ram is a man and he is mortal. Shyam is a man and he is mortal. .................................................... ... Therefore, all men are mortal
Syllogism 1 Syllogism 2 Syllogism 3 Syllogism n, Conclusion
While in an inductive method the pattern of the report would normally fo1low the sequence of introduction, text and terminal section, in deductive method the structure could also be of a slightly different pattern. It could start with the terminal section in which conclusions and recommendations are stated at the start fo1lowed by an introduction and the text section. This pattern would be observed if the report is of high importance and the receiver does not have the time to browse through the entire report. Merely a glance at the initial pages would enable the reader to assess the contents. Such readership would only be concerned with the conclusions and recommendations/ suggestions or plan of action.
One could formulate umpteen number of syllogisms to reach a final conclusion, which is always based on the number of experiments conducted, or factors observed. Certain disciplines, in which experiments have to be done and surveys conducted , naturally follow this pattern. Here the progression is always in the nature of working on the known elements to arrive at an unknown conclusion.
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Different Styles of Opening a Report

Inductive Approach The automobile sector in India seems to have made tremendous headway in the last ten years. Company X has produced three models of cars. However, with the entry of new players in the market the company is facing stiff competition. There is also a slump in the market with excessive production and insufficient demand. The current study analyses the growth prospects of Company X vis-vis its competitors. The study focuses attention on the following three questions: 1. Who are the competitors? 2. Will Company X be able to face stiff competition from other companies? 3. What are the prospects of growth? The report attempts to analyze... Deductive Approach The automobile sector in India seems to have made tremendous headway in the last ten years. Company X has produced three models of cars. However, with the entry of new players in the market, Company X is facing stiff competition. There is also a slump in the market with excessive production and insufficient demand. The current study analyses the growth prospects of Company X vis--vis its competitors. It can easily be concluded that: 1. Company X is facing severe competition from Companies Y and Z. 2. Unless and until Company X brings down its price to match that of the competitors, it will not be able to corner a substantial market share. It is recommended that an additional f feature such as power steering be introduced as an extra facility or a reasonable reduction in price be carried out. Further, it is recommended that Company X target students pursuing professional courses with a lowered price and basic strip down model so that it appeals to their taste and fits their pocket. The conclusions arrived at and recommendations made are based on the following study. Five sample automobile com_anies were taken...
4. A visual, conceptual design of writing Once this is completed begins a three-stage process: 1. All group-related ideas are clubbed together. 2. Points, are organized in the form of sections and subsections. The expected progression is from the general to the specific or abstract to the concrete. 3. Main and sub-headings are created keeping in mind the fact that all follow a similar grammatical pattern.
Nature of Headings
Headings can be of two types: informative and descriptive, depending on the nature of the report which is being written. An informative heading should present information in the direct order and be geared towards a more receptive audience, e.g. in discussing the various alternatives, a heading could be of the following nature. 1. Change the size of tins If the same were to be converted into a descriptive heading, it would take on the following shape: 2. Size of tins A descriptive heading report in an indirect order, and the readers are less receptive in such instances.
Point Formulation
Parallel Ordering of Points Within an outline the headings should be expressed in a parallel form. In case the writer decides to follow the format of using the noun or verb or verb +ing, he should follow it consistently. Correct Ordering 1. Increase promotional efforts. 2. Change the size of tins. 3. Install more capacity. Incorrect Ordering 1. Increase promotional efforts. 2. Changing the size of tins. 3. Installing more capacity. This patterning could be further corrected by using a similar verb +ing form in the fIrst point as has been used in the second and third points.
Developing An Outline
It is extremely important to develop an outline of the report prior to commencing work on the report. The formatting of the report should be carried out only after completion of the outline. Questions revolving round the five Ws and one H should be answered or kept in mind at the time of preparing an outline. Once these questions have been satisfactorily tackled should begin the process of brainstorming. All ideas that come to ones mind should be written on small pieces of cue cards so that it is easier to arrange them, at a later stage, in a sequential order. Brainstorming would give rise to a host of ideas, some of which would form main points and others ancillary points. Now comes the tedious task of assigning an order to the cues. This could be done in such a way that the following points are taken into account. 1. A logical, general description 2. A schematic summary 3. An organizational pattern
Correction
1. Increasing promotional efforts. 2. Changing the size of tins. 3. Installing more capacity.
Organize Group Related Ideas Together

Together with putting all the headings in a grammatically similar pattern, there should be a consistent pattern of clubbing them together. In other words, the general or specific connotations should be the same.
Correct Formulation
1. Inventory backup 2. Promotional strategy
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3. Distribution channel
B. Benefit strategy 1. 2. Minimize benefit to self Maximize benefit to other
Incorrect Formulation
1. Piling inventory 2. Promotional aspects 3. Distribution networks The above formulation is incorrect, as it does not place items of the same specificity in the same category. While in the first the writer talks about the piling up of the inventory because of disuse, in the second a number of promotional strategies are hinted which could be in the nature of advertisements, hoardings etc. The third category again presupposes a number of networks through which distribution is done.
DIVISIONS
In order to carry on with divisions the writer needs at least two parts that he can divide. There cannot be a 1 without a 2, an a without a b and so on and so forth. Care should be exercised at the time of dividing the headings into sub-sections as the basis of division should be similar. Correct Division A. Opening section 1. 2. Introduction Greeting
Correction
1. Promotional Aspects

Advertisements
3. Action-related exchange B. Concluding section 1. 2. 3. Summary Justification Contact-termination
Hoardings 2. Distribution Networks. Institutional markets Shelf display
Logical Sequencing of Points

Finally, the arrangement or the connection between the subsections and the main section should follow a logical sequence. The relationship between the main heading and its sub-sections should be the same. The progression should, as far as possible, be from the abstract to the concrete and from the general to the specific.
Incorrect Division A. Opening section 1. Introduction 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. Greeting Main topic and sub-topic repetitions Action-related exchange leading to digressions Summary of main topic and sub-topics Justification Repetitions in leave-taking and well-wishing Contact-termination
Correct Arrangement
A. Tact maxim 1. 2. 1. 2. Minimize cost to other Maximize benefit to other Minimize benefit to self Maximize cost to self
B. Concluding section
B. Generosity maxim
Incorrect Arrangement
A. Tact maxim 1. 2. Minimize cost to other Strategies
The incorrect division on many occasions takes more than one category into account, for example, main-topic and sub-topic repetitions. Similarly for B. In two headings we have a subdivision within a sub-section: Summary of main topics and sub-topics and repetition in leave-taking and well-wishing.
Correction
A. Opening section 1. Introduction 2. Greetings 3. Repetitions a. Main topic b. Sub-topics 4. Digressions a. Action-related exchange b. Anecdote narrations B. Closing section 1. Summary a Main topic b. Sub-topics
3. Usefulness The problem with a formulation of this kind is that the example uses the alphabet A without a B. Further, 1,2 and 3 are not of the same specificity. The first falls in the nature of issuing a directive, the second is a noun and the third is a quality that may be applicable or non-applicable according to the prevailing conditions.
Correction
A. Cost strategy 1. 2. Minimize cost to other Maximize cost to self
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2. Justifications 3. Repetitions a. Leave-taking b. Well-wishing 4. Contact termination
information he would like to incorporate in the form of words and what he would like to use in the form of charts and tables. The raw material or data that the individual possesses has to be given a structured ordering. The steps that enable the writer to proceed at an easy pace are 1. Confirm readers needs and thought pattern. This is the first stage, which should be adhered to before conceptualizing the use of visual aids. The reader may be looking for the entire report either as a visual presentation or a verbal one or maybe a combination of the two. Depending upon the requirement the report with its verbal and visual support can be balanced. 2. Clarify which ideas would be best represented in visual form. It is difficult to present all ideas through graphics. Some ideas would definitely have a greater impact if presented through charts or tables, e.g. comparison between the sales figures of two consecutive years. It is a judicious discretion on the part of the report writer as to which points he would like to present visually. 3. Visualize the presentation of the same points in graphic form. Once the sorting out of the points or ideas is done the next stage happens to be the imaginary conceptualizing of the same points, i.e., which of the charts or table would be most suitable at this juncture, e.g. if one was to take up the comparison between the sales figures of two consecutive years, one could use both the tabular form and the comparative bar diagram. It is now for the report writer to decide what format he would like to incorporate in his report. 4. Establish balance between the verbal and the visual. Too much of visual and too little of verbal or the other way round adds to the monotony of the text. There should be a happy balance between the two so that report-reading procedure is not tedious. While it may seem rather exciting entering the domain of visuals, care should be exercised from the point of view of presentation of the same. A badly presented visual can have a negative impact. Probably the following points, if kept in mind, can improve the quality of presentation. . 1. 2. 3. Thick line implies more power. More mass indicates solidity. Bold color implies emphasis.
Numbering
The report can follow anyone of the numbering systems: the Roman numerals and letters system or the Arabic numerals and the decimal system. Roman Numeral and letters I A B 1. 2. II A B 1. 2. Further subdivisions may be done by capitalization and different typography (as computer setting facility is available today) Arabic Numeral and Decimal 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 It should be kept in mind that as various sub-sections are being exemplified, they keep getting indented. Further, it is essential to note that in the Roman numerals and letters, there is always a period or a full-stop after indication of the letter or numeral, for instance, 1., A. However, the same pattern is not followed in the decimal system. There is no stop or period at the end of the numeral, e.g. 1.0,1.1, 1.1.1, etc. Further subdivisions may be done by different typography using the computer setting facility.
One could make use of these strategies effectively at the time of indicating contrast or showing comparison. There are a number of ways through which graphic presentations can be done 1. Tables 2. Bar Graphs a. b. c. d. Vertical bar graphs Stacked vertical bar graphs Horizontal bar graphs Multiple bar graphs
Visual Aids
Translating words and ideas in a visual form requires a lot of ingenuity on the part of the writer. Visual aids by way of charts and graphs cannot be included at any juncture. There should be a systematic ordering by which the writer decides which part of the
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4. Pie-Charts 5. Line Graphs 6. Pictograms/Pictorial graph 7. Flow Charts and organization charts 8. Drawings, diagrams and maps
Tables
These are the simplest of the visual presentations and require a form in which there are both horizontal rows as well as vertical columns. These tables are mostly numerical but word tables are also used. In a survey concerning TV viewing habits of men, women and children the following results can be presented as follows
Exhibit IV.3 Table: TV Viewing Habits

Category Men Women Children Percentage of viewers 44 70 80 Percentage of nonviewers 56 30 20
The tabular form of presentation, while simple for the report writer, has both advantages and disadvantages. A lot of figures can be depicted. A number of combinations are possible in this tabular form; for example, numeric and nonnumeric data can together be depicted. However, it also has certain disadvantages: While it is part of the visual depiction yet, visually the details are not evident at a glance. Occasionally the writer might, in the process of putting in too much data, make it too detailed and complicated. Finally the visual appeal in these charts is missing.
Exhibit IV.6 Three Dimensional Stacked Vertical Bar Diagram
Bar Graphs
These are the simplest to construct and make for easy comprehension by the reader. They could be of various types: Vertical with singular or multiple bars (Exhibit IV.4), stacked or comparative and horizontal (Exhibit IV.5). If these graphs depict more than one variable, two colors or designs are used so as to highlight the difference between two variables. These graphs are comparative and if more than two variables in terms of the same time frame are used a stacked vertical or horizontal bar chart is used. The greatest advantage of these bar diagrams is that they can also be used with a three-dimensional effect (see Exhibit IV.6). Presentations in this form are advantageous as they have a compelling impact and two or more variables can be stacked without leading to difficulties in grasping the details. The color and schematic designs added to the bars lend visual appeal to these charts. However, there -could be a lack of precision in presentation of details as of bar graphs the variables may become too cluttered and the lettering too small.
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Pie-Chart
This is one of the most popular forms to depict the share of the various categories and their correlation to the whole as a percentage. If there is a need to emphasize a particular segment it is detached from the pie and referred to as the floating wedge. The other segments are demarcated by lines or differing colors in a circular form. The pie chart captures the attention of the reader at a much faster pace than probably any other presentation would. Within one chart itself segments can be highlighted. In addition to the color pattern used the categorization of the segments can be
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within, outside or alongside the chart. However, there could be occasions when the difference is very minor and it might get blurred, for example, a segment depicting 0.5% may become too small to notice. Further, if the patterning of the segments has not been done imaginatively they might merge into one another and may become too small to notice.
Pictograms/Pictorial Graph
These are more in the nature of bar charts with figures or small pictures plotted instead of lines. The pictures are chosen in accordance with, the topic or the -subject matter. This chart is self-explanatory, e.g. if a chart were to be prepared indicating the population boom in the last five years, human figures could be used thus exemplifying the point being made by the report writer. In this example a cluster of the figures or pictures would indicate an excessive number at that period. This chart is not used extensively for business reports.
Exhibit IV.7 Pie-chart with a Floating Wedge

Relative Customer Value of Facilities and Ambience
Exhibit IV.9 Pictorial Graph Showing European Population From 1000 AD to 1990 AD
Line Graph
This graph is usually used to depict time and the variations in time over a period. Time is normally plotted on the x-axis or the horizontal axis and the variable on the y-axis. Both the scales begin at zero and proceed in equal increments. However, occasionally on the y-axis there might be a small break immediately after the zero point. This is normally done when there is a large difference between zero and the first quantity to indicate that some data has no bearing on the current study and has therefore been left out. However, care should be exercised to indicate the points of omission.
= 100 millions of Population The advantage of a chart of this kind is that large numbers can be presented by a single cluster of figures. Much time and effort goes into the designing of this chart so as to make it truly representative of the problem that it seeks to address. However, it is not very useful for business reports as they are more concrete and not based on pictorial depiction of the problem.
Exhibit IV.8 Line Graph
Flow Charts and Organization Charts

Flow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish. They are normally used when we wish to illustrate processes, procedures and relationships. The various elements in the chart can also be depicted either with figures or geometrical designs. Organization charts illustrate the various positions or functions of the organization. Most of the communication channels in an organization are described with the usage of these kinds of charts.
Drawings, Diagrams and Maps

Sales of Nilgiris shopping complex A lot of trends over a specific period can be depicted by the line graph. A little caution should however, be exercised if the lines cross each other at points as this might create confusion in- the mind of the reader. Preferably if there are crisis-crossing lines only three variable should be plotted as more than these might lead to erroneous conclusions. Several variables can be plotted indicating trends over time allowing easy comparisons. However, problems could arise if too many variables are plotted preventing fine distinctions from being evidenced or noticed.
Various drawings and diagrams can be used in business reports, though their usage is definitely limited. Most of these are added to make the report colorful and decorative. However, they should be used sparingly so that the reader does not get swayed and lose track of the import of the message. Maps are rather appropriate at the time when we wish to discuss or present statistical data through geographical indicators or so wish to express location relationships.
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Exhibit IV.10 Flow Chart of Patients in a Hospital
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LESSON 25: ELEMENTS OF REPORT WRITING

On completion of this lesson you will understand the different elements of a report and its role in effective report writing. Students, we have already learnt about reports its types and structure in the previoue lessons. In this lesson we will understand what constitutes a report and and what role does each element play in a report. You must have made atleast two reports during the last two semesters. What were the components in your project report? Reports have a standardized format. The structure will be based on the following model: Not all reports include all elements shown and you should always check exact requirements with your Department or Course Organiser.
Title Page Table of Contents Executive Summary Introduction Body Conclusion Recommendations Bibliography Appendices
The topics covered - giving a broad outline of content and scope and indicating any limitations of the project. 5. Body of the Report This is where information is presented, explanations provided and questions answered. It deals with what, how, where and why? The findings of the report are broken down into discrete sections and sub-sections. Each section and sub-section should have a title/heading, and be numbered.
Include in The Body of the Report

A literature review Method - what you did and why you did it. What you found - quantitative data - outcomes, what was
observed, outcome of questionnaires and results of experiments. Case studies and any qualitative information.
Discussion - what has been deduced from the findings and
how these relate to previous research or other studies. Findings should be discussed in relation to a theoretical framework and opinions presented based on reasoning and critical thinking. All sources should be referenced. 6. Conclusion The conclusion sums up the main points raised in the report and arrives at conclusions, which clearly relate to the objective(s) of the report. This is the place to draw together key points made in the report . However, nothing new should appear here. 7. Recommendations These should provide practical and viable proposal(s)and may offer solutions to problems investigated in the report. (You will not always be asked to include recommendations). Each recommendation should be listed and discussed separately. 8. Bibliography This should detail all: books, articles, journals, websites, and any other sources consulted when writing the report. 9. Appendices These should be placed at the end of the report. They detail relevant information, which is too lengthy or detailed to include in the body of the report. Each appendix should contain different information. These should referred to within the Report (Appendix 1) and so on.
1. Title Page This shows the title or subject of the report, who the report is for, the name of the writer and date of submission. 2. Table of Contents This details all sections and sub-sections of the report with page numbers. 3. Executive Summary or Abstract This summarizes the main points and findings. (This is not always required, particularly if it is a short report). 4. An Introduction This includes the scope and background to the work including:
The aims and objectives and the terms of reference. The
context of the report and its purpose. Sometimes included are details of the organization requesting the report and the question(s) they are hoping will be answered.
The Methodology - how the information presented in the
report will be obtained and what procedures will be used, for example: interviews or postal questionnaires. Sometimes an explanation is included explaining why a particular investigative approach / methodology was chosen.
Preparing a Report is a Skilful Process Involving

Research skills Skills in analysing and evaluating information Writing skills
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1. The starting point is to establish the objective of the report. This will determine: what research is required, what research methods should be used and also how the report might be written and structured. 2. When the topic has been researched material should be collated and information grouped under sub headings. 3. Data needs to be analysed and then the report constructed. Structure, format and layout are of great importance; a considerable body of detailed material has to be carefully presented in a coherent, logical and non-repetitive manner. 4. Intellectual skills have to be applied in interpreting and evaluating findings. Valid conclusions have to be drawn and appropriate recommendations made. The report should look professional and information should be easy to extract. Use plenty of white space with wide margins and generous spacing. When text is too dense and the page is too cluttered it becomes very daunting for the reader. (1.5 line spacing is often recommended but particular specifications may be given).
Conventionally a serif font (e.g.Times) that is clear and
Some Academic Writing Tips

Use straightforward language and take care with grammar
and sentence construction. Avoid using a note-style of writing.

Try not to use pompous language.
For example: use find out rather than endeavour to ascertain - try not to use jargon or clichs
Provide definitions.Include explanations of technical or
unusual terms, unless you can reasonably expect your reader to know them. Use impersonal language.The report should be written in the third person singular. Avoid personal terms such as I or We; the word It should be used instead: For example: I decided to interview the Tourism Planning Officer... should read It was decided to interview the Tourism Planning Officer...
Be precise.
Avoid using terms that lack a precise meaning such as nice, good or excellent. One persons idea of what is meant by good is not necessarily anothers.
Remember that the report needs to be concise and to the
comfortable to read is used for the main text and a sans serif (e.g. Helvetica) for headings. Choose fonts that convey a formal style.
Do not use fonts at less than 12 point. Headings and sub-
headings can be larger, and in bold.

When using diagrams, graphs or tables number these
point. For example: Use Now or Currently instead of phrases like At the time of writing or At this point in time.
Try not to make generalizations
sequentially and place them at the point at which they are first referred to. Sources should be included - this can be in a smaller font 9 or 10.
Use consistent and suitable formatting and numbering. For
For example: Everyone agrees that cold calling does not produce results. While this may be true you can only make such statements if supported with evidence. Instead you should write: According to the Mori Report(2000), cold calling does not produce results.
Use cautious language so that statements cannot easily be
example: 1. Heading a. b. Sub-heading one. Sub- heading two
or A. Heading i. ii. Sub-heading one Sub-heading two
challenged: Cold calling may not produce results.

Use appropriate verb tenses
Bullet points can also be used Headings should be consistent and convey a clear meaning.
They will also be used in the Table of Contents to direct the reader to the information they are seeking. Avoid writing headings in the form of questions - in academic writing you are not expected to directly address the reader.
Ensure that the length of a report adheres to guidelines or
Reports often use the present tense in the Introduction and the past tense when discussing findings. Example: Introduction: This report examines.. Findings: Results showed that..
Be careful when using Acronyms
restrictions imposed.
Proof read and carefully check grammar, punctuation and
The use of acronyms is allowed provided that the first time you write the letters you also write the words out in full. For example: Curriculum Vitae (C.V.)
When using a lead sentence make sure that the points that
spelling The emphasis in report writing is on facts and interpretation of the facts. These should be presented in a logical way using an academic writing style.
follow on link to this Incorrect Example This style of CV creates the opportunity to: Can highlight skills and achievements Identifies personal attributes
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Correct Example
This style of CV creates the opportunity to: Highlight skills and achievements Identify personal attributes
Other Writing Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not address the reader directly or use questions
Does this mean that some strategies are better than others? Be careful not to use redundant phrases For example: various differences Various implies different so both words are not required.
Do not start sentences with linking words
such as: but, and, or yet.

Avoid using abbreviations and contractions
On the other hand, routine reports, such as performance reports, might be required because they are a part of established procedures. The managers receiving the reports will not have commissioned them specifically, but they will be expected to act on anything out of the ordinary that the report tells them. Some reports arise out of a particular event, on which regulations prescribe the writing of a report. For example, a leaving or exit interview report must be written following an employees resignation; any accident in the workplace must be reported. Individual responsibilities often include the requirement to write reports a representative on a committee, or the secretary at a meeting, will have to report to members, or other committees, the procedures and decisions taken.
Planning a Report
Whether you are writing a report in an exam or compiling a report at work, you will need to know how to put information together effectively. Before you can even begin to think about what information you will need and where you will find it, you need to consider the following.
Who is the user? What type of report will be most useful to him/her? What exactly does he/she need to know, and for what
For example: theyre for they are etc and ie should also be avoided.
Avoid making negative statements
For example: Calling firms directly should not be discouraged. This can obscure the meaning. Instead write positive statements. Calling firms directly should be encouraged.
Writing numbers in text
purpose?
How much information is required, how quickly and at what
Short small numbers should be written in full and longer numbers given in figures For example: Three points were made - There are 134 websites on this topic
Try to avoid making sentences overlong and
cost?
Do you need to give judgments, recommendations and so
on (or just information)?

If you know who the user is, what he or she wants and why,
complicated as wordiness and padding can obscure meaning.
Effective Report Writing

By Mustafa Muchhala Article added on December 27, 2002 Most of us have been involved in writing a report at some time, either in our working lives or our personal lives. Be it an audit report, a directors report or simply an insurance claim report, it is very important for any report to effectively communicate information to the report user. So, what constitutes an effective report? A report is a general term that simply means telling or relating. It may present itself in a wide range of formats. If you give someone a verbal account, or write a message in a letter or a memorandum informing, say, your manager of facts, events, actions you have taken, suggestions you wish to make as a result of the investigation and so on, you are reporting. Someone who is instructed to do so by a superior usually writes a report. A manager, who will then expect to make a decision on the basis of what the report tells him, may commission a special one-off report. For example, the board of directors of a company might call for a report on the financial viability of a new product or investment, and they will expect to decide whether or not to undertake the product development or the investment on the basis of the reports findings
and if you are aware of particular constraints imposed on you in terms of report size, time and money, you will have a good framework for going on to plan the structure and content of your report. When you then come to plan a report in detail, you can ask yourself some or all of these questions.
What information do I need to provide? What is relevant to
the users requirements?

Do I need to follow a line of reasoning? If so, what is the
most logical way in which data can be grouped, and sequenced, to make my reasoning clear? Do I need to include my own personal views? If so, at what point: final recommendation or throughout the report?
What can I do to make the report easier to read? Are there suitable section or sub-headings I can use to
indicate effectively each stage of the information/argument?

Is the subject of the report too technical for the users? What
vocabulary should I use to help them understand?

Do I have a clear introduction to ease the readers in to the
subject, and a clear conclusion that will draw everything together for them? You could use the above questions as a checklist for planning your report. If you can then jot down a skeleton of the headings and sub-headings you have decided to use (with notes of any particular points that occur to you as you go along) you will be ready to write. The formal headings of standard
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business reports may be useful to help you to organize your thoughts but may not be necessary, or even advisable, if they simply act as a constraint on what you actually want to say, and how you want to shape it. There are certain stylistic requirements to bear in mind, whether writing formal or informal reports. In a report designed to persuade as well as inform, subjective value judgments and emotions should be kept out of the content a and style as far as possible. Any bias, if recognized, can undermine the credibility of the report and its recommendations.
Emotional or otherwise loaded words should be avoided.
Generally Accepted Principles of Effective Report Writing

The purpose of reports and their subject matter vary widely, but there are certain generally accepted principles of report writing that can be applied to most types of report. Bear in mind that all these principles may not strictly apply to all reports but can be used as necessary. They will help you further develop your report writing skills.
Title
The report should have a title, and the title should be explicit and brief. In other words, it should indicate clearly what the report is about and should be as short as possible.
In more formal reports, impersonal constructions should be used rather than I, we etc., which carry personal and possibly subjective associations. In other words, first person subjects should be replaced with third person. For example, avoid saying I/We found that. Instead the sentence can be framed as It became clear that or Mr. X found that or even Investigation revealed that
Colloquialisms and abbreviated forms should be avoided in
Identification of Report Writer, Report User and Date

Reports should indicate in a clear place, possibly before the title itself, whom they are directed at, who has written them and the date of their preparation.
Confidentiality
If the report is confidential or secret this fact must be printed at the top of the report and possibly on every page.
formal written English. Colloquial (informal) words such as Ive, dont and so on should be replaced by I have and do not. You should not use expressions like blew his top, instead formal phrases should be used, such as showed considerable irritation.
Make the report easy to understand by avoiding technical
Contents Page
If the report is extensive, it should open with a list of contents.
Terms of Reference
The introductory section of the report should explain why the report has been written and the terms of reference. The terms of reference will explain not only the purpose of the report but also any restrictions on its scope. For example, an internal auditing report might state that its terms of reference have been to investigate procedures in the credit control section of the accounts department, with a view to establishing whether the existing internal checks are adequate. Similarly, the terms of reference of a management accounting report might be to investigate the short-term profit prospects for a particular product, with a view to recommending either the closure of the product line or its continued production. These terms of reference would exclude considerations of long-term prospects for the product, and so place a limitation on the scope of the report. When timescale is important, this should be specified in the terms of reference. For example, the board of directors might call for a report so that they can take a decision by a certain cutoff date, e.g., whether to put in a tender for a major contract and if so at what price, in a situation where a customer has invited tenders which must be submitted by a certain date.
language and complex sentence structures for non-technical users. The material will have to be logically organized, especially if it is leading up to a conclusion or recommendation. Relevant themes should be signaled by appropriate headings or highlighted for easy scanning. The layout of the report should display data clearly and attractively. Figures and diagrams should be used with discretion, and it might be helpful to highlight key figures that appear within large tables of numbers.
Various display techniques may be used to make the content
of a report easy to identify and digest. For example, the relative importance of points should be signalled, each point may be referenced, and the body of text should be broken up to be easy on the eye. These aims may be achieved as follows. Headings Spaced out or enlarged CAPITALS may be used for the main title. Important headings, e.g. of sections of the report, may be in CAPITALS. Underlining or Italics may be used for subheadings. References Each section or point in a formal report should have a code for easy identification and reference. You can use different labelling for each type of heading or alternatively a decimal system may be used as shown below.
Sources of Information
If the report draws on other sources for its information, these sources should be acknowledged in the report. Alternatively, if the report is based on primary research, the nature of the factfinding should be explained, perhaps in an appendix to the report. If there is an extensive series of documents referring to one matter, a summary of the history may be provided in the appendix. If the literature includes a lot of correspondence, a uniform code should be used to refer to letters in the summary.
Main Section Headings

I, II, III, IV, V etc. 1 Heading 1 A, B, C, D, E etc. 1.1 Subheading 1 Subsections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. 1.1.1 Sub-heading 1, Point 1 1.1.2 Sub-heading 1, Point 2 1.2 Sub-heading 2 Points and subpoints (a), (b), (c) or (i), (ii), (iii) etc. 1.2.1 (a) Sub-heading 2, Point 1, Sub-point (a), 2 Heading 2 Spacing Intelligent use of spacing separates headings from the body of the text for easy scanning, and also makes a large block more attractive and digestible.
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For example, letters between the Company Secretary and the Companies Registry might be referenced as CS/Reg [date].
Sections
The main body of the report should be divided into sections. The sections should have a logical sequence, and each section should ideally have a clear heading. These headings or subheadings should, if possible, be standardized when reports are produced regularly e.g., audit reports. Paragraphs should be numbered for ease of reference. Each paragraph should be concerned with just one basic idea.
tions for management in the reports recommendations (e.g., implications for staff recruitment, training or redundancies and so on).
Completeness
A report should be logically complete and should not overlook any item or consideration so that its recommendations are called into question.
Types of Report
Having discussed the generally accepted principles applicable to most types of reports, let us go through the three main types of report you might have to deal with.
The short formal report The short informal report The memorandum report
Appendices
To keep the main body of the report short enough to hold the readers interest, detailed explanations, calculations, charts and tables of figures should be put into appendices. The main body of the report should make cross-references to the appendices in appropriate places.
Summary of Recommendations
A report will usually contain conclusions or recommendations about the course of action to be taken by the report user. These conclusions or recommendations could perhaps be stated at the beginning of the report (after the introduction and statement of terms of reference). The main body of the report can then follow, in its logically progressive sections, and should lead the report user through the considerations that led the report writer to these conclusions. The conclusions or recommendations could then be re-stated at the end of the main body of the report. For example, a management accounting report into the performance of an operating division might summarise its findings at the beginning, as follows.
The short formal report is used in formal contexts such as where middle management is reporting to senior management. It should be laid out according to certain basic guidelines. It will be split into logical sections, each referenced and headed appropriately.
Title
i. Terms of Reference (or Introduction) ii. Procedure (or Method) iii. Findings 1. Section heading 2. Section heading if required
Relevance; Accuracy; Reliability; Timeliness; Appropriateness; and Cost-effectiveness.
Sales turnover Profit Cash movement Capital employed Return on capital employed
Plan X X X X X
Actual X X X X X
Steps in Writing a Routine Business Report

Your assignment will be to write a memo report to help solve a business-related problem. Think of a job you currently have (or have had in the past). Is there something you would change? Have you noticed a procedure or on-going situation that could be improved? Perhaps new equipment is needed or the physical layout is inefficient. Perhaps the work flow needs to be revised or company policy needs to be reevaluated. Im sure there is something you would like to see improved. Once you have a topic, youre then ready to start thinking in terms of a report. Dont decide on a solution right now. I want you to go through some steps to come to the RIGHT solution. In creating your report, follow these steps: 1. Determine the Scope of the Report 2. Consider Your Audience 3. Gather Your Information 4. Analyze Your Information 5. Determine the Solution
The following sections of the report would then go on to look at each of these items in more detail, concluding with an assessment of the divisions performance and perhaps recommendations as to how it needs to be improved. Any assumptions, forecasts or conjectures should be signalled as such, and not passed off as fact.
Prominence of Important Items

The most significant items in a report should be given prominence.
Report Summaries
Long reports should be summarised in brief. However, as suggested already it is often better to keep the main report itself brief, with the detail in appendices; a report summary would pr obably not then be necessary.
Implications For Management

Reference should be made where appropriate to costs, savings and other benefits that might accrue, and to any other implica172
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6. Organize Your Report
Determine the Scope of the Report

A common fault of many reports is making the scope of a report too general or too vague. When you choose a subject for a report, one of the first steps is to narrow the scope to a report length The scope of the report is defined by determining the factors which you will study. You need to limit the amount of information you will gather to the most needed and most important factors. For example, factors to be studied to determine ways to improve employee morale might include: Salaries Fringe benefits Work assignments Work hours Evaluation procedures You could study many other factors relative to improving employee morale. Some may be important, and you may want to consider them later. For any one report, however, a reasonable scope must be clearly defined by determining what factors will be included.
readers according to their professional training, position in the organization, and personal traits; and determine how and when the reader might use the report. Audiences are basically of three kinds:
Primary
People who have to act or make decisions on the basis of the report People affected by actions of the primary audiences would take in response to the report People responsible for evaluating the report and getting it to the right people
Secondary
Immediate
Additional questions to ask regarding your audience are: 1. How much background will the audience need? 2. Do you need to define any terms you are using? 3. What language level will be most appropriate for your readers? 4. How many and what kind of visual aids should you use? 5. What will the audience expect from your report? 6. Does the reader prefer everything given in detail or merely a brief presentation that touches upon the highlights?
Consider Your Audience

Always consider your reader or readers. Unlike letters and memos, reports usually have a far wider distribution. Many people may be involved in a decision-making process and have need to read the information in the report Your job is to make it easy for the reader. In order to make reading your report easier, think in terms of the reader. Each audience has unique needs. Some audience consideration include:
Need (from your report) Education level Position in the organization Knowledge of your topic or area Responsibility to act Age Biases Preferences Attitudes
Gather Your Information

Now that you have a clear understanding of the purpose and scope of your report and who you are writing to, youre now ready to gather your information. Information you gather can be of two types: Secondary and Primary. Secondary is information gathered and recorded by others. Primary is information you gather and record yourself.
Sources Secondary Books, internet, reports, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, and journals Questionnaires, surveys, observation, experiments, historical information, and raw data
Caution Information may be inaccurate, out of date, or biased
Some false assumptions commonly made regarding audiences are: 1. That the person who will first read or edit the report is the audience 2. That the audience is a group of specialists in their field 3. That the audience is familiar with the subject of the report 4. That the audience has time to read the entire report 5. That the audience has a strong interest in the subject of the report 6. That the author will always be available to discuss the report To avoid making these false assumptions, writers should identify everyone who might read the report; characterize those
Primary
Information must be gathered carefully to ensure it is accurate and bias free.
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At this point you should be doing your research. Think WHERE you are going to find your information. If the purpose of your report requires purchase information, you might want to check with vendors and distributors for features and pricing information. For certain types of information you might be checking out the library (books, magazines, journals, or newspapers). Another good source of information is the internet. Conduct a search using key words to find what information that might be useful to you in cyberspace. As you are gathering your information, create a way to manage your information. Massive information is difficult to sort through if it is not organized. One idea is to place different piece of information on note cards (with the source on that card). By separating pieces of information on cards, the information later can be rearranged and sorted when you are determining your plan of presentation.
Organize Your Report

Youve got your topic, your information, and your decision. Now youre ready to determine how to present your information. Before actually writing, organize your information into an outline form. You can formulate an outline for your report by choosing the major and supporting ideas, developing the details, and eliminating the unnecessary ideas youve gathered. This outline becomes the basic structure of your report. A report could be presented as a memo report, a standardized form report, or a formal report. The report you will be assigned in this course will be a memo report intended for an audience within your organization. Your memo report will have the following five steps:
Provide identifying information (usually in the To, From,
Date, Subject Area)

Define the project or problem (purpose of the report) Give the background Give the supporting data State your conclusions and recommendations
Analyze Your Information

Now that you have information, you need to analyze it. The purpose of the analysis is to make sense, objectively, out of the information you have gathered. You will not want personal bias of any kind to enter into the analysis. Information is compared and contrasted in an effort to try to find new ideas or the best ideas. Separate facts and figures need to be interpreted by explaining what they meanwhat significance they have. For example, if you were doing a study to determine which computer to buy for your office, you would collect information on the type of work you are currently doing in your office and the kinds of work you want to do. Then you would gather information on computers. This information might include cost, compatibility, speed of operation, machine capacity, machine dependability, maintenance availability, potential for upgrading, and other factors. Then you would compare and contrast (analyze) the different computers to determine how well they can do what you want done, what their potential is, how dependable they are, and so on. Once all the information is gathered, you are ready to determine solutions.
Create a skeleton outline by jotting down these five steps and filling in the information from your gathered material that would fall into each category. Based on your outline you are NOW ready to begin the actual writing of your report. Write a rough draft. Dont be overly concerned about proofreading and editing at this point. Just get your thoughts done Be systematic if you canstarting at the beginning and work your way through. However, if you can find no logical approach, start anywhereBUT START. Expert writers often use this technique. They know that they can write the opening paragraph(s) or page(s) at a later time. Remember, dont think about editing when writing the first draft. Editing proves a stumbling block in creativity for many writers. Write first. Then come back and edit. Otherwise, you are working against the creative process In writing your report, you might want to use headings for each of these sections of your report. Headings and subheadings are used as organizational tools in writing to identify major parts of a report. Headings serve as guideposts for a reader, dividing the information into segments that make it easy for a reader to understand When writing headings be sure they are descriptive, parallel, and unnecessary to transition.
Determine the Solution

Based on your analysis, you will be then be ready to offer a solution (or solutions) to the problem you have been studying. For example, which computer would be the best buy for the word processing center or what office arrangement would be the best for effective work flow? A word of caution: The gathered information should be the basis for making this decision. A tendency in business report writing is to slant information in the report to lead the reader to the decision the writer want. Make sure you report all pertinent informationgood and bad. The credibility of the report (and credibility of you) is at stake. Make sure, however, that a solution is even requested. Depending on your position in the organization and the particular business study, a solution may NOT be requested in the report. Your purpose would then be to present the objective facts. These facts would be used by someone else to determine the best solution.
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Descriptive
Headings should talk about the contents of their portion of the report. Poor: Supporting Data Better: Comparison of Three Computer Models
Parallel
All headings of the same level should start with the same grammatical structure. Headings should not be relied upon to give meaning to that section of the report. Headings do serve as guides, but the report should be understood even though no headings are used. Poor: Changes Must Be Communicated to Employees: This problem has been a persistent one throughout the industry. Better: Changes Must Be Communicated to Employees. The problem of communicating changes procedures to employees has been a persistent one throughout the industry.
Unnecessary to Transition
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LESSON 26: QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN AND USAGE
UNIT 2 CHAPTER 7 : INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
State why questionnaires may be used Explain techniques used in designing effective questionnaire Illustrate the different types of question used on questionnaire
disadvantage is that the sample is small and may not be representative of the population in general. Personal interviews are a way to get in-depth and comprehensive information. They involve one person interviewing another person for personal or detailed information. Personal interviews are very expensive because of the one-to-one nature of the interview ($50+ per interview). Typically, an interviewer will ask questions from a written questionnaire and record the answers verbatim. Sometimes, the questionnaire is simply a list of topics that the research wants to discuss with an industry expert. Personal interviews (because of their expense) are generally used only when subjects are not likely to respond to other survey methods. Telephone surveys are the fastest method of gathering information from a relatively large sample (100-400 respondents). The interviewer follows a prepared script that is essentially the same as a written questionnaire. However, unlike a mail survey, the telephone survey allows the opportunity for some opinion probing. Telephone surveys generally last less than ten minutes. Typical costs are between four and six thousand dollars and they can be completed in two to four weeks. Mail surveys are a cost effective method of gathering information. They are ideal for large sample sizes, or when the sample comes from a wide geographic area. They cost a little less than telephone interviews, however, they take over twice as long to complete (eight to twelve weeks). Because there is no interviewer, there is no possibility of interviewer bias. The main disadvantage is the inability to probe respondents for more detailed information. E-mail and internet surveys are relatively new and little is known about the effect of sampling bias in internet surveys. While it is clearly the most cost effective and fastest method of distributing a survey, the demographic profile of the internet user does not represent the general population, although this is changing. Before doing an e-mail or internet survey, carefully consider the effect that this bias might have on the results.
Students, how many of you have filled up a questionnaire related to any product or service? Questionnaires are the most economical form data collection. We will discuss in this lesson the need and usage of questionnaires as well as various types of questions .
Designing and Using Questionnaires

This is the information age. More information has been published in the last decade than in all previous history. Everyone uses information to make decisions about the future. If our information is accurate, we have a high probability of making a good decision. If our information is inaccurate, our ability to make a correct decision is diminished. Better information usually leads to better decisions.
Ways to Get Information

There are six common ways to get information. These are: literature searches, talking with people, focus groups, personal interviews, telephone surveys, and mail surveys. A literature search involves reviewing all readily available materials. These materials can include internal company information, relevant trade publications, newspapers, magazines, annual reports, company literature, on-line data bases, and any other published materials. It is a very inexpensive method of gathering information, although it generally does not yield timely information. Literature searches take between one and eight weeks. Talking with people is a good way to get information during the initial stages of a research project. It can be used to gather information that is not publicly available, or that is too new to be found in the literature. Examples might include meetings with prospects, customers, suppliers, and other types of business conversations at trade shows, seminars, and association meetings. Although often valuable, the information has questionable validity because it is highly subjective and might not be representative of the population. A focus group is used as a preliminary research technique to explore peoples ideas and attitudes. It is often used to test new approaches (such as products or advertising), and to discover customer concerns. A group of 6 to 20 people meet in a conference-room-like setting with a trained moderator. The room usually contains a one-way mirror for viewing, including audio and video capabilities. The moderator leads the groups discussion and keeps the focus on the areas you want to explore. Focus groups can be conducted within a couple of weeks and cost between two and three thousand dollars. Their
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Questionnaire Research Flow Chart

Questionnaire research design proceeds in an orderly and specific manner. Each item in the flow chart depends upon the successful completion of all the previous items. Therefore, it is important not to skip a single step. Notice that there are two feedback loops in the flow chart to allow revisions to the methodology and instruments.
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10. Attempts to get non-respondents________ ________
Design Methodology Determine Feasibility Develop Instruments Select Sample Conduct Pilot Test Revise Instruments Conduct Research Analyze Data Prepare Report
Time Considerations
Many researchers underestimate the time required to complete a research project. The following form may be used as an initial checklist in developing time estimates. The best advice is to be generous with your time estimates. Things almost always take longer than we think they should. This checklist contains two time estimates for each task. The first one (Hours) is your best estimate of the actual number of hours required to complete the task. The second one (Duration) is the amount of time that will pass until the task is completed. Sometimes these are the same and sometimes they are different. Most researchers and business-people have to divide their time among many projects. They simply cannot give all their time to any one project. For example, my estimate of goal clarification may be four hours, but other commitments allow me to spend only two hours a day on this study. My hours estimate is four hours, and my duration estimate is two days. To arrive at your final time estimates, add the individual estimates. The hours estimate is used for budget planning and the duration estimate is used to develop a project time line. Hours Duration 1. Goal clarification ________ ________ 2. Overall study design 3. Selecting the sample 4. Designing the questionnaire and cover letter 5. Conduct pilot test ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
11. Editing the data and coding open-ended questions ________ ________ 12. Data entry and verification 13. Analyzing the data 14. Preparing the report ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
15. Printing & distribution of the report ________ ________
Cost Considerations
Both beginning and experienced researchers often underestimate the cost of doing questionnaire research. Some of the most common costs are: Proposal typing and editing. Cover letter and questionnaire typing. Addressing mailing envelopes. Following up on non-respondents. Mailing list cost (if necessary). Artwork and keylining. Cover letter and survey printing costs. Envelope costs (both ways + more). Postage costs (both ways + more). Incentives. Data entry and verification. Statistical analysis programmer. Distribution of the final report. ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
Advantages of Written Questionnaires

Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-toface interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the number of research questions increases. Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages. Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make people apprehensive. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-man bias. The researchers own opinions will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence the respondent. Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument.
6. Revise questionnaire (if necessary) ________ ________ 7. Printing time ________ ________ 8. Locating the sample (if necessary) ________ ________ 9. Time in the mail & response time ________ ________
Disadvantages of Written Questionnaires

One major disadvantage of written questionnaires is the possibility of low response rates. Low response is the curse of statistical analysis. It can dramatically lower our confidence in the
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results. Response rates vary widely from one questionnaire to another (10% - 90%), however, well-designed studies consistently produce high response rates. Another disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to probe responses. Questionnaires are structured instruments. They allow little flexibility to the respondent with respect to response format. In essence, they often lose the flavor of the response (i.e., respondents often want to qualify their answers). By allowing frequent space for comments, the researcher can partially overcome this disadvantage. Comments are among the most helpful of all the information on the questionnaire, and they usually provide insightful information that would have otherwise been lost. Nearly ninety percent of all communication is visual. Gestures and other visual cues are not available with written questionnaires. The lack of personal contact will have different effects depending on the type of information being requested. A questionnaire requesting factual information will probably not be affected by the lack of personal contact. A questionnaire probing sensitive issues or attitudes may be severely affected. When returned questionnaires arrive in the mail, its natural to assume that the respondent is the same person you sent the questionnaire to. This may not actually be the case. Many times business questionnaires get handed to other employees for completion. Housewives sometimes respond for their husbands. Kids respond as a prank. For a variety of reasons, the respondent may not be who you think it is. It is a confounding error inherent in questionnaires. Finally, questionnaires are simply not suited for some people. For example, a written survey to a group of poorly educated people might not work because of reading skill problems. More frequently, people are turned off by written questionnaires because of misuse.
confidence you can place in the results. A low response rate can be devastating to a study. Therefore, you must do everything possible to maximize the response rate. One of the most effective methods of maximizing response is to shorten the questionnaire. If your survey is over a few pages, try to eliminate questions. Many people have difficulty knowing which questions could be eliminated. For the elimination round, read each question and ask, How am I going to use this information? If the information will be used in a decision-making process, then keep the question... its important. If not, throw it out. One important way to assure a successful survey is to include other experts and relevant decision-makers in the questionnaire design process. Their suggestions will improve the questionnaire and they will subsequently have more confidence in the results. Formulate a plan for doing the statistical analysis during the design stage of the project. Know how every question will be analyzed and be prepared to handle missing data. If you cannot specify how you intend to analyze a question or use the information, do not use it in the survey. Make the envelope unique. We all know how important first impressions are. The same holds true for questionnaires. The respondents first impression of the study usually comes from the envelope containing the survey. The best envelopes (i.e., the ones that make you want to see whats inside) are colored, hand-addressed and use a commemorative postage stamp. Envelopes with bulk mail permits or gummed labels are perceived as unimportant. This will generally be reflected in a lower response rate. Provide a well-written cover letter. The respondents next impression comes from the cover letter. The importance of the cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides your best chance to persuade the respondent to complete the survey. Give your questionnaire a title that is short and meaningful to the respondent. A questionnaire with a title is generally perceived to be more credible than one without. Include clear and concise instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. These must be very easy to understand, so use short sentences and basic vocabulary. Be sure to print the return address on the questionnaire itself (since questionnaires often get separated from the reply envelopes). Begin with a few non-threatening and interesting items. If the first items are too threatening or boring, there is little chance that the person will complete the questionnaire. People generally look at the first few questions before deciding whether or not to complete the questionnaire. Make them want to continue by putting interesting questions first. Use simple and direct language. The questions must be clearly understood by the respondent. The wording of a question should be simple and to the point. Do not use uncommon words or long sentences. Make items as brief as possible. This will reduce misunderstandings and make the questionnaire appear easier to complete. One way to eliminate misunderstandings is to emphasize crucial words in each item by using bold, italics or underlining.
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Questionnaire Design - General Considerations

Most problems with questionnaire analysis can be traced back to the design phase of the project. Well-defined goals are the best way to assure a good questionnaire design. When the goals of a study can be expressed in a few clear and concise sentences, the design of the questionnaire becomes considerably easier. The questionnaire is developed to directly address the goals of the study. One of the best ways to clarify your study goals is to decide how you intend to use the information. Do this before you begin designing the study. This sounds obvious, but many researchers neglect this task. Why do research if the results will not be used? Be sure to commit the study goals to writing. Whenever you are unsure of a question, refer to the study goals and a solution will become clear. Ask only questions that directly address the study goals. Avoid the temptation to ask questions because it would be interesting to know. As a general rule, with only a few exceptions, long questionnaires get less response than short questionnaires. Keep your questionnaire short. In fact, the shorter the better. Response rate is the single most important indicator of how much
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Leave adequate space for respondents to make comments. One criticism of questionnaires is their inability to retain the flavor of a response. Leaving space for comments will provide valuable information not captured by the response categories. Leaving white space also makes the questionnaire look easier and this increases response. Place the most important items in the first half of the questionnaire. Respondents often send back partially completed questionnaires. By putting the most important items near the beginning, the partially completed questionnaires will still contain important information. Hold the respondents interest. We want the respondent to complete our questionnaire. One way to keep a questionnaire interesting is to provide variety in the type of items used. Varying the questioning format will also prevent respondents from falling into response sets. At the same time, it is important to group items into coherent categories. All items should flow smoothly from one to the next. If a questionnaire is more than a few pages and is held together by a staple, include some identifying data on each page (such as a respondent ID number). Pages often accidentally separate. Provide incentives as a motivation for a properly completed questionnaire. What does the respondent get for completing your questionnaire? Altruism is rarely an effective motivator. Attaching a dollar bill to the questionnaire works well. If the information you are collecting is of interest to the respondent, offering a free summary report is also an excellent motivator. Whatever you choose, it must make the respondent want to complete the questionnaire. Use professional production methods for the questionnaire either desktop publishing or typesetting and keylining. Be creative. Try different colored inks and paper. The object is to make your questionnaire stand out from all the others the respondent receives. Make it convenient. The easier it is for the respondent to complete the questionnaire the better. Always include a selfaddressed postage-paid envelope. Envelopes with postage stamps get better response than business reply envelopes (although they are more expensive since you also pay for the non-respondents). The final test of a questionnaire is to try it on representatives of the target audience. If there are problems with the questionnaire, they almost always show up here. If possible, be present while a respondent is completing the questionnaire and tell her that it is okay to ask you for clarification of any item. The questions she asks are indicative of problems in the questionnaire (i.e., the questions on the questionnaire must be without any ambiguity because there will be no chance to clarify a question when the survey is mailed).
Anonymous questionnaires that contain no identifying information are more likely to produce honest responses than those identifying the respondent. If your questionnaire does contain sensitive items, be sure to clearly state your policy on confidentiality. 2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purpose of a survey is to find out information. A question that asks for a response on more than one dimension will not provide the information you are seeking. For example, a researcher investigating a new food snack asks Do you like the texture and flavor of the snack? If a respondent answers no, then the researcher will not know if the respondent dislikes the texture or the flavor, or both. Another questionnaire asks, Were you satisfied with the quality of our food and service? Again, if the respondent answers no, there is no way to know whether the quality of the food, service, or both were unsatisfactory. A good question asks for only one bit of information. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choice items are the most popular type of survey questions because they are generally the easiest for a respondent to answer and the easiest to analyze. Asking a question that does not accommodate all possible responses can confuse and frustrate the respondent. For example, consider the question: What brand of computer do you own? __ A. IBM PC B. Apple Clearly, there are many problems with this question. What if the respondent doesnt own a microcomputer? What if he owns a different brand of computer? What if he owns both an IBM PC and an Apple? There are two ways to correct this kind of problem. The first way is to make each response a separate dichotomous item on the questionnaire. For example: Do you own an IBM PC? (circle: Yes or No) Do you own an Apple computer? (circle: Yes or No) Another way to correct the problem is to add the necessary response categories and allow multiple responses. This is the preferable method because it provides more information than the previous method. What brand of computer do you own? (Check all that apply) __ Do not own a computer __ IBM PC __ Apple __ Other 4. Has mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no ambiguity in the mind of the respondent. There should be only one correct or appropriate choice for the respondent to make. An obvious example is: Where did you grow up? _ A. Country
3.
Qualities of a Good Question

There are good and bad questions. The qualities of a good question are as follows: 1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. When a respondent is concerned about the consequences of answering a question in a particular manner, there is a good possibility that the answer will not be truthful.
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B.
Farm
Direct mail advertising? ____ Very few people would know the answer to this question without looking it up, and very few respondents will take the time and effort to look it up. If you ask a question similar to this, it is important to understand that the responses are rough estimates and there is a strong likelihood of error. It is important to look at each question and decide if all respondents will be able to answer it. Be careful not to assume anything. For example, the following question assumes the respondent knows what Proposition 13 is about. Are you in favor of Proposition 13 ? ___ Yes ___ No ___ Undecided If there is any possibility that the respondent may not know the answer to your question, include a dont know response category. 8. Does not imply a desired answer. The wording of a question is extremely important. We are striving for objectivity in our surveys and, therefore, must be careful not to lead the respondent into giving the answer we would like to receive. Leading questions are usually easily spotted because they use negative phraseology. As examples: Wouldnt you like to receive our free brochure? Dont you think the Congress is spending too much money? 9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words. This is one of the areas overlooked by both beginners and experienced researchers. Quantifying adjectives (e.g., most, least, majority) are frequently used in questions. It is important to understand that these adjectives mean different things to different people. 10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations. Remember who your audience is and write your questionnaire for them. Do not use uncommon words or compound sentences. Write short sentences. Abbreviations are okay if you are absolutely certain that every single respondent will understand their meanings. If there is any doubt at all, do not use the abbreviation. The following question might be okay if all the respondents are accountants, but it would not be a good question for the general public. What was your AGI last year? ______ 11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions. Branching in written questionnaires should be avoided. While branching can be used as an effective probing technique in telephone and face-to-face interviews, it should not be used in written questionnaires because it sometimes confuses respondents. An example of branching is:
C. City A person who grew up on a farm in the country would not know whether to select choice A or B. This question would not provide meaningful information. Worse than that, it could frustrate the respondent and the questionnaire might find its way to the trash. 5. Produces variability of responses. When a question produces no variability in responses, we are left with considerable uncertainty about why we asked the question and what we learned from the information. If a question does not produce variability in responses, it will not be possible to perform any statistical analyses on the item. For example: What do you think about this report? __ A. Its the worst report Ive read B. Its somewhere between the worst and best C. Its the best report Ive read Since almost all responses would be choice B, very little information is learned. Design your questions so they are sensitive to differences between respondents. As another example: Are you against drug abuse? (circle: Yes or No) Again, there would be very little variability in responses and wed be left wondering why we asked the question in the first place. 6. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Transitions between questions should be smooth. Grouping questions that are similar will make the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will feel more comfortable. Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Among the most subtle mistakes in questionnaire design are questions that make an unwarranted assumption. An example of this type of mistake is: Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes or No) This question will present a problem for someone who does not currently have auto insurance. Write your questions so they apply to everyone. This often means simply adding an additional response category. Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? _ Yes _ No _ Dont have auto insurance One of the most common mistaken assumptions is that the respondent knows the correct answer to the question. Industry surveys often contain very specific questions that the respondent may not know the answer to. For example: What percent of your budget do you spend on
7.
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1.
Do you currently have a life insurance policy ? (Yes or No) If How much is your annual life insurance premium ? _________
no, go to question 3 2.
opportunity to persuade the respondent to complete the survey. If the questionnaire can be completed in less than five minutes, the response rate can be increased by mentioning this in the cover letter. Flattering the respondent in the cover letter does not seem to affect response. Altruism or an appeal to the social utility of a study has occasionally been found to increase response, but more often, it is not an effective motivator. There are no definitive answers whether or not to personalize cover letters (i.e., the respondents name appears on the cover letter). Some researchers have found that personalized cover letters can be detrimental to response when anonymity or confidentiality are important to the respondent. The literature regarding personalization are mixed. Some researchers have found that personalized cover letters with hand-written signatures helped response rates. Other investigators, however, have reported that personalization has no effect on response. The signature of the person signing the cover letter has been investigated by several researchers. Ethnic sounding names and the status of the researcher (professor or graduate student) do not affect response. One investigator found that a cover letter signed by the owner of a marina produced better response than one signed by the sales manager. The literature is mixed regarding whether a hand-written signature works better than one that is mimeographed. Two researchers reported that mimeographed signatures worked as well as a hand-written one, while another reported that hand-written signatures produced better response. Another investigator found that cover letters signed with green ink increased response by over 10 percent. It is commonly believed that a handwritten postscript (P.S.) in the cover letter might increase response. One older study did find an increase in response, however, more recent studies found no significant difference. 1. Describe why the study is being done (briefly) and identify the sponsors. 2. Mention the incentive. (A good incentive is a copy of the results). 3. Mention inclusion of a stamped, self-addressed return envelope. 4. Encourage prompt response without using deadlines. 5. Describe your confidentiality/anonymity policy. 6. Give the name and phone number of someone they can call with questions.
These questions could easily be rewritten as one question that applies to everyone: 1. How much did you spend last year for life insurance ? ______ 12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five items. Questions asking respondents to rank items by importance should be avoided. This becomes increasingly difficult as the number of items increases, and the answers become less reliable. This becomes especially problematic when asking respondents to assign a percentage to a series of items. In order to successfully complete this task, the respondent must mentally continue to re-adjust his answers until they total one hundred percent. Limiting the number of items to five will make it easier for the respondent to answer.
Pre-notification Letters
Many researchers have studied pre-notification letters to determine if they increase response rate. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed an aggregate increase in response rate of 7.7 percent. Pre-notification letters might help to establish the legitimacy of a survey, thereby contributing to a respondents trust. Another possibility is that a prenotification letter builds expectation and reduces the possibility that a potential respondent might disregard the survey when it arrives. Pre-letters are seldom used in marketing research surveys. They are an excellent (but expensive) way to increase response. The researcher needs to weigh the additional cost of sending out a pre-letter against the probability of a lower response rate. When sample sizes are small, every response really counts and a pre-letter is highly recommended. 1. Briefly describe why the study is being done and identify the sponsors. This is impressive and lends credibility to the study. 2. Explain why the person receiving the pre-letter was chosen to receive the questionnaire. 3. Justify why the respondent should complete the questionnaire. The justification must be something that will benefit the respondent. For most people, altruism is not sufficient justification. If an incentive will be included with the questionnaire, mention the inclusion of a free gift without specifically telling what it will be. 4. Explain how the results will be used.
Response Rate and Following up on Nonrespondents

Response rate is the single most important indicator of how much confidence can be placed in the results of a survey. A low response rate can be devastating to the reliability of a study. One of the most powerful tool for increasing response is to use follow-ups or reminders. Traditionally, between 10 and 60 percent of those sent questionnaires respond without followup reminders. These rates are too low to yield confident results, so the need to follow up on nonrespondents is clear.
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Cover Letters
The cover letter is an essential part of the survey. To a large degree, the cover letter will affect whether or not the respondent completes the questionnaire. It is important to maintain a friendly tone and keep it as short as possible. The importance of the cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides an
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Researchers can increase the response from follow-up attempts by including another copy of the questionnaire. When designing the follow-up procedure, it is important for the researcher to keep in mind the unique characteristics of the people in the sample. The most successful follow-ups have been achieved by phone calls. Many researchers have examined whether postcard follow-ups are effective in increasing response. The vast majority of these studies show that a follow-up postcard slightly increases response rate, and a meta-analysis revealed an aggregate gain of 3.5 percent. The postcard serves as a reminder for subjects who have forgotten to complete the survey.
order to avoid response contamination. Other researchers have reported that when specific questions were asked before general questions, respondents tended to exhibit greater interest in the general questions. It is not clear whether or not question-order affects response. A few researchers have reported that question-order does not effect responses, while others have reported that it does. Generally, it is believed that question-order effects exist in interviews, but not in written surveys.
Anonymity and Confidentiality

An anonymous study is one in which nobody (not even the researcher) can identify who provided data. It is difficult to conduct an anonymous questionnaire through the mail because of the need to follow-up on nonresponders. The only way to do a follow-up is to mail another survey or reminder postcard to the entire sample. However, it is possible to guarantee confidentiality, where those conducting the study promise not to reveal the information to anyone. For the purpose of followup, identifying numbers on questionnaires are generally preferred to using respondents names. It is important, however, to explain why the number is there and what it will be used for. Some studies have shown that response rate is affected by the anonymity/confidentiality policy of a study. Others have reported that responses became more distorted when subjects felt threatened that their identities would become known. Others have found that anonymity and confidentiality issues do not affect response rates or responses.
Nonresponse Bias
Many studies have attempted to determine if there is a difference between respondents and nonrespondents. Some researchers have reported that people who respond to surveys answer questions differently than those who do not. Others have found that late responders answer differently than early responders, and that the differences may be due to the different levels of interest in the subject matter. One researcher, who examined a volunteer organization, reported that those more actively involved in the organization were more likely to respond. Demographic characteristics of nonrespondents have been investigated by many researchers. Most studies have found that nonresponse is associated with low education. However, one researcher reported that demographic characteristics such as age, education, and employment status were the same for respondents and nonrespondents. Another study found that nonrespondents were more often single males. Most researchers view nonresponse bias as a continuum, ranging from fast responders to slow responders (with nonresponders defining the end of the continuum). In fact, one study used extrapolation to estimate the magnitude of bias created by nonresponse. Another group of researchers argue that nonresponse should not be viewed as a continuum, and that late respondents do not provide a suitable basis for estimating the characteristics of nonrespondents.
The Length of a Questionnaire

As a general rule, long questionnaires get less response than short questionnaires. However, some studies have shown that the length of a questionnaire does not necessarily affect response. More important than length is question content. A subject is more likely to respond if they are involved and interested in the research topic. Questions should be meaningful and interesting to the respondent.
Incentives
Many researchers have examined the effect of providing a variety of nonmonetary incentives to subjects. These include token gifts such as small packages of coffee, ball-point pens, postage stamps, key rings, trading stamps, participation in a raffle or lottery, or a donation to a charity in the respondents name. Generally (although not consistently), nonmonetary incentives have resulted in an increased response. A meta-analysis of 38 studies that used some form of an incentive revealed that monetary and nonmonetary incentives were effective only when enclosed with the survey. The promise of an incentive for a returned questionnaire was not effective in increasing response. The average increase in response rate for monetary and nonmonetary incentives was 19.1 percent and 7.9 percent, respectively. Most researchers have found that higher monetary incentives generally work better than smaller ones. One researcher proposed a diminishing return model, where increasing the amount of the incentive would have a decreasing effect on response rate. A meta-analysis of fifteen studies showed that an
The Order of the Questions

Items on a questionnaire should be grouped into logically coherent sections. Grouping questions that are similar will make the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will feel more comfortable. Questions that use the same response formats, or those that cover a specific topic, should appear together. Each question should follow comfortably from the previous question. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Transitions between questions should be smooth. Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates. Most investigators have found that the order in which questions are presented can affect the way that people respond. One study reported that questions in the latter half of a questionnaire were more likely to be omitted, and contained fewer extreme responses. Some researchers have suggested that it may be necessary to present general questions before specific ones in
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incentive of 25 increased the response rate by an average of 16 percent, and $1 increased the response by 31 percent.
Notification of a Cutoff Date

Several researchers have examined the effect of giving subjects a deadline for responding. While a deadline will usually reduce the time from the mailing until the returns begin arriving, it appears that it does not increase response, and may even reduce the response. One possible explanation is that a cutoff date might dissuade procrastinators from completing the questionnaire after the deadline has past.
This writer could also find no studies that examined whether the color of the envelope affects response rate. First impressions are important, and the respondents first impression of the study usually comes from the envelope containing the survey. Therefore, we might predict that color would have a positive impact on response because of its uniqueness.
The Dont Know, Undecided, and Neutral Response Options

Response categories are developed for questions in order to facilitate the process of coding and analysis. Many studies have looked at the effects of presenting a dont know option in attitudinal questions. The dont know option allows respondents to state that they have no opinion or have not thought about a particular issue. The physical placement of the undecided category (at the midpoint of the scale, or separated from the scale) can change response patterns. Respondents are more likely to choose the undecided category when it was off to the side of the scale. There are also different response patterns depending on whether the midpoint is labeled undecided or neutral. Several researchers have found that the physical location of the middle alternative can make a difference in responses, and that placing the middle option at the last position in the question increases the percentage of respondents who select it by over 9 percent. Frequently, offering respondents a middle alternative in a survey question will make a difference in the conclusions that would be drawn from the data. The middle option of an attitudinal scale attracts a substantial number of respondents who might be unsure of their opinion. Researcher have also studied the dont know option for factual questions. Unlike attitude questions, respondents might legitimately not know the answer to a factual question. Surprisingly, the research suggests that the dont know option should not be included in factual questions. Questions that exclude the dont know option produce a greater volume of accurate data. Furthermore, there is generally no difference in response rate depending on the inclusion or exclusion of the dont know option. There is still a controversy surrounding the dont know response category. Many researchers advocate including a dont know response category when there is any possibility that the respondent may not know the answer to a question. The best advice is probably to use a dont know option for factual questions, but not for attitude questions.
Reply Envelopes and Postage

A good questionnaire makes it convenient for the respondent to reply. Mail surveys that include a self-addressed stamped reply envelope get better response than business reply envelopes. Some investigators have suggested that people might feel obligated to complete the questionnaire because of the guilt associated with throwing away moneythat is, the postage stamp. Others have pointed out that using a business reply permit might suggest advertising to some people. Another possibility is that a business reply envelope might be perceived as less personal. A meta-analysis on 34 studies comparing stamped versus business reply postage showed that stamped reply envelopes had a 9 percent greater aggregate effect than business reply envelopes. In another meta-analysis on nine studies, an aggregate effect of 6.2 percent was found.
The Outgoing Envelope and Postage

There have been several researchers that examined whether there is a difference in response between first class postage versus bulk rate. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed a small, but significant, aggregate difference of 1.8 percent. Envelopes with bulk mail permits might be perceived as junk mail, unimportant, or less personal, and thus will be reflected in a lower response rates. A few researchers have also examined whether metered mail or stamps work better on the outgoing envelope. The results of these studies suggest a small increase in response favoring a stamped envelope. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed that the aggregate difference was slightly less than one percent. Many researchers have reported increased response rates by using registered, certified, or special delivery mail to send the questionnaire. The wisdom of using these techniques must be weighed against the consequences of angering respondents that make a special trip to the post office, only to find a questionnaire. It is not clear whether a typed or hand-addressed envelope affects response. One study, conducted at the University of Minnesota, reported that students responded better to handaddressed postcards, while professors responded better to typed addresses. This writer could find no studies that examined whether gummed labels would have a deleterious effect on response rate, although we might predict that response rate would be less for gummed labels because they have the appearance of less personalization.
Question Wording
The wording of a question is extremely important. Researchers strive for objectivity in surveys and, therefore, must be careful not to lead the respondent into giving a desired answer. Unfortunately, the effects of question wording are one of the least understood areas of questionnaire research. Many investigators have confirmed that slight changes in the way questions are worded can have a significant impact on how people respond. Several authors have reported that minor changes in question wording can produce more than a 25 percent difference in peoples opinions. Several investigators have looked at the effects of modifying adjectives and adverbs. Words like usually, often, sometimes,
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occasionally, seldom, and rarely are commonly used in questionnaires, although it is clear that they do not mean the same thing to all people. Some adjectives have high variability and others have low variability. The following adjectives have highly variable meanings and should be avoided in surveys: a clear mandate, most, numerous, a substantial majority, a minority of, a large proportion of, a significant number of, many, a considerable number of, and several. Other adjectives produce less variability and generally have more shared meaning. These are: lots, almost all, virtually all, nearly all, a majority of, a consensus of, a small number of, not very many of, almost none, hardly any, a couple, and a few.
Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file. Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select subjects from each stratum until the number of subjects in that stratum is proportional to its frequency in the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums. Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample. Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one representative city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population. Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling. Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.
Sponsorship
There have been several studies to determine if the sponsor of a survey might affect response rate. The overwhelming majority of these studies have clearly demonstrated that university sponsorship is the most effective. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed an aggregate increase in response rate of 8.9 percent. This may be due to the past benefits that the respondent has received from the university. Another possibility is that a business sponsor implies advertising or sales to potential respondents.
Sampling
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study. Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population. Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown. Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
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LESSON 27: PRACTICE CLASS ON QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

In this lesson we will
Learn some tips on questionnaire design Practice some exercises on questionnaire design
Developing Questions
Research Questions
Points to Ponder
The Functions of a Questionnaire
Translates the research objectives into specific questions Standardizes questions and all or some of the response categories Fosters cooperation and motivation Serves as permanent record of the research Can speed up the process of data analysis Can serve as the basis for reliability and validity measures
A questionnaire (survey) item or question: statement or question used in research projects to obtain overt, written or oral communication from individual study participants Its intended function is to obtain meaningful responses from study participants. Survey item or question measures such as: Attitudes Beliefs Behaviors Demographics
The Questionnaire Development Process
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Shoulds of Question Wording
Questionnaire Organization
Five Functions of the Introduction Identification of the survey or respondent Undisguised Disguised Purpose of survey Explanation of respondent selection Request for participation/provide incentive Incentives Anonymity Confidentiality Screening of respondent
Question should be focused on a single issue or topic. No double-barreled questions. Question should be brief. Question should be interpreted the same way by all respondents; no ambiguity in word meaning. Question should use respondents core vocabulary. Keep wording simple. Question should be a grammatically simple sentence if possible.
Should Nots of Question Wording Question should not assume criteria that are not obvious. Question should not be beyond the respondents ability or experience; also, you do the math. Question should not use a specific example to represent a general case. Question should not ask the respondent to recall specifics when only generalities will be remembered. Question should not require the respondent to guess a generalization.
Questionnaire Organization
Typical Question Sequence
Approaches to Question Flow
Work approach: is employed when the researcher realizes that respondents will to need to apply different mental effort to groups of questions Sections approach: organizes questions into sets based on a common objective of questions in the set
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Precoding the Questionnaire
Computer-Assisted Questionnaire Design
Precoding: placement of numbers on the questionnaire to represent answers; facilitates data entry after the survey has been completed Numbers are preferred for two reasons: Numbers are easier and faster to keystroke into a computer file Computer tabulation programs are more efficient when they process numbers
Computer-assisted questionnaire design: software programs allow users to use computer technology to develop and disseminate questionnaires Advantages: Easier Faster Friendlier More functionality
Pretesting the Questionnaire
Exercise
1. You work at The Taj Mahal Hotel, New Delhi as a Sales and Marketing Executive. Design a feedback form to be completed by visitors to any of your many coffee houses/ restaurants. Use your initiative to decide which categories and statements should appear on the questionnaire so that it will be valuable to management in gauging customers opinions. 2. You are working with a market research company and have been given an assignment to do a survey to do a comparative analysis of the two media giants: Aaj Tak and NDTV. Prepare a suitable questionnaire.
Pretest the entire survey process, including the questionnaire: sampling frame, sample draw, data gathering (mail, phone, online, etc.), editing, coding, file building, data entry, and preliminary analysis Questionnaire pretest: 20-40 questionnaires; 10 percent change pretest rule Changes: add Qs, delete Qs, modify Qs, change order of Qs Less than 10 percent change no new pretest, 10 percent or more, pretest again
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LESSON 28: MEETINGS DOCUMENTATION

agenda to be issued to all members prior to the meetings so that they can be prepare adequately in order to make a valuable contribution. These meetings are attended by a group of managers who may need to discuss a specific matter, report of progress reports. For example the marketing manager, sales manager, production manager and research and development manager may meet to discuss the launch of a new product being launched soon.

Explain the purpose of meetings Describe the different types of meetings which take place in business State the documents which are used in the meetings process Compose agenda and minutes
Students, I am sure you are very familiar with this term meeting. But in business meetings is an effective and efficient tool in the communication process. Meetings enable face-to-face contact of a number of people at the same time. They provide a useful opportunity for sharing information, making suggestions and proposals, taking decisions and obtaining instant feedback.
Meetings
Meetings are the most popular method of interactive communication. They facilitate direct, face-to-face communication and are essential at various levels in all organizations. They facilitate exchange of information, fostering of team spirit and commitment to common goals and objectives. More importantly, they help in elaborating ideas, clarifying concepts and clearing confusion, if any, created on account of ambiguous and incomplete verbal and vocal messages. Misunderstandings arising from unclear memos, circulars, directives, targets, etc. can be cleared through meetings with the people concerned. Meeting of marketing people with prospective customers while launching a new product or service helps in clearly bringing out the significant features of the product and clarifying the finer points. Similarly, meetings with the computer or EDP personnel facilitate detailed and effective planning of the Y2K or any such contingency planning and preparedness strategies. These are just two examples of the ways in which meetings can be of use to serve a vital communication need in an organization. In addition to these, there can be customer meets, dealer meets, managers meets, staff meetings, association meetings, business meets, review meets, and so on.
Meeting at What Cost A recent study conducted by the American management consultants, Booz, Allen and Hamilton, as reported in the press, concluded that 299 managers, at an average salary of$50,000 a year, spent half of their time in meetings. And that a large proportion of this time was wasted on useless discussions, politi-cal maneuvering
Need and Purpose of Meetings

1. To coordinate or arrange activities 2. To report on some activity or experience 3. To put forward ideas or grievances for discussion 4. To give information to a group of people 5. To obtain assistance 6. To create involvement and interest
Types of Meetings
Formal Meetings The rules of conduct of formal meetings are laid doen in a companys Articles of Association and/or Constitution or Standing Orders. With such meetings a quorum must be present, i.e the minimum number of people who should be present in order to validate the meeting. A formal record of these meetings must be kept , usually by the company secretary. Annual General Meeting (AGM) AGMs are held once a year to assess the trading of the organization over the year . All shareholders are invited to intend the GM but they must be given 21 days notice. Statutory Meetings Statutory meetings are called so that the directors and shareholders ca communicate and consider special reports. Companies are required by law to hold these statutory meetings Board Meetings Board meetings are held as often as individual organizations require. They are attended by all directors and chaired by the Chairman of the board. Informal Meetings Informal meetings are not restricted by the same rules and regulation as formal meetings. Such meetings may take the form of brainstorming or discussion sessions where strict agendas may not be necessary and minutes may not be kept. However, it is usually considered good business practice for an
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and personal conflicts. Based on their study, the consult-ants advised organizations not to call a meeting that costs $10,000 for a deci-sion that is worth $1000. Like their Western counterparts, Indian executives too, in many organizations spend a large part of their working day in company meetings. In the United States, it is to be noted, decisions are made by groups of managers or executives rather than by individual top management functionaries. Similarly, in India too, we have various committees in organizations like the Credit Committee, Recovery Committee, Man-agement Committee, Audit Committee, Promotions Committee, Systems Committee, and Legal Committee which take decisions and that is why it becomes necessary to organize many meetings.
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While meetings, which are effective, contribute to decisionmaking and positive outcome, illconceived and indifferently conducted meetings entail enormous waste of time, efforts and other resources. They may even lead to chaos and confusion. It would therefore be imperative to give attention to certain details while convening meetings. The preparation for an effective meeting starts well in advance and there is a lot that needs to be attended to on the day of the meeting, during the meeting and thereafter till the minutes are drawn up and sent.
Hope Not Meetings keep minutes, but waste hours. Meetings are indispensable when you dont want to do anything. J K Galbraith
the committees, wherever formally constituted, will have to be invariably invited. At the same time, in the ab-sence of a formal list, it would be essential to identify people whose presence would be of significance when subjects are taken up for deliberation. In some cases, senior functionaries will have to be necessarily invited to lend authority to the decision making process whereas some junior level functionaries and subject matter specialists may have to be present to provide technical details and other relevant backpapers. Persons to be invited for the meeting, wherever not specifically stated, are best decided in consultation with the chairperson and other senior functionaries on whose behalf the meeting is called. Invitation for the meeting is to be clearly drawn up indicating the day, date, time and venue of the meeting. Invitations have to be sent well in advance to ensure that outstation participants have sufficient time to make appropriate travel plans. Meeting notices will have to clearly indicate who should attend the meeting. Sometimes, people in organizations receive notices, which do not clearly indicate whether they are sent as an invitation or just as intimation. The addressee in this case is likely to be confused and will have to start making further enquiries. The meeting notice should also state whether the addressee, if not in a position to attend, can depute someone else on his behalf. Though most of these are-simple necessaries, they are often overlooked.
Agenda
Agenda is the list of items to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It provides the reason for calling a meeting. It should be ensured that there are ad-equate numbers of worthwhile issues, which need deliberation at the meeting. All topics and issues that will be taken for discussion during the meeting call for advance efforts. The items stated in the agenda should be relevant and appropriate, keeping in view the purpose of the meeting and the expertise of members who will be participat-ing in it. If the agenda is not properly drawn up, the meeting may not serve any useful purpose. The agenda should be such that adequate numbers of issues that merit the attention of members are drawn up and listed for deliberation so that the duration of the meeting is gainfully spent. Calling a meeting for the sake of it or just to ensure that the pre-determined periodicity is met entails waste of time and resources.
Before the Meeting

Background Papers Every meeting of some importance will have a set of back-ground papers, which are sent in advance to the members who, will participate in the meeting. These background papers relate to the items listed in the agenda and provide glimpses of the issues involved. Background papers are normally prepared by the concerned functionaries or functional departments who are seeking a decision on the issue. Background papers cover all relevant details that are germane to effective de-liberation and would normally include facts, figures, different views, expert opinion, latest position, and so on. Minutes of the previous meeting are also sent along with the first lot of background papers since it is always the first item on the agenda . They are also taken up for confirmation before proceeding to the other items. Background pa-pers ensure that deliberations are focused and cover all relevant dimensions of the subject under discussion. Background papers should state clearly what is expected of the meeting. Board notes, office notes, etc. put up for important meetings should state clearly whether the note is submitted for consideration and orders or submitted for information. It is also a common practice to state the Resolution covering the type of orders sought to ensure abundant clarity. Whom to Invite To be effective, deliberations at the meetings should involve all the concerned functionaries and persons. Regular members of
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Company name and committee name
AURORA HODDINGS plc SOCIAL CLUB
Notice states place, day, date and time of meeting Use the heading AGENDA These three items of ordinary business are included on every agenda (some committees will also include Correspondence) Special business is listed separately (any official reports come first) Finish all agendas with these final two items of ordinary business
A meeting of the Sports and Social Club will be held in the Conference Suite A on Friday 14 May 2000 at 1800
AGENDA Apologies for absence Minutes of last meeting Matters arising Chairmans Report Football Results and Matches (Frank Jones) New Keep-Fit Classes (Carol Chen) Purchase of Tennis Equipment (Aileen Forster) Annual Dinner and Dance Any other business Date of next meeting
Dont forget reference and date CE/ST 7 May 2000
Timing and Venue

Care should be taken in fixing up meetings in a manner that is generally convenient to most of the members or participants. A notice in advance will ensure that participants get adequate opportunity to schedule or reschedule their en-gagements. The date and time should be fixed taking into account holidays, other important evel1ts and functions that may clash with meeting timings and make it difficult for the members to choose between one or the other. While it may not be possible to totally avoid overlapping in all cases, some advance planning and enqui-ries will certainly help better attendance at meetings. Indication of the duration of the meeting will also be helpful so that the participants would know how much time is to be allocated for it. Also, details such as arrangements for breakfast, lunch, etc. need to be mentioned. While reasonable advance intimation for any meeting facilitates better atten-dance, any notice sent months in advance or much
earlier will have to be necessarily followed up with subsequent reminders. The venue of the meeting should be fixed up obviously well before the meeting notices are dispatched. With so many meetings taking place there is bound to be considerable demand for meeting halls and conference rooms. The meeting room should lave all the physical facilities-fans, air conditioners, microphones, projectors, etc. that ensure minimum comfort for the members and facilitate uninterrupted deliberations. As we have seen in the earlier chapters, physical barriers such as non-availability of sound systems, extraneous sounds, cramped seating, etc. hinders effective communication. It is not uncommon in organizations to come across instances where the availability of venue is not confirmed or there is some misunderstanding in the date or time as a result of which either meeting are delayed or participants are made to move from one
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venue to another. A little extra care will avoid much embarrassment at the time of meeting. There are occasions when the chief executive or other senior functionary may decide to convene impromptu or emergent meetings with very short notice in which case the availability of venue, physical facilities and other arrangements for refreshments, etc. will have to be attended to on priority: A situation where the deliberations have concluded and yet refreshments or lunch is not ready speaks of poor prepara-tions and has to be scrupulously avoided. Also the participants time is important and cannot be taken for granted.
Briefing the chairman and other key members about the
issues to be taken up in the meeting

Entrustment of responsibility concerning the recording of
minutes or proceedings
Preparation of minutes on time, obtaining approval for the
same and their dispatch

Timely intimation of postponement, cancellation, change of
venue, etc.
Changes to be effected in the composition of the members
or participants, special invitees, etc.

This kind of attention to all details by the convenor or the
Punctuality
Starting the meeting on time is an area that calls for conscious efforts. Keeping the venue open, reminding the Chairman and other members, ensuring that all papers have reached the participants, and table items are placed, and ensuring that the convenors and organizers are at the venue well before the scheduled time are all a must in making meetings time bound and purposeful. A situation where the convenor is still in consultation with the chairman of the meeting, well past the scheduled start-ing time, while the participants are waiting in the venue not knowing when and if at all the meeting would take place is the kind of situation that speaks of the indifferent attitude towards the meeting and must be avoided.
secretariat brings in the much-needed professional approach in conducting meetings.
Role of the Chairperson

The Chairperson, the convenor or the secretary and senior members have a vital role to play in conducting the meetings effectively. He or she has to ensure punctuality and effective time management. While providing the freedom for expressing views on items taken up for deliberation, the chairperson ensures that discussions do not stray. The Chairperson ensures that as far as possible, all the agenda items slated for discus-sion are duly taken up for deliberation. The chairperson may also have to make appro-priate opening remarks and concluding remarks in the interest of directing delibera-tions and arriving at clear decisions. Through his experience, wit and wisdom, he brings in authority and decisiveness to the deliberations. If, during the course of delibera-tions, members get into a war of words, or personal clash, the chairperson will have to use his or her skill in resolving such conflicts without hurting the people concerned. When meetings are either long or very frequent, some time may have to be spent in warming up 9r refreshing the participants or what may be called unwinding. Partici-pants in all the meetings are the people and people management will have to be done smoothly. It is common fact that sometimes discussions in meetings tend to revolve too much on insignificant or irrelevant topics, leaving much less time for deliberating on the most important topics. The chairperson or the convenor who should play a complementary role in conducting the meetings, should intervene and bring in the much needed sense of proportion. To conclude, it should be reiterated that meetings, when conducted effectively, could bring in substantial benefits in resolving even sensitive matters through collective wisdom. They can be very cost effective means of intensive interaction. When participants learn to talk, listen and interact in a responsible manner, meetings can be really result-oriented. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that although the people participating are knowledgeable, they mayor may not speak out freely and contribute to the deliberations. Sometimes, some of the participants may tend to dominate the deliberations, not giving an opportunity to others to express themselves. In other words, it takes conscious efforts and attention to details in ensuring that meetings are effective.
Time Management
Time management is of essence in ensuring the effectiveness of meetings. Meetings, which start on time, end on time and provide adequate time for proper deliberation of all listed items, ensure cost effectiveness. On the contrary, meet-ings that start with undue delay, take up items not on priority and run out of focus entail waste of efforts and time and prove to be costly to the organization. On_ tan assess the efficiency level of an organization in terms of effectiveness of the meetings conducted at various levels.
Checklist For Meetings

The convenor or the secretariat for the meetings will have to take responsibility for the success of the meetings. They have to invariably give attention to details and ensure that everything is in order. It would be desirable to maintain a checklist of items to be checked at various stages Le., before, during and after the meeting. The checklist should include, among others, the following items:
Venue arrangements such as ensuring that the meeting hall is
ready and open well in time, checking whether all equipments such as mikes, air conditioners, fans, projectors are functioning, providing pens and pads, etc.
Refreshments and catering as are appropriate to the meeting Checking flight arrivals, room bookings, conveyance, etc for
chairper-son and others wherever required

Reminding the local members about the time and venue of
the meeting
Ensuring that all relevant background papers have reached
the members as intended

Ascertaining the participation of members and the
availability of quorum Ensuring that table items required for the days meeting are put up
Meeting Procedures: Conduct of the Meeting

For success of the problem-solving meeting, the leaders attitude and efficiency-from the beginning statement through the entire discussion-are critically important. The leader should be well prepared, be able to think and act quickly, get along with others, respect their opinions, know objectives of discussion and the reasoning process, be patient, and have a sincere interest in the values of cooperative group action. This section lists procedures the leader should follow in conducting the meeting: 1. Begin with appropriate opening statementObviously, you should prepare your introductory statement before the meeting but neither memorize nor read it. Present it informally and naturally-in one or more of these suggested ways: Good morning/ afternoon, everyone. If we are all here, lets.:. . . . .get started . . . .start the meeting. .. . .start. Other possibilities are open to you as chairperson, but the above are some of the most common. 2. Stimulate discussion for solution discovery In general, try to encourage all members to participate, and do keep the discussion moving forward. To help spark discussion on each topic, ask questions and keep participants from wandering onto irrelevant paths. Sometimes if the original contributor of an idea cannot add to it, another member may be able to carry it further. If a participants statement is vague, rephrase it clearly. Maintain an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation throughout the meeting. If a situation becomes tense or some members are reluctant to speak or are annoying or antagonistic, try to calm down the situation. Even taking a recess diffuses tensions. Try to be tactful, considerate, and understanding and show a sense of humor. 3. Understand roles of participants In a meeting, different participants (including the chairperson) tend to acquire some roles. These roles may be categorized as task roles - roles facilitating the achievement of the task assigned to the meeting, and group building and maintenance roles - roles facilitating the harmony in the meeting so that meeting goes undisturbed. While performing a task role, an individual may playas coordinator, or information seeker, or opinion seeker, or information giver, or opinion giver, or recorder. While playing the group building and maintenance role, an individual may perform as encourager, compromiser, follower, and likewise. Knowing the various roles being played by group members assists the leader in knowing how to react, how to handle role statements made during a meeting. 4. Particularly important, however, is handling a problem participant
Here are some suggestions for leaders on handling difficult
members a. The quiet, nonparticipating member -First ask this person question he can answer by a simple yes or no. Then, whenever possible, ask this member to give some information that he is sure to know because of job, training, or experience. Thank and praise the person as much as you can; he may then be more likely to enter the discussion confidently. b. The know-it-all- : This person may be asked to justify every statement he or she makes. Whenever possible, ask other members for their opinions of these statements. Sometimes, it necessary and you feel the majority are annoyed by this persons arrogance, you may tactfully quiet the person by asking for a show of hands from the group, which strongly outvotes the know-it-alls suggestions. If the negative member still insists on knowing all the answers, a private, outside-the-meeting session can bring the groups concern to the person. This one-on-one meeting in a non-threatening atmosphere may produce more positive results. c. The long -winded speaker - You may thank this excessive talker when he is at the end of a sentence, and then recognize someone else. Or you might move the discussion to another highly important point, perhaps with a statement like Well, we have two more points, perhaps with a statement like Well, we have two more points to consider before we wind up this meeting, so lets move along to the next topic. d The erroneous member - If the other members-out of respect-are reluctant to correct this person, an especially tactful comment by you, the leader, may be required. As with any bad-news message, avoid direct criticism, sarcasm, or ridicule. Shield the persons pride. When praising people, single them out; when criticizing them, put them in a group. Perhaps analyze a similar case, without referring to the speaker person-ally. e. The member who shows personal animosity -Though rare, sometimes an angry member shouts hateful, tactless comments towards another mem-ber or members. You can show an attitude of calm understanding and turn him or her of by directing a question to another member. 5. Sort, select, interpret data for solution evaluation - After you have listed members suggestions on the board, encourage participants to consider advan-tages and disadvantages of each suggested course of action. List them sepa-rately. As leader, be careful not to impose your own opinions on the group, or if you wish to participate, ask another member to chair the meeting. Encourage each group member to feel a sense of responsibility for the success of the analysis. Good listening by everyone. to what others offer is extremely impor-tant. 6. State the conclusion and plan of action As with a written analytical report, the terminal section is of major importance. Before you dismiss the meeting, review what the group has accomplished. Summarize what parts of the problem members have solved or partially solved. State the decision
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(conclu-sion) clearly and definitely. You might begin your statement of the conclusion by saying You have agreed.. ..or You have suggested.. ... or Its my interpre-tation that we have approved rather than. I think this is what should be done. If the group arrived at several conclusions, list them, preferably in order to importance. Make some statement about how the solution the group decided on will be carried out. Appointments may be made then or announced later in a memo regarding the action. 7. Follow-up after the meeting - Two functions after the meeting are distribu-tion of the minutes and-most important-seeing that responsible committees, departments, or individuals are appointed to carry out the Same main headings as the chosen action. In some Agenda situations the meeting leader may have to confer with other executives of higher authority Leave right side blank and before appointments are use the heading NOTES made regarding policy Chairman will write notes in decisions. this section during the Copies of the minutes your secretary or assistant prepared should be sent to the meeting participants soon after the meeting. They usually should include: Name of the organization, department, or group
Date, time, place of the
AURORA HOLDINGS plc SOCIAL CLUB A meeting of the Sports and Social Club will be held in the Conference Suite A on Friday 14 May 2000 at 1800 AGENDA 1 APOLOGIES FOR ABSENCE None received 2 MINUTES OF LAST MEETING Circulated on 16 May. Point out error in 4.1 - 1,200 should read 12,000 3 MATTERS ARISING 4 CHAIRMANS REPORT Separate notes attached 5 FOOTBALL RESULTS AND MATCHES Frank Jones to report on 3 matches held during April. Also future match schedule. 6 NEW KEEP-FIT CLASSES 6 5 3 4 NOTES 1 2
meeting
meeting
Names of members present Names of any others present
as invited visitors
Name of chairperson and (at
the end) recording secretary

Brief summary of reports, if
any, by those listed on the agenda

Highlights of solutions
Mention any details which will help the Chairman to conduct the meeting
Carol Chen to propose the introduction of Keep Fit classes for staff. 7 PURCHASE OF TENNIS EQUIPMENT Aileen Forster to report on new tennis equipment needed for July tournament. 8 ANNUAL DINNER AND DANCE Discuss date and venue, ideas for programme and appoint person in charge. 9 ANY OTHER BUSINESS 10 DATE OF NEXT MEETING Suggest 24 June 2000 CE/ST 12 May 2000 9 10 8 7
presented and decisions made

Time of adjournment and (if
announced) date or next meeting.
Reference and date

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Here are Some Tips to Help You Take Better Minutes at Your Next Meeting.
1. Have a copy of the agenda with you. Follow the agenda closely during the meeting and use a stopwatch to note when items begin and end. 2. If the agenda item has been addressed under the allocated time, the speaker should finish. The time that's left over can be used to address any items that couldn't be covered earlier in the discussion. 3. It's up to the group, with the help of the facilitator, to decide to keep on the issue or move on. For example, the group may want to get through the rest of the agenda and then revisit the extended issue at the end of the meeting. In some groups, the leader may make this decision. If it's important enough, a separate meeting may be scheduled to discuss an issue in more detail, which would also give people time to prepare better for meaning discussion. 4. It's the timekeeper's role to let the group know when a speaker's time is up. When one-minute remains, signal the group non-verbally (raise your hand, ring a small bell). This gesture should be determined before the discussion begins. When the speaker's time is up, make the gesture again. Using a non-verbal gesture is comfortable for the timekeeper since he doesn't have to interrupt and encourages the speaker to be concise and stay on time. 5. The timekeeper should also alert the facilitator and group members to breaks. You could say, for example, "I just wanted to let everyone know there are only 10 minutes before our break". You could also write reminders on cards and hold them up as a reminder.
As follow-up, e-mail an attachment of the meeting notes to each of the participants. Or save them to the companys network in a meetings folder. This way, all the meeting participants have access to the meeting notes if theres an idea or discussion theyd like to revisit. In the e-mail, also summarize the action items assigned during the meeting. Outline what was assigned, to whom it was assigned, the priority level and the due date. When a meetings adjourned, its not always clear whos responsible for what, which means action items arent always carried through. By summarizing the action items in an e-mail, you can be certain all participants understand whos responsible for what.
challenge. The first thing you have to do is introduce some variety into your meeting. Dont be afraid to break away from the traditional meeting format and try something fun attendees will appreciate the change to their routine and will be more likely to pay attention if theyre enjoying themselves! Here are a couple of ideas to get you thinking.
Try introducing each agenda item with a humorous quote or a comic strip. It will trigger the audiences interest in what you have to say. If your meeting objective is to introduce new information, let the group know that there will be a quiz on the content you're going to present. At the end of your presentation, ask the group questions about the content you've just presented. Whoever provides the correct answer first receives a prize. Not only will this generate some excitement, but you can guarantee that fewer people will be daydreaming during your presentation! During a discussion or brainstorming session, try this simple game involving a soft, small ball. Begin by throwing the ball to a participant. That person must comment on the subject at hand and then throw it to another participant. Each time the ball is thrown around the room, another comment or suggestion is made. This encourages every participant to contribute to the meeting discussion.
Mixing up the meetings format should help keep participants on their toes. But if you sense that interest is waning, schedule a ten-minute break, or suggest you wrap up and continue the session later in the week. It should be pretty easy to gauge if the audience is losing interest stifled yawns, wandering gazes and random chatter are all good clues. Remember most people need a ten-minute break every 50 minutes, so try to incorporate that into your meeting. If you have a lot of detailed information to wade through, try to insert stories, analogies and guest speakers into your presentation. Any change of pace will help revive the audiences interest. If you want people to fully participate in meetings, its worth putting some extra time and effort into your planning. Participants who daydream or doze off during meetings make the entire session unproductive. As the wise philosopher Confucius said Being fond of courage while detesting poverty will lead men to unruly behavior. Excessive detestation of men who are not benevolent will provoke them to unruly behavior. So make sure your meeting troops are kept happy or you may be stuck with an uprising on your hands!
Using Meeting to Help Rebuild Team Confidence.

Layoffs can spark hard feelings and fear in an office. Its difficult to feel like a team player when youre wondering if youre next in line for a pink slip. First, ask your boss to attend the meeting and give the team a pep talk, reassuring them that their positions are secure. Having this message delivered in person, rather than in a memo or email, will have a more positive effect. You can then explain the rationale behind the layoffs. If people understand why the
How to Keep People Interested in a Meeting?

With the number of meetings that most of us attend, keeping participants interested in what you have to say can be a major
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organization downsized and that these goals have been addressed, they will begin to feel secure again. To help bring the group back together, ask everyone to brainstorm some teambuilding activities. If theyre having trouble getting inspired, throw a few ideas into the ring: a lunchtime potluck, a Friday afternoon scavenger hunt or a mini-golf game throughout the office. Organizing and participating in fun time together will help re-establish some of your departments lost enthusiasm. Also use the meeting to recognize the teams efforts and accomplishments. A simple acknowledgment of their achievements and a word of thanks will go a long way. If youre able, consider giving the team a more tangible reward as well, such as a Friday afternoon off. By addressing the remaining employees status and showing them how appreciated they are, youll be on the way to rebuilding their trust and, with it, their effectiveness and enthusiasm. As the wise philosopher Confucius once said, To put the world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, we must put the family in order; to put the family in order, we must cultivate our personal life; and to cultivate our personal life, we must first set our hearts right. In other words, before you can expect your department to be as effective and enthusiastic as it was, you must first help each individual realize that she is a valued member of the company.
other words, successful decision-making requires that you follow through with your decisions. Otherwise, youll have succeeded in nothing more than wasting peoples time.
How to Become a Better Audience Member?

It takes great courage to recognize ones shortcomings. Since youve already come this far, Im confident you will be able to change your negative meeting behavior. Here are some ideas for breaking your bad meeting habits
Avoid side conversations by writing down questions or
comments as you think of them. If the comments are related to the topic of the meeting, wait for an opening and share your ideas with everyone. If theyre not, address them after the meeting. Then start being an active listener pay attention, make eye contact and respond positively to the presenter. Also, figure out why youre nitpicking and making unwanted comments, and take action. If the topics are boring or the presenters longwinded, come up with some fresh ideas, such as new ways to meet or new rules for talking out of turn.
Most importantly, determine whats behind your negative
What is an Effective Decision Making Process in a Meeting?

Achieving a decision can be a rare occurrence in some meeting rooms. Here are some tips for ensuring decisions are made in your meetings and helping the process run more smoothly.
behavior. Are you unhappy with the way meetings are run? Is there not enough time for attendee feedback? Are you attending too many meetings? If these things are making you resentful, speak up before the meeting and suggest some changes to make your meetings more interesting and effective.
Minutes of a Meeting
During the course of meeting, the items or topics listed in the Agenda are discussed serially one by one. All the participants express their views/ opinions and discuss amongst themselves the pros and cons of each item of Agenda. Finally they arrive at some conclusions or decisions, which are always kept on official record. We call them as minutes of a meeting. Thus minutes are the formal records of proceedings of a meeting. In other words these are the brief of discussions held and decisions taken at the meeting. It is the duty of a Secretary to retain all such discussions, deliberations and decisions in writing specifically. The purpose of writing minutes is
To serve as the formal record of discussion and To serve as a background for future discussions.
Determine the meetings goal and state it clearly before, and several times during, the meeting. For example, The purpose of this meeting is to decide on the publications in which we will advertise this year. Help attendees be better prepared by sending them all relevant information for their review prior to the meeting. Brainstorm possible courses of action on a whiteboard so attendees can refer to them throughout the decisionmaking process. Explore the potential outcomes of each option including both the benefits and difficulties. Define and prioritize the criteria for judging the options. For example, is cost the most important factor, followed by past results? Having these criteria will help the process move more quickly. Determine how the decisions will be made will you need full consensus or will the majority win? Make your final decisions, record them and send them to all attendees and other colleagues who are affected. Follow through with your decisions.
As Peter F. Drucker, author of The Effective Executive , said, No decision has been made unless carrying it out in specific steps has become someones work assignment and responsibility. In
Minutes comprises of a. Date and number of meeting. b. A list of those names of those who attended the meeting c. A list of those members who did not attended the meeting and from whom apologies were received. d. The record of confirmation of the previous minutes and any amendments agreed to by the committee. e. The essential, relevant background to the topic under discussion f. A succinct summary of the discussion g. A clear and unambiguous record of the decision reached/ resolution and if appropriate, of those individuals/bodies responsible for talking subsequent action.
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h. Where discussion of a specific case leads to a policy issue , it is important that a separate minute be written on the policy issue(even if this item did not appear on the agenda)
Remember Use the term Chairperson and not Chairman or Chairwoman. Non gender specific language must be used in the minutes.
Before setting out to write the minute, the following principles should be borne in mind for effective writing:
Brevity- A minute is a selective, not verbatim record. Clarity- Clarity is essential for good communication. Those
frustrating when Im not told what the objective of the meeting is and when I dont see a clearly laid out agenda thats going to accomplish that objective. Hagertys first pet peeve about meetings is lateness: Dont come in late. Its disruptive and its too expensive. People should be on time, be prepared and be ready to roll. But what he thinks would make the biggest improvement in meetings is for people in geographically dispersed companies to have more access to technology. I just dont think a phone connection is quite adequate anymore. Meeting attendees need to be able to see the information and the people especially if they are remote, explains Hagerty. He feels that in order for people to buy in to the focus of a meeting, they need to be fully engaged in the discussions that happen in these meetings. When people are engaged, they feel better because they know whats going on, and they can take better and faster action because its direct information they are getting, not second- or third-hand through some memo that came in the mail or through e-mail.
who were not present should be able to understand what happened at the meeting from reading the minutes. All references should be specific, relevant and accurate. Self -containment - The minute should stand by itself so that additional information is not required if it is required if it is referred to somebody. If readers want more of the background, they should be able to check references.
Decisiveness Decisions /resolutions should be conveyed
How to Reach Your CEOs Meeting Expectations

So what can you do to make sure youre measuring up to your CEOs meeting expectations? Follow their meeting advice.The basics of holding a good meeting actually havent changed over the years, says Knowlton. It all starts with whether or not theres a clearly stated objective for the meeting in the agenda a meeting without an agenda is a recipe for a waste of time. Knowlton explains that she expects the meeting organizer to inform people in advance of the meeting objective and agenda, stay on track in the meeting, cover off the action items and clearly state what the outcome of the meeting is. Hagerty says there are seven main steps to follow if meeting organizers and attendees want to hold a successful meeting: stay focused on the main point; stay in control of the meeting; have an agenda; discuss the important issues; make sure everyone is fully engaged; get a decision; get out. Because action happens outside the meetings.
clearly. The language of actual resolution or decision should be reproduced.

Immediate recording Write up the minutes as soon as
possible after the meeting.
Further Readings Do Your Meetings Measure Upto Your CEOs Expectation?

If the CEO of your company decided to sit in on a few of your meetings, would she be impressed or distressed? We asked Nancy Knowlton, Co-CEO of SMART Technologies Inc. and Bob Hagerty, CEO of Polycom Inc., what they expect from meetings and how important effective meetings are to the success of their companies. Find out if your meetings are effective enough to measure up to the expectations of these CEOs.
What Your Meeting Means to the CEO

Both Knowlton and Hagerty feel strongly that the effectiveness of a companys meetings has an impact on the organizations bottom line. Meetings are a huge investment of time, and the number-one expense that most companies have is their people, explains Knowlton. When people make good use of their time theres a terrific return on investment. But when people dont make good use of their time in meetings they dont achieve their objectives, theres useless chatter or theyre cycling around on the same topic thats a prescription for no return on an investment. Hagerty agrees, I think unsuccessful meetings can be a disaster theyre unpleasant to be in, theyre ineffective, theyre a waste of time, and they create a huge productivity hole. If you look around the room in most corporate meetings, theres a lot of money being burned by the minute.
Six Tips for Effective Meetings

1. Dont Meet Avoid a meeting if the same information could be covered in a memo, e-mail or brief report. One of the keys to having more effective meetings is differentiating between the need for one-way information dissemination and two-way information sharing. To disseminate information you can use a variety of other communication media, such as sending an e-mail or posting the information on your companys intranet. If you want to be certain you have delivered the right message, you can schedule a meeting to simply answer questions about the information you have sent. By remembering to ask yourself, Is a meeting the best way to handle this? youll cut down on wasted meeting time and restore your groups belief that the meetings they attend are necessary. 2. Set Objectives for the Meeting Set objectives before the meeting! Before planning the agenda for the meeting, write down a phrase or several phrases to complete the sentence: By the end of the meeting,
What Would Your CEO Change About Todays Meetings?

I think people are generally well prepared for most of the meetings I attend, says Knowlton. Theyve all read background material and prepared their own materials. But I find it
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I want the group to Depending on the focus of your meeting, your ending to the sentence might include phrases such as: be able to list the top three features of our newest product, have generated three ideas for increasing our sales, understand the way we do business with customers, leave with an action plan, decide on a new widget supplier, or solve the design problem. One benefit of setting objectives for the meeting is to help you plan the meeting. The more concrete your meeting objectives, the more focused your agenda will be. A second important benefit of having specific objectives for each meeting is that you have a concrete measure against which you can evaluate that meeting. Were you successful in meeting the objectives? Why or why not? Is another meeting required? Setting meeting objectives allows you to continuously improve your effective meeting process. 3. Provide an Agenda Beforehand Provide all participants with an agenda before the meeting starts. Your agenda needs to include a brief description of the meeting objectives, a list of the topics to be covered and a list stating who will address each topic and for how long. When you send the agenda, you should include the time, date and location of the meeting and any background information participants will need to know to hold an informed discussion on the meeting topic. Whats the most important thing you should do with your agenda? Follow it closely! 4. Assign Meeting Preparation Give all participants something to prepare for the meeting, and that meeting will take on a new significance to each group member. For problem-solving meetings, have the group read the background information necessary to get down to business in the meeting. Ask each group member to think of one possible solution to the problem to get everyone thinking about the meeting topic. For example, to start a sales meeting on a positive note, have all participants recall their biggest success since the last meeting and ask one person to share his success with the group. For less formal meetings or brainstorming sessions, ask a trivia question related to the meeting topic and give the correct answer in the first few minutes of the meeting. These tips are sure-fire ways to warm up the group and direct participants attention to the meeting objectives. 5. Assign Action Items Dont finish any discussion in the meeting without deciding how to act on it. Listen for key comments that flag potential action items and dont let them pass by without addressing them during your meeting. Statements such as We should really thats a topic for a different meeting or I wonder if we could are examples of comments that should trigger action items to get a task done, hold another meeting or further examine a particular idea. Assigning tasks and projects as they arise during the meeting means that your followthrough will be complete. Addressing off-topic statements during the meeting in this way also allows you to keep the meeting on track. By immediately addressing these statements with the suggestion of making an action item to examine the
issue outside of the current meeting, you show meeting participants that you value their input as well as their time. 6. Examine Your Meeting Process Assign the last few minutes of every meeting as time to review the following questions: What worked well in this meeting? What can we do to improve our next meeting? Every participant should briefly provide a point-form answer to these questions. Answers to the second question should be phrased in the form of a suggested action. For example, if a participants answer is stated as Jim was too longwinded, ask the participant to re-phrase the comment as an action. The statement We should be more to-the-point when stating our opinions is a more constructive suggestion. Remember dont leave the meeting without assessing what took place and making a plan to improve the next meeting!
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LESSON 29 : PRACTICE CLASS ON MEETINGS DOCUMENTATION
By the end of this lesson you will

Learn how to organize meetings Be able to state the documents which are used in meetings Discuss the basic presentation requirements of each document Compose agenda and minutes
Why do people meet?

People meet to:
Share ideas Coordinate activities Negotiate solutions Plan policy and implementation strategies Develop new procedures Foster team spirit
Students, now that we know what meetings are and have also briefly studied the purpose and types of meetings let us do a small exercise. Lets assume that you all are a part of the academic cell of Rai Business School. We need to choose amongst us a Dean, secretary and faculties. Since that we have recently implemented the system of continuous evaluation system and there are yet some confusions amongst the students about its reliability and procedure, the dean has called for a meeting. Use the procedure discussed with you in the previous lesson and organize a meeting along with allocation of work as to who will send the email informing about the meeting and agenda and who will write the minutes.
Meetings
Topics Discussed:
Reasons for meetings Types of meetings Meeting structures and leadership Participating in, organizing and conducting a meeting Recording Following-up meeting outcomes
Effective Meeting Skills

Organisational skills: Planning Informing Preparing Following-up Interpersonal skills: Active listening Questioning Using appropriate non-verbal communication Demonstrating cultural awareness
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Evaluating Meetings
Effective meetings:
Have a clear purpose Are well planned Involve the participants Result in action
Organising a meeting
Plan Conduct Record Organise action Follow-up
Types of Meetings
Formal/Informal Internal/External clients Face-to-face/At a distance Individual/Small group/Large group
Planning a Meeting
Determine the purpose Organise the venue Inform the participants Prepare and circulate the agenda and documentation Check things on the day
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Conducting a Meeting
Consider your purpose and audience and decide on the most effective:
Type of meeting Management/leadership style Facilitation strategies Recording process Ways to follow-up meeting outcomes
Record decisions and follow up

The minutes record the proceedings of a meeting and provide a basis for action Any decision on action should address what, who, how and when Summarise the actions and check that everyone understands what they have agreed to do
During the Meeting

1. Establish the purpose of the meeting 2. Specify the outcomes 3. Get agreement on the process and rules 4. Facilitate participation 5. Maintain focus 6. Pull the issues and outcomes together 7. Get agreement on action 8. Record decisions
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LESSON 30: SALES MESSAGES
UNIT 3 CHAPTER 7: PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
Upon completing this lesson, you will able to use persuasion effectively in making requests and composing sales messages. To reach this goal, you should be able to:
Use imagination in writing skillful persuasive requests that begin
Benefiting from Sales Writing

Probably you will never write sales messages - real ones, that is. In business, profes-sional writers usually write them. These professionals achieve their status by practic-ing long and hard, and usually they are blessed, with a special talent for writing. Why, then, you might ask, should you study sales writing? The answer is that even an amateurish effort to write sales messages gives you knowledge of selling techniques that will help you in many of your other activities. Especially will it help you in writing other business messages, for in a sense most of them involve selling something-an idea, a line of reasoning, your company, yourself. Sales techniques are more valuable to you than you might think. After you have stud-ied the remainder of this lesson, you should see why.
indirectly, develop convincing reasoning and close with goodwill and action.
Compose sales messages that gain attention, persuasively present
appeals, and effectively drive for action
Persuasive messages generally are written in the indirect order. While they do not necessarily involve bad news, their goals run contrary to the readers wishes. The mindset of the reader must be changed before they can be successful. Achieving this change require indirectness. Requests that are likely to be resisted require a slow, deliberate approach. You must persuade the reader that he or she should grant the request before making the request. Moe specifically, you must present facts and logical reasoning that supports your case. And you must do it convincingly. Such a presentation requires that you begin by developing a plan.
Planning the Structure

As you probably know from experience, most direct-mail sales efforts consist of a number of pieces. Typically, brochures, leaflets, foldouts, a letter, and so on combine to, form a coordinated message. But usually a letter is the main piece. It carries the main message, and the other pieces carry the supporting details. Sales efforts by email also use support information, usually enough to give the reader all that is needed to complete a sale. The information may be in the basic mes-sage, perhaps broken down into distinct subtopics in boxes, separate listings, or such. Or it may be in links or attachments skillfully arranged by subtopics. With the use of artwork, color, font selection, and such the total email package can be as complete and attractive as the comparable direct-mail package. After you have studied the following material, you should have a general idea of how to sell by the written word.
Sales Messages
Questioning the Acceptability of Sales Messages As we begin our discussion of sales messages, we should note that they are a most controversial area of business communication. Probably you know from your own experience that direct-mail sales literature is not always received happily. Called junk mail, these mailings often go into the wastebasket without being read. Even so, they must be successful, for the direct mail business has survived for over a century. Sales messages sent by email appear to be creating even more hostility among intended, customers. Angrily referred to as spam unsolicited, email sales messages have generated strong resistance among email users. Perhaps it is because these messages clutter up inboxes. Maybe the rage results from the fact that mass mailings place a heavy burden on Internet providers, driving up costs to the users. Or perhaps the fact that they invade the readers privacy is to blame. There are the downright uneth-ical practices of some email advertisers who use misleading subject lines and invalid email addresses to thwart filtering attempts and get respondents to open them. Whatever the explanation, the resistance is real. You will need to consider these objections any time you use this sales medium. As we shall note later, there are steps reputable advertisers can take to minimize this resistance. We take no stand on the issue. Our goal in the following paragraphs is to show you how to write sales messages. You will have to decide whether and when sales mes-sages should be written. We can only suggest that you follow your conscience and practice good business ethics in whatever you do.
Knowing the Product or Service and the Reader

Before you can begin writing, you must know about the product or service you are selling. You simply cannot sell most goods and services unless you know them and can tell the prospects what they need to know. Before prospects buy a product, they may want to know how it is made, how it works, what it will do, and what it will not do. Clearly, a first step in sales writing is careful study of your product or service. In addition, you should know your readers. In particular, you should know about their needs for the product or service. Anything else you know about them can help their economic status, age, nationality, education, and culture. The more you know about your readers, the better you will be able to adapt your sales message. In large businesses, a marketing research department or agency typically gathers in-formation about prospective customers. If you do not have such help, you will need to gather this information on your own. If time does not permit you to do
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the necessary research, you may have to follow your best logic. For example, the nature of a prod-uct can tell you something about its likely buyers. People with technical backgrounds would proba-bly buy industrial equipment. Expensive French perfumes and cosmetics would probably be bought by people in high-income brackets. If you are purchasing a mailing, list, you usually receive basic demographics such as age, sex, race, education, income, and marital status of those on the list. Sometimes you know more-interests, spending range, consumption patterns, and such.
The beginning of all sales messages have one basic requirement. They must gain attention. If they do not , they fail. The reason is apparent. Because sales messages are sent without invitation, they are not likely to be received favorably. Infact , they even may be unwanted. Unless they gain attention early, the messages are nit read. With direct mail , the envelope containing the message is the first attention getter. All too often the reader recognizes the mailing as an uninvited sales message and promptly discards it. For this reason many direct mail writers place an attention getter on the envelop. It may be the offer of a gift (Free gift Inside). It may present a brief sales message (12 months of Time at 60% off the newsstand price).
Determining the Appeal

With your product or service and your prospects in mind, you are ready to create the sales message. This involves selecting and presenting basic appeals. By appeals, we mean the strategies you use to present a product or service to the reader. You could, for example, present a products beauty or its taste qualities. Or you could present a product through an appeal to profits, savings, or durability. For convenience in studying appeals, we can divide them into two broad groups. In one group are emotional efforts to persuade. Such efforts affect how we feel, taste, smell, hear, and see. They also include strategies that arouse us through love, anger, pride, fear, and enjoyment. In the other, group is rational appeals. These are appeals to reason-to the thinking mind. Such appeals include strategies based on saving money, making money, doing a job better, and getting better use from a product. In any given case, many appeals are available to you. You should consider those that fit your product or service and those that fit your readers best. Such products as perfume, style merchandise, and candy and fine food lend themselves to emotional appeals. On the other hand, such products as automobile tires, tools and industrial equipment are best sold through rational appeals. Automobile tires, for example are not bought because they are pretty but because they are durable, because they grip the road and because they are safe. Sometimes the appeals can be combined to support each other. How the buyer will use the product may be major basis for selecting a sales strategy. Cosmetics might well be sold to the final user through emotional appeals. Selling cosmetics to a retailer (whos primarily interested in their emotional qualities is only to the extend that these make customers buy. A retailers main question about the product is: Will it sell? What turnover can I expect? How much money will it make for me?
Holding Attention in Opening

The first words of your message also have a major need to gain attention. The reader must be moved to read on. What you do here is a part of your creative effort. But the method you use should assist in presenting the sales message. That is, it should help set up your strategy. It should not just gain attention for attentions sake. Attention is easy to gain if nothing else is needed. In a sales letter, a small explosion set off when the reader opens the envelope would gain attention. So would an electric shock or a miniature stink bomb. But the method, you use should assist in presenting the sales message. That is, it should help set up your strategy. It should not just gain attention for attentions sake. Attention is easy to gain if nothing else is needed. In a sales letter, a small explosion set off when the reader opens the envelope would gain attention. So would an electric shock or a miniature stink bomb. But these methods would not be likely to assist the selling. One of the most effective attention gaining techniques is a statement or question that introduces a need that the product will satisfy. For example , a rational appeal message to a retailer would clearly tap his or her stron needs with these opening words: Here is a proven best seller and with a 12percent greater profit Another rational appeal attention getter is this beginning of an email sales message from eFax.com: Never type a fax again! As was mentioned previously, gimmicks are sometimes used to gain attention in direct-mail sales. But a gimmick is effective only if it supports the theme of the message. One Company made effective use of a penny affixed to the top of a letter with these words; Most pennies wont buy much today, but this penny can save you untold worry and money and bring you new peace of mind.
Determining the Mechanics

After selecting the appeal, you should write the sales message. At this point , your imagination comes intot he picture. Writing sales messages is as creative as writing short stories , plays, and novels. In addition to imagination , it involves applied psychology and skillful word use. There are as many different ways of handling a sales message as there are ideas. The only sure measure of the effectiveness of each way is the sales that the message brings in.
Presenting the Sales Message

With the readers attention gained , you proceed with the sales strategy that you have developed . In general , you establish a need. Then you present your product or service as fulfilling that need. The plan of your sales message will vary with your imagination. But it is likely to follow certain general patterns determined by your choice of appeals. If you select an emotional appeal, for example, your opinion has probably established an emotional atmosphere that you will continue to develop. Thus, you will
Gaining Attention
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sell your product based on its effects on your product so vividly that your reader will mentally see it, feel and want it. In general, you will seek to create an emotional need for your product. If you select a rational appeal, your sales description is likely to be based on factual material. You should describe your product based on what it can do for your reader rather than how it appeals to the senses The writing that carries your sales message can be quite different from your normal business writing. Sales writing usually is highly conversational, fast moving and aggressive.
that suggest ease and rapidity in doing something. Such wording helps reduce reader reluctance to take action. 3. Date The ActionIf Possible And Appropriate Name the date whenever you need the readers response by a certain time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then perhaps to meet the deadline for a sale. 4. Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by prompt action. Such a reminder of the desirability of your product or servicesome- times called a clinchercomes appropriately at the ending of your letter. It not only provides motivation for the reader, but it also has decided psychological value as well because it emphasizes service attituderather than the greed stressed if you end with dollars and cents talk or the mechanics of ordering. You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four point action closing when you are writing a letter relating to sales. You should use dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is appropriate for your writing situation.
Sales Letters: Four Point Action Closing

Securing Action Having convinced your reader that your product or service is worth the price, you want to get action before the reader has a change of mind , before forgetfulness defeats you, before the money goes for something elsebefore any of the things that could happen do happen. Therefore, a good persuasive closing is essential. A good action closingor clinchershould include the following four points: 1. Clearly state what action you wish the reader to take. 2. Make that action easy through facilitating devices and careful wording. 3. Date the actionif possible and appropriate. 4. Pprovide a reader benefit as stimulus for action. 1. Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To Take Should the reader order your product or service? Call your office to set up an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local dealership or store to see a demonstration? Invite the visit of a sales representative? On finishing your letter, your reader should know just exactly what you want done and how it should be done. At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the reader to take one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid doing so. Some people faced with a choice resolve their dilemma by doing nothing. 2. Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating Devices And Careful Wording Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage remove some of the work in taking action. Also, your phone number (with area code and extension) are useful if you want the reader to call you. Finally, state your office hours and location if you want the reader to come to see you in person. References to these facilitating devicespreferably directing the reader to use themreassure the reader that what you are asking is simple and requires little time and effort. Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also emphasize that what you are asking the reader to do is simple. Write and let us know your choice suggests more work than Check your color choice on the enclosed card. Jot down, just check, simply initial are also examples of wording
Further Readings
The 10 Laws for Writing Letters that Get Results By Joe Vitale The following is a letter in response to a question about how to write sales letters. This is something you could model in layout, tone, and ideas, to write your own letters. By the way, this is where your letterhead should go. Dear Fellow Chicago Seminar Attendees, Jerry Jenkins asked me to tell you how to write letters that get read and get results. Thats a tall order! Well, heres what I think the laws are: 1. Know whats in it for your reader. Get out of your ego and into your readers ego. Complete this sentence: Get my book so that you can...(fill in the blank). Your book (or whatever you are selling) is the feature. What people get as a result of having your book is the benefit. Focus on benefits. Always! Without this, your letter will bomb. 2. Write a headline that telegraphs the key benefit to your reader. ALWAYS use a headline. There is only ONE exception to this rule. When you personalize your letter, the Dear (whoever) opening becomes your headline. There are few headlines more powerful than the readers own name. The headline is THE most important part of your letter! Spend nearly all of your time on it. 3. Be brief. Say what you have to say in terms of the readers self interest and shut up. This does NOT necessarily mean a short letter. If you are trying to make a sale, and the reader has never heard of you or your item for sell, you may have to write four or more pages to get your message across. If all you want is a return call, a one page letter may do. Don be afraid of length. People will read any length of copy AS LONG AS ITS INTERESTING!
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4.
Always use a PS. Always. Why do copywriters who charge upwards to $15,000 to write a sales letter and have weeks to draft it always use a PS? They are always read. Always.
Personally, I thought it was an effective piece of copy (even though I still wont renew). It made an emotional case for what is essentially a business-to-business offer. Many people who write persuasive copy, whether in sales letters or internal memos, say the rest of us underestimate the power of emotion in getting the response we want from our messages. Theres a sort of rule of thumb that goes like this: Consumers buy on emotion and justify on reason. In other words, we, as buyers, think were being rational in making a decision to purchase, or in choosing among different offers, but in reality we make the decision with our hearts and then justify that decision with our reasoning powers. In the case of the magazine copy, I was about to be dropped Imagine! Me being dropped! from the list of active subscribers. Im not sure what active subscribers are: do they also have passive subscribers? But, the meaning comes through. Im about to get dropped from an exclusive club unless I act now. Which is where the emotional factor kicks in. Who wants to be dropped? Isnt that like being in high school again and not wanting to be excluded from a popular group? Isnt there an eternal desire to belong? With this appeal to my insecurities and ambitions, the copywriters have forced me to think about my decision not to renew. I cant just make a business as usual decision; it must be a personal as well as business decision. And when a message gets personal, it demands more involvement from the reader or listener. More involvement, in turn, means more attention to the message, making it more persuasive. If you sell, this idea wont come as much of a surprise. But, if you try to influence behaviors in other ways, you may wish to add emotion to your communication toolbox. Its something you do by getting personal, by tapping into the hopes, fears, or aspirations of those with whom youre communicating. Of course, we must use emotion ethically and responsibly. If you plan to use it, step back and ask yourself how you would respond if someone else directed that kind of a message to you. Thats always a simple but helpful litmus test.
5.
Look good. Visual attractiveness accounts for 70% of your letters impact. Use short sentences, short paragraphs, bulleted points, indented paragraphs, subheads, etc. Some people will just skim your letter, so engaging subheads and bulleted points help reach them instantly. Outline first. Use a planning tool such as the program Project Kick Start to help you think through your message. Or talk to a friend. Or to a tape recorder. Or to yourself. This also helps you get comfortable with speaking your letter rather than writing it.
6.
7.
Write first, edit last. Turn your inner editor off. You can rewrite later. For now, write spontaneously and quickly to get your ideas on paper.
8.
Ask for something. Why are you writing? You want a call. Or an order. Something. Say so!
9.
Get a reader.
Find one person to read your letter OUT LOUD in front of you. If he (or she) has trouble reading your letter, if he wrinkles his brow or stops to reread a sentence, rewrite those places. Dont skip this step! Its the secret of many professional writers. 10. Rewrite your letter again. Is it the best you can do? Be honest! If not, throw it away and call the person instead. Or hire a copywriter to write it for you. Why waste your time or your readers with something that doesnt communicate in a persuasive and interesting way? (I rewrote this letter 24 times!) Well, there you have it. Of course, there are more rules, laws, ideas and suggestions for writing letters that get results. You should always guarantee whatever you are selling, for example, and always offer proof for all of your claims. But the above will get you rolling. Sincerely,
Using Emotion for Persuasion

By Robert F. Abbott The other day, I received the last issue of a business magazine before my subscription runs out. Now, I like this magazine, but Im swamped with reading matter so I wont renew. Of course, Ive received many reminders and offers about renewing; magazines try very hard to keep the subscribers theyve got. So when the last issue came with a special promotional wrapper on the cover, I wasnt surprised. But, what made this one interesting was a clever piece of copy that hit an emotional chord: inside the back cover of the special wrapper were the words, Youre about to be dropped from our list of active subscribers. Unless you act now.
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Preliminary Considerations Writing Persuasive Requests

q Your Goal: Ask for something reader likely to oppose. q You must develop strategy that w/convince reader to comply.
Copyright 2002 by The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. -
Why Write Sales Messages?

Sales messages are helpful in training you because: q Sales techniquesuseful in your other activities
v In writing other messages v In actual sales work v In selling yourself
Procedure for Writing a Persuasive Request

MESSAGE PLAN:
Opening q Open with words that v Set up the strategyAND v Gain attention. q Present strategy (persuasion), using persuasive language & you-viewpoint. q As logical follow -up, make request clearly & without negatives. q End message w/the request or words that recall the appeal.
Preliminary Steps to Sales Writing

q Learn product or service you sell:
v How it is made v How it works v What it will do [AND WHAT IT WILL NOT DO]
Body
q Learn about prospective customers:

v Economic status v Nationalities v Ages v Etc.
Closing
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2-Broad Categories: q Emotional: Appeals to the senses (feeling, tasting, smelling, hearing) q Rational: Appeals to thinking mind (save money, make money, do better job, get better use)

Select appeal that fits prospects:
q Sales to retailers (for resale):
Probably rational
q Sales to ultimate consumers:

Either rational Or emotional
10
10

Select appeal that fits product or service: q Some better suited to emotional: Music Cosmetics Fancy foods q Some better suited to rational: q Work tools q Tires q Industrial goods
Organization of Sales Message

Many variations are used: q Whatever works q But there is this conventional pattern: v Gain attention v Create desire v Cover all necessary information v Drive for the sale v Possibly add a postscript
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Conventional Org. Pattern of Sales Letter in Detail

Message Plan:
Opening q Begin w/words that set up sales presentation & gain attention. q Present sales message. Use imagination, persuasive language, & you-viewpoint. q Include sufficient information to convince. q Then, drive for sale. Make it clear, use appropriate strength. q Urge immediate action. q May recall basic appeal in final words.
Body
Closing
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IF YOU WANT TO SUCCEED

If you want to succeed, you should strike out on new paths rather than travel the worn paths of accepted success.
--John D. Rockefeller
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LESSON 31: PRESS RELEASE

Explain the function of the public relations department Explain the purpose of a press release Discuss the special writing skills needed for compiling a press release Explain the appropriate format for presenting press release Compose press release according to given instruction
When writing your press release, it should be

Concise - editors receive hundreds of press releases a week
(perhaps more) and appreciate releases that are brief and to the point.
Well-written - a good way to ensure your press release ends
up in the wastebasket is: bad spelling, poor grammar, and illogical or unsubstantiated claims.
Factual - stick to logical and substantiated claims, avoiding
Students, you must have studied about the role of public relations in marketing. Public relation is a part of the marketing function and press release is a part of the PR activity. A press release is an announcement, which a company sends to the press and other media about anything, which it considers to be newsworthy. A press release is not an advertisement but it can result in useful publicity for the company issuing the release.
statements of belief: were the best, the cheapest, etc. Honest - avoid the padded quotes by company officers; even if they are experts, they come across as biased. If used, stick to the facts.
Timely - if your press release isnt topical, consider
Public Relations
The public relations (PR) function in any organization is usually carried out by staff who have specialized in this sector. Public relations, as the name suggests, is all about the relationship between the organization and the general public. On of the aims of PR is to influence the general public through the mass media, e.g newspapers, television, radio, information , services , exhibitions, sponsorship. The job of the PR person in nay organization is to constantly on the lookout for newsworthy events, products, developments and human interest stories and then turn them into any of the following: A press release
A press conference A photo opportunity for newspaper coverage Corporate material for direct mailing Briefing packs for potential customers Briefing packs for special groups of visitors Free educational packs for schools and colleges
incorporating it with a recent news event but dont stretch it.
Questions to Consider Before You Write a Press Release

Who is the preferred audience of your press release? What do you want readers to take away from your press
release?
What does your press release provide: invaluable
information or just another offer? What is the support or justification for the information in your press release?
What is the tone of your press release? Are you aware of possible pitfalls or areas to avoid? What do you want to accomplish with your press release:
increase business, disseminate information or both? Does the press releases lead (opening) address or answer the basic tenets of journalism
Who What When Where Why How
If you are responsible for helping to produce public relations material, here are some guidelines to follow. Effective PR material will: 1. Be factual, newsworthy and impartial 2. Appeal to human interest 3. Contain up-to-date information 4. Be appropriately distributed 5. Be a produced professionally
Write a Successful Press Release

A press release is one of the primary ways you can communicate news about your company to the media. Reporters, editors, and producers are hungry for news, and they often depend on releases to tip them off to new and unusual products, company trends, tips and hints, and other developments. In fact, much of what you read in newspapers, magazines, or trade publications, hear on the radio or see on television originated in press release form. Unfortunately, the average editor receives as many as several hundred press releases each week, the vast majority of
How to Write a Press Release

Planning Begins Before You Write a Press Release While no one can guarantee your press release will be published or used for an article, there are things you can do to improve your chances. The biggest obstacle to most press releases is the release itself.
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which end up getting filed. Your challenge is to create a release that makes the journalist want to know more and discover that your story is one they must tell. Use these 10 tips to write a release that will get noticed. 1. Use an active headline to grab the reporters attention The headline makes your release stand out. Keep it short, active, and descriptive; in other words, use something like Rajdeep Named Man of the Year instead of Rajdeep Gets Award. 2. Put the most important information at the beginning This is a tried and true rule of journalism. The reporter should be able to tell what the release is about from the first two paragraphs. In fact, chances are thats all they may read. So dont hide good information. And remember the 5 Ws and the H - make sure your release provides answers to Who, What, When, Where, Why and How. Avoid hype and unsubstantiated claims A writer can smell a sales pitch a mile away. Instead of making over-inflated statements, provide real, usable information. Find legitimate ways to set you and your company apart and stress those points. To promote your business, write a release that answers questions about your business, rather than one that provides only general statements about how great or interesting your business is without saying why. 4. Be active and to the point Use language that will get the reader as excited about your news as you are. If your release is boring or meandering, they may assume that you will not be a good interview. 5. Keep your release to two pages or less On the rare occasion, you can opt for a third page if it is necessary to provide critical details. Otherwise, if you cant state your message in two pages, youre not getting to the point. 6. Include a contact Make sure your release has a person the journalist can contact for more information. This person should be familiar with all the news in the release, and should be ready to answer questions. And issue the release on your company letterhead - it looks professional and gives the writer another way to reach your firm. Keep jargon to the minimum If youre in a technical field, try not to use technical terms. Many reporters are not as intimate with your company or your industry as you are. Real English, not jargon, best communicates your story. 8. Stress benefits This falls into the category of dont say it, show it. Avoid saying something is unique or the best. Instead, show how people will benefit - i.e. save time, save money, make their life easier, etc. 9. Be specific and detailed
Marcia Yudkin, author of Six Steps to Free Publicity calls this Yes, but what IS it? syndrome. The reader needs to be able to visualize a new product, or know how a new service works. If in doubt, have someone unfamiliar with your product or service read the release and asks him or her to describe what you trying to publicize. And its better to use too many details than too few. So, as Yudkin notes, Instead of Shekhars new book contains information designed to benefit any stock market investor, write, Shekhars new book contains seven principles of market analysis that enable even casual investors to choose profitable stocks. Even better, describe two of the seven principles right in the release. 10. Proofread When youve finished your press release, remember to proofread it for typographical errors. If you dont have a good eye for spelling or grammar, give the release to a friend or colleague who does. If your release looks sloppy and careless, so will you. Who do I send my press release to? In order to properly answer your question, Im going to ask you to put on two pairs of shoes. The first pair belongs to the editor or producer of a particular publication or broadcast. Why walk in these shoes? These are the people responsible for assembling a publication or broadcast. If your information does not fit the format or purpose of the publication or broadcast, this editor or producer will ignore and bypass your press release information. The second pair of shoes to wear are those of the reader or viewer of a publication or broadcast. What are they interested in reading or viewing? Do they want news, entertainment, tips or techniques? Knowing what readers and viewers want and how editors and producers supply these needs will help you craft and target your press release. With these two pair of shoes in mind, who do you now send the press release to? The logical answer is daily or weekly newspapers that serve your target market. You can get a list of these from your library or from search engine research. Once you have identified the publication, then you can contact each to find the appropriate contact person for your genre of information. Sometimes this will be a reporter, a feature editor, a managing editor or, in rare cases, the actual publisher. For radio and television, this person is the producer, executive producer, news director, program manager, feature editor (sports, food, lifestyle) or individual reporter. Again, calling the station or searching the Internet will help you track down the correct name and contact information. Once youve compiled your lists, its time to send your information. Hopefully in your contact information research, you were able to obtain an e-mail address and/or fax numbers. There is a trend today toward e-mail communication, although faxes do still work. In some cases, when pictures, graphics or exhibits are pertinent, snail-mail works best. Knowing which method your contact prefers and then delivering accordingly will enhance your chance of publication or broadcast.
3.
7.
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Keep your list of contacts, add to it, work it and keep in touch, even when you dont have an actual press release. Remember, though, these people are very busy and usually face tighter deadlines than you and I work with on a daily basis. Respect this and work with their schedules, and youll be on your way to hitting your target with PR. What are the preferences of some of the well-known publications as far as submitting PR-related material? The advice given here applies to any situation in which you are submitting PR materials to the press. This is Part I. What do magazines and newspapers look for in a story pitch?
Not all magazines are looking for news stories. Instead, as
There are certain big events that attract the attention of the
media.
Its rare, but some magazine editors will take time to visit
individual companies, but something in the trip must make it worthwhile for them to travel. And if youve got a great story and youre in the local area, some newspaper editors just might be receptive to meeting you.
Newspaper editors try to attend any local ad and media
conferences. What about deadlines?

Monthly magazine editors plan ideas all the time, so theres
one editor put it, We want leads about people who are flying beneath the radar and doing something quite remarkable. Your best bet is to offer a story very grounded in best practices. Give us a company that no one has really heard about before or a new effort from a fascinating company that is trying something different.
Some magazines prefer to examine case studies, though their
writers do them in their own way. Most importantly, know the magazine. Although editors admit its not something that can be easily explained, all too often they receive irrelevant pitches that dont relate to the publication. If, for instance, you wanted to pitch an idea for a technology article, use the press release to tell the editor that youre pitching a proven example of something. And get their attention in two paragraphs or less.
Magazines love it when a company approaches them with
no magic window of opportunity. Its best to just take your shot. But before you do, contact the marketing department. They should have a good sense of what is coming up on the editorial calendar. The calendar is proprietary, so youll need to go through them to get it. Newspaper editors, on the other hand, are on deadline every day of the workweek, but they will do their best to respond in a timely manner. Frequently, articles will go to print at around 6:30 p.m. in the city where the publication is based, but days are set by 4 p.m. Unless it really is breaking news, try to reach them early in the day.
10 Essential Tips to Ensure Your Press Release Makes the News.

1. Make sure the information is newsworthy. 2. Tell the audience that the information is intended for them and why they should continue to read it. 3. Start with a brief description of the news, then distinguish who announced it, and not the other way around. 4. Ask yourself, How are people going to relate to this and will they be able to connect? 5. Make sure the first 10 words of your release are effective, as they are the most important. 6. Avoid excessive use of adjectives and fancy language. 7. Deal with the facts. 8. Provide as much Contact information as possible: Individual to Contact, address, phone, fax, email, Web site address. 9. Make sure you wait until you have something with enough substance to issue a release. 10. Make it as easy as possible for media representatives to do their jobs.
real examples of how it differs from the competition. Its also not a bad idea to give a clear definition of what segment of the market you are playing into. Keep in mind, though, editors dont like companies that come off as boastful in their press releases. Before you pitch a newspaper in a major city, heed this advice: Read previously published articles. Make sure your story is one no one has written about. And if its a new campaign, it has to be different and relevant.
If youre trying to get PR for your new product, make sure
your press release communicates to editors exactly what makes the product unique, be it pricing or a cool technical aspect. Above all, know their audience. What is the best way to contact editors?
Most editors are too busy to field phone calls. Voice mail is
unreliable because it tends to clog up really fast. Postal mail is even worse; most of it gets discarded by editors. So use email instead. To make it work for you, dont say press release in the subject line. And, most importantly, get to the point early. Tell editors quickly why your story is so important to their readers. Where can you go to meet the publication staff?
Magazine editors attend a variety of conferences each year.
Further Readings
Beyond the Press Release Develop a public-relations plan that will keep your business in the spotlight. Business Start-Ups magazine - May 1997 By Catherine A. Reilly If you build it, they will come. This abstract concept worked for Kevin Costner in Field of Dreams. His character, an Iowa farmer, built his dream baseball field. Eventually, his vision turned into reality as the players came, followed by an audience. Hollywood makes it seem so easy! But if you want to attract
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Most tend to shy away from the standard issue trade shows and instead go to conferences that feature new ideas, intriguing case studies and fresh thinking.
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employees and customers to your new business, you must publicize your field of dreams. Trouble is, while you know that you must do more than fire up the old computer and hang out a shingle, youre not exactly sure what you should do. So you place an advertisement in your favorite magazine. Or, in a marketing frenzy, you try to promote your company on every level possible, which is as futile as trying to boil the ocean. As a result, you spend a lot of money and time, and garner very few results. Owners of thriving ventures know that, just as they must start with a good business plan to launch their businesses, they must develop a solid public-relations plan to promote their enterprises. If you have a good plan, and devote enough time and energy to carrying out that plan, you will obtain a great deal of positive publicity for your companyat very little cost.
Craig S. Rice, former president of Royal Crown Cola Ltd. Canada, and author of Marketing Without a Marketing Budget (Adams Media Corp., $10.95, 800-872-5627), says planning should be an ongoing part of your day-to-day business operations. When should you plan? he asks. All the time. You should always be thinking about next steps, just as a sports coach or combat commander is constantly evaluating tactics. All good planning begins with research. Consider your road trip: In planning for this journey, you must first decide on your objective (in this case, Las Vegas). You should then consult a map, select the roads you would like to travel and the places you would like to visit along the way, and determine how long it will take to drive there. Once youve determined these basics, you can plan the best method for achieving your goal. You will plan when to leave, when you will stop along the way, and when you will finally reach your destination. Similarly, in creating a PR plan, you must first do your research. What does your public know about your business, if anything? Who are your competitors? How do they publicize their businesses? Understanding your competition will help you rival them in the marketplace. With this information in mind, determine your objectives. What do you wish to accomplish with your PR plan? Of course, you want to expand sales volume. However, what other things do you want to achieve? Perhaps you want to increase the number of repeat customers your company has. Maybe you want to introduce a new product or service. If your company is very new, your initial PR plan may include simply getting the word out about your business. Write down your objectives. Look them over. Rearrange them. Put them into a logical sequence. Naturally, you cannot increase sales volume before your potential customers know about you. Put your goals into an orderly list of achievable objectives. Beyond the Press Release
What is Public Relations?

Public relationsor PRis, literally, the relationship your company has with its public. Your public includes your current customers, your future customers, and even potential customers. Your employees, if you have any, are a part of your public, as are your neighbors and the local press. All these people have an interest in your companyin the prices it sets, and in the products and services that it provides. The relationship you create with these people will have a profound effect on the future of your business. The function of PR is to publicize your company to these people, and to create a positive image of your business which will translate into sales dollars. No one will know that your company exists if you dont tell them, but you must tell them in a systematic, planned manner. If you dont plan what you want to say, and how and when you will say it, your public will be left to develop their own opinions without any guidance from you. It is important to remember that PR is not marketing, although it can play a key role in marketing your products and services. Defined literally, marketing is the use of pricing and distribution to sell a product. Certain PR practices can aid the marketing process, and as a new business owner, you can learn to use PR to enhance your marketing plan.
How Do I Create a Plan of Action?

Now that you know what you want to accomplish, you must create a plan of actiona way in which you will achieve your objectives. Lets begin with a time chart. Your time chart should be a weekly calendar of things that you will do to promote your business. Each promotional effort should be listed, with its start and completion dates indicated. It is important to remember that the media, whether print or broadcast, all have lead timesthe time between when they receive your promotional material and when it appears. For this reason, your promotional materials must be released well in advance. For example, suppose your new company is going to introduce a new product. Obviously, you want people to know about it. Once you send a press release to a publication, however, it can take from two to four months for that release to be printed. Therefore, your time chart for promoting your new product should begin four to six months prior to the release date, if you are to realize any benefit from your effort. If youre running a one-person show, you must be realistic in your action planning. Its best to keep your initial plan simple,
Do I Really Need a Plan?

Imagine yourself in a car, beginning a long road trip. You want to drive from New York City to Las Vegas. So you throw some clothes together, point your van southwest, and head off. You dont know how long the trip will take. You dont know what the weather will be like along the way. You dont have a road map. You dont have a plan. You may get thereeventually. But it will be much easier if you first research what you want to accomplish, and plan how you will achieve this feat. Planning the publicity for your business is similar to planning a trip. It may require a little extra time, initially, but it will save you timeand moneyin the long run. You may be successful without the plan, but you have a much better chance of arriving in Las Vegas if you have a map in the glove compartment and consult it regularly during your journey.
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and expand it later, when you have more people and resources to assist you.
What is a Press Release?

The press release is the most common communication tool used in PR efforts. It is an informational letter describing a newsworthy fact about your company. Written correctly, the press release can be very effective in promoting your business. Also, unlike advertising, which can be very expensive, magazines and newspapers do not charge for editorial coverage. That means you pay only for the cost of postage (and photography, if you choose to include a photograph). Of course, editors receive many press releases, and there is no guarantee that yours will be printed. Therefore, you must try to make your release stand out from the crowd. How? Be professional. Remember these tips when issuing a press release: 1. Keep your target audience in mind. The worst thing you can do is to inundate all publications on your mailing list with the same press release. Research the publications first. Make sure you tailor your release to their respective markets. 2. Start with the most important information. Publications rarely run press releases word for word. Editors usually cut from the bottom up, so make certain youve included all the necessary facts in the opening paragraphs. 3. Keep it factual. The fastest way to diminish your credibility is to put gushing, biased copy in your press release. Editors want the facts, not your opinion. 4. Make sure its news. Editors want to create publications that are interesting to their audiences. Find the angle. Is your company new, unique or unusual? Tell them how running your release can benefit their readers. 5. Photos help. Editors love photos. Supply a caption, identifying any individuals pictured, and type it on a separate sheet of paper. (Never write on the back of a photograph.)
Characteristics of News
n n
Conflict
Is
the subject man vs. man, man vs. nature, etc.?
Novelty
Is
the subject unusual, bizarre? Is it the first, the last or once in a lifetime? Does it show progress or human interest? the information useful to those reading it?
Usefulness
Is
Elements of News
n
What
Subject
of the story, person, object, action, phenomenon or area by name, title and description, if appropriate for action, attitude, event
Who
People
Why
Reasons
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Writing Style
n
Lead
n
Inverted Pyramid
Most
Answer the following questions:

What Why
important points expressed first Required by newspapers and other publications that have limited space
will take place? are you holding this event? Who will be there? When and where is it? How many people are participating and what will they be doing? What do you expect to come out of the event?
Lead
Most critical part of the news release n Without an effective lead, the reader will not read further. n A good lead sells the story. n What, how, why, when and who should be covered in the first paragraph. n Give this information in three or four sentences (no more than 30 words).
n
Parts of the Release

n
Body
Inverted
pyramid Include support for each point

Quotes Comparisons n Statistics n Causes and consequences n Background information
n n
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Parts of the Release

n Closing
Tell
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE January 14, 2003
CONTACT: JANE DOE (405) 555- 1234
Headline is centered and bolded STILLWATER, Okla. First paragraph: interesting lead sentence, general description of event, date, place, and who is invited. Second and succeeding paragraphs: more description, background of the event, quotes from people involved. Final paragraph: program details, contact information. ###
how one can receive more information

of person, phone number, e-mail, etc.
n Name
Closing example
n
For more information about OSUs basketball team, contact Coach Eddie Sutton at (405) GO-POKES.
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the big guns and stress just a few of the most important things the reader will discover. By offering a killer list early in your sales letter, you will automatically create a desire in the reader to continue through your ad copy. After all, if they are already interested after the first list of benefits, they will certainly be open to finding out even more reasons why your product or service will aid them. 6. Just let it all flow out. Write down everything that enters your mind as you are writing your sales letter. You can edit it later. If you just sit and start writing everything you know about your product or service and how it will benefit your customer, you will be amazed at how much information floods your mind. Write it ALL down. Then read through it - youll be able to add a lot more detail to many of the points. Edit it after you have exhausted all of your ideas. 7. Make your sales letter personal. Make sure that the words you and your are at least 4:1 over I and my. Your ad copy must be written about YOUR CUSTOMER not yourself. Im not sure how the old advertising adage goes, but its something like this, I dont care a thing about your lawn mower, I just care about my lawn. Leads arent interested in you or your products; they are interested in themselves and their wants and needs. When you are finished with your sales letter and have uploaded it to a test web page, run a check at http://www.keywordcount.com and see what the ratio between you and your versus references to I, me, my, etc. Its a free service. Make sure its at least 4:1 in favor of the customer. 8. Write like you speak. Forget all of those rules that your grammar teacher taught you. Write your sales letters in everyday language, just like you would talk in person. Dont be afraid to begin sentences with And or Because. Dont worry about ending a sentence with a preposition. Write like you speak. Your sales letter isnt the great American novel, so dont write it like you are Ernest Hemingway. 9. Use short paragraphs consisting of 2-4 sentences each. Long copy works...but long paragraphs do not. Use short paragraphs that lead into the next paragraph. Dont be afraid to use short sentences. Like this one. Or this. See what I mean? Shorter paragraphs keep the interest of the reader. Longer paragraphs cause eyestrain and often force the reader to get distracted. 10. Stress the benefits, not the features. Again, readers want the burning question answered, Whats in it for me? What need is it going to meet? What want is it going to fill? How is your product or service going to be of value or benefit to the reader? Spell it out. Dont focus on the features of your product or service , but rather how those features will add value to the life of your reader. For example: If you are
Upon completion of this lesson you will

Learn the structure of a sales letter Compose a sales letter
Writing an Effective Sales Letter

(32 easy ways to give a new life into your sales letter...) 1. Write your sales letter with an individual in mind. Go ahead and pick out someone, a real person to write your sales letter to. Doesnt matter if it is grandma or your next door neighbor or your cat. Write your sales letter just like you are writing it to them personally. Why? Because when your potential customer reads, it then it will seem personal, almost like you wrote it with them in mind. Too often, sales letters are written as if they were going to be read to an audience rather than one person. Keep your sales letters personal, because one person at a time is going to read them. 2. Use an illustration to get your point across. In my sales letters I have told stories about my car stalling on the side of the road to illustrate the idea that we must constantly add the fuel of advertising to keep our businesses running. I have compared the hype of easily making millions online to the chances of me riding bareback across Montana on a grizzly bear. Leads have read of how getting to the top of an oak tree relates to aggressively marketing online. People love a good story that pounds home a solid message. Tell stories that illustrate a point you are trying to make. Emphasize a benefit by sharing an account from the real world. It effectively creates interest and further establishes the point. 3. Create an interest in the reader from the very first line. Your first line of the sales letter should immediately create a desire in the reader to want to know more. Go back to the beginning of this article. The first words were, Its true. I can guarantee you that either consciously or subconsciously you thought Whats true? Immediately, your mind wanted to know what I was talking about. Before you even knew it you were right here, 8 paragraphs into this article. Carefully craft your first line. If you can immediately get them wanting to know more, youve got a winner. 4. Use bullets. People spend a lot of time reading bulleted lists. In fact, they often reread them over and over. Use bulleted lists to stress the benefits of your product or service, to spell out exactly what is included in your offer. Use an extra space in between each bullet to really highlight each line and create a sense of more length to the list. 5. Launch into a bullet list immediately. Shortly after your opening line, immediately give the reader a bullet list of benefits to absorb. Hit them with your best shot. Pull out
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selling automobile tires, you may very well have the largest assortment of tires in the world, but who cares? I dont care about your selection. But, I do care about keeping my 3month-old baby girl safe while we are traveling. So, instead of focusing on your selection, you focus on the fact that my baby girl can be kept safe because you have a tire that will fit my car. Youre not selling tires, youre selling safety for my family. Stress the benefits, not the features. 11. Keep the reader interested. Some sales letters read like they are a manual trying to explain to me how I can perform some complicated surgery on my wife. They are filled with words and phrases that I need a dictionary to understand. Unless you are writing to a very targeted audience, avoid using technical language that many readers might not understand. Keep it simple, using words, language and information that are easy to understand and follow. 12. Target your sales letter. When you are finished with your final draft of the sales letter, target it to a specific audience. For example: If you are selling a work at home product, then rewrite the sales letter by adding words in the headlines and ad copy that are targeted towards women who are homemakers. Then, rewrite the same sales letter and target it to college students. Write another letter targeting senior citizens. Still another could be written to high school teachers wanting to earn extra income during summer vacation. The possibilities are endless. All you need to do is add a few words here and there in your ad copy to make it appear that your product or service is specifically designed for a target audience. Work only 5 hours a week, would become College Students, work only 5 hours a week. Your sales letter is now targeted. Upload all of the sales letters to separate pages on your website (you could easily target 100s of groups). Then, simply advertise the targeted pages in targeted mediums. You could advertise the College Students page in a campus ezine. The Senior Citizens page could be advertised at a retirement community message board. By creating these targeted sales letters, you can literally open up dozens of new groups to sell your existing product to. And, in their eyes, it looks like the product was a match made for them. 13. Make your ad copy easy to follow. Use short sentences and paragraphs. Break up the sales letter with attention grabbing headlines that lead into the next paragraph. One thing that I have always found to work very well in sales letters... ...is to use a pause like this. Start the sentence on one line, leaving the reader wanting to know more, and then finishing up on the next line. Also, if you are going to use a sales letter that continues on several different pages of your website, use a catchy hook line at the end of each page to keep them clicking. Lets get you started down the road to success, shall we? CLICK HERE to continue. 14. Use similes and metaphors for effect. When the customer purchases your product, they will generate a flood of traffic that would make Noah start building another ark. If they
do not order today, then they will feel like a cat that let the mouse get away. Use words to create a picture in the readers mind. When you think of Superman, what comes to mind? Immediately, we remember that he is faster than a speeding bullet. More powerful than a locomotive. Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound. See how word pictures stick in our minds? 15. Focus on one product or service. Dont try to sell your customer multiple products at the same time. It only confuses the reader. Keep your ad copy directed at one specific product or service. Then, use other products and services as back-end products. 16. Make it stand out. Dont kid yourself. There are hundreds, maybe thousands out there on the web doing the same thing you are doing. How will you stand out among the crowd? Your sales letter must inject personality. It must breathe of originality. Your product or service is different. Its not like all of the rest. It is unique. Right? Your sales letter must separate you from the competition. It must create a feeling of You wont find this anywhere else. 17. Be believable. Earn $54,000 in the next 24 hours!!!!! Delete. Good grief, do they think I am an idiot or something? Get real. Dont make outrageous claims that are obviously not the truth. Youll ruin your reputation. Let me tell you a simple universal fact that cannot be reversed. Once you have been branded a liar, you will NEVER be anything but a liar. It doesnt matter if you launch the most respectable, honest business available anywhere, people will always have doubt because they remember the crazy stuff youve said before. Be believable. Dont exaggerate, mislead, stretch or distort the truth. 18. Be specific. Dont generalize your information, but rather be EXACT. Instead of over 100 tips for losing weight use 124 tips for losing weight. By generalizing information, it creates doubt and questions in the readers mind. What am I really getting here? Does he even know? When you use specific information, the reader begins to think, This person must have counted. I know exactly what I can expect. Platitudes and generalities roll off the human understanding like water from a duck, wrote Claude Hopkins in his classic book Scientific Advertising. They leave no impression whatsoever. 19. Be complete. Tell the reader everything they would want to know about your product or service. Answer all of their questions, anything they would want to consider before making a purchase. Think about it from their point of view. Ask yourself, Why wouldnt I buy this? Then, address that in your sales letter. Remove anything that would keep the reader from making the purchase. 20. Use testimonials to boost your sales. Share actual excerpts from what your current customers are saying about your product or service. Many websites have an entire section or even a separate page that has endorsements and compliments listed. Satisfied customers remove some of the doubt in the mind of the reader. If these people have found a lot of value and benefit in the product, then I
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probably will too. Especially effective are testimonials from respected, well-known authorities within your target field. 21. Use headlines over and over throughout the sales letter. A headline isnt just relegated to the beginning of your ad copy. Use them frequently -but dont overuse. A well-placed headline re-grabs the readers attention, brings them deeper into the letter, and readies them for the next paragraph. You will want to spend as much time working on your headlines as you do the entire sales letter. They are that important. 22 Avoid asking stupid questions. Wouldnt you like to make $1,000,000 a year? Doesnt that sound great? Would you like to be as successful as I am? Avoid any question that insults the intelligence of your reader or makes them feel like they are inferior. 23 Offer a freebie even if the customer doesnt buy. If the customer decides he or she isnt going to make a purchase, then you want to follow-up with them later to try to influence them to buy in the future. By offering a free item, you can request their email address in order to obtain the freebie. By doing this, you can now follow-up with the customer for a potential future sale. Additionally, you can continue the sales process by having your ad copy, banners, flyers, etc. within the free item. And, of course, if your free item is a high quality, useful product or service which impresses the customer, they probably will be back as a customer soon. 24 Use bonuses to overwhelm the reader. One of the things that I have found very effective in writing sales letters is to include bonus items that OUT-VALUE the actual product I am offering. Ginsu made this one famous. They were selling a set of steak knives, but before the commercial was finished, you had so many bonus items on the table it was hard to refuse. Make sure you provide quality bonuses and not some worthless, outdated junk that damages the credibility of your main offer. 25. Use connective phrases like But wait, theres more and But thats not all. These phrases effectively lead the reader from one paragraph to the next, particularly when the next paragraph is a bullet list of benefits, or leads into bonus items. Again, the idea is MORE and MORE value and benefits to the reader. 26. Always include a deadline. By including a deadline, you create a sense of urgency in the mind of the customer. If I dont order within 24 hours, then I wont get the bonuses. Oh no, there are only 10 items remaining, Ive got to hurry. Let the customer know what they will be missing out on if they dont make the deadline. Remember, they wont miss out on your products or bonuses, they will miss out on all of the benefits of your products. Deadlines are very effective. Every sales letter should have one. 27. Tell them exactly how to order. Be clear as to the order process. Point them towards the order link. Tell them what methods you offer. (I.E. credit cards, checks, etc.) Make this process as simple and clear as can be. If it takes more than 2 steps, most people wont continue.
28. Explain when the product will be delivered. How quickly will the order be processed? When will the order be available? Let the customer know exactly what they can expect when they place their order. The more specific you can be here, the better. Let them know that you have a system in place. Operators are standing by. Their order will be handled properly. Tell them. 29. Offer a money back guarantee. Take away their last reason to hold back. Offer a no questions asked 30 day guarantee. Most people may not realize this, but in most cases, its the law of the land. You are REQUIRED to give them their money back if they are not satisfied with the product or service. Since its the law anyway, why not make it a benefit. Let them know that they are purchasing your product or service RISK-FREE. 30. Instruct them to respond immediately. Many people just need to read those words, Act Now! Order today! Click Here to Instantly Place Your Order. Youve got them this far, now tell them what you want them to do. Get them to Act Fast! Have you ever heard a mail order commercial on television that didnt prompt the viewer to order right way? 31. Include a postscript. People will always read the P.S. Always. In fact, the P.S. is one of the MOST IMPORTANT parts of your sales letter. Why? Because in many cases the visitor at your website will scroll immediately down to the end of your page to see how much it is going to cost. A P.S. is a perfect place to recap your offer, so when they see your price tag, they will also see a very detailed description of what they will receive for their money. Use your P.S. to restate your offer in detail. 32. Include a second postscript. You better believe if they read the first P.S., they will read a P.P.S. Use this post script to remind them of the deadline or offer another bonus or point out some compelling factor that would make them want to order. I guarantee you they will read it.
Exercises
1. Write a sales message for Memories Forever, a photography group socializing in weddings. The groups primary service is making videos of the complete wedding and the post wedding festivities. In addition, they can prepare the conventional individual photographs of the wedding highlights. In fact, they can do just about everything photographic that the wedding couple desires. The group has decided to send sales messages presenting their services to the brides as their weddings are announced in the society columns of the local newspaper. The message will be designed to sell idea of preserving the wedding for all time. It will use whatever appeals and approaches will best achieve this goal. As the one who will write this sales message, you will need to think through this situation carefully to determine just what these appeals are. Then you will develop them in a carefully worded message that will create conviction. In preparing your message, you will use this basic information plus any additional facts consistent with the
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information given. The photographers in the group are all experienced professionals. They guarantee satisfaction or your money back. For the basic video and selected still photographs package the charge is Rs 8000. But it can go p or down, depending on what is wanted. A company representative would meet with the customer in advance to determine precisely what is wanted and the cost. You can supply the names of satisfied customers if necessary, for you have a number of good testimonials.
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LESSON 33: DESIGNING LEAFLETS
UNIT 3 CHAPTER 8: LEAFLETS AND INVITATIONS
By the end of this unit you will be able to
Explain why leaflets may be produced in business Describe different designs, which may be used for leaflets. Design leaflet according to given instructions.
Do they have cars? If so, where do they park them? Will a blitz on the town center car parks reach the people you want to find? Or will they just get thrown away? Which public places do they visit? Supermarkets? Libraries? Sports centers? Doctors surgeries? Use your imagination. Youll need permission to leave your leaflets in these places and some may demand a small fee. Leave a small heap and see how quickly they get taken. Which publications are they likely to read? Dont just think about well-known titles. If your product is aimed at a select group of people then look for specialist publications aimed at that group. Do they insert leaflets? How much does this cost? Who is already mailing your target customers? Use your imagination. Suppliers of related products? Clubs and special interest groups? Do they insert leaflets? Look for adverts under Business-To-Business headings. There are specialist mailers who charge for their services. Pick out a few promising candidates and evaluate them a bit more. For each one: How many people will see your leaflet? What proportion is likely to be interested? How much will it cost? Dont forget to include the cost of the leaflets as well as any charges for distributing them. Finally, work out the Value For Money rating - our transatlantic cousins charmingly call this the bang for a buck. How many interested people you can contact for each 1 spent? Estimate how many people will see your leaflets - and adjust it by your guess at the percentage interested in your product. Then divide this figure by the total cost of the leaflets plus any charges for distributing them, ie: Value For Money = People Contacted x % Interested Leafleting Cost Obviously, to get the most out of your hard-won cash, distribute your first leaflets via the options offering the best Value For Money. Remember: Its worth taking your time to get your planning right because its easy to waste a lot of money and effort on unsuccessful leaflets.
Students in this class we will understand what are leaflets, its purpose. We will also learn to design leaflets.
Leaflets
Leaflets are very powerful tools for promoting your products. The idea is to find potential customers by distributing leaflets to their homes or workplaces. Alternatively they can be placed where potential customers will see them. Although many network marketers achieve great results using leaflets it is not without hard work and careful preparation. This section runs through the key stages in a leaflet campaign and includes suggestions and questions to consider when designing your particular approach.
One Step or Two?

First you must decide what kind of campaign you want to run one step or two. In a one-step campaign your leaflet asks your customers to buy your product immediately. So the leaflet has to include all the information to persuade them to buy - and place their order. In a two-step campaign the leaflet is only intended to attract the customers attention - and persuade them to phone or write requesting more information. You capture their contact details and send them a brochure or information pack. This then contains the material to persuade them to buy, and place their order. The telesales variant of the two-step campaign asks the customer to phone for more information. When they phone in, you answer their questions and try to clinch the sale there and then. It can work well but requires good telephone technique.
Distribution Options
There are several options for distributing your leaflets:
Push them through letterboxes in your area. Place them on
car windscreens. Place piles of them in public places insert them into newspapers or magazines. Include them in mail shots.
Think about the product you are trying to sell - and more
Designing Leaflets
Leaflets vary in size from A6 (a quarter of an A4 page) up to A3 (folded to A4 size). They can include color, photos, drawings and logos, which make them extremely effective. The great advantages of leaflets are 1. They can be made to stand out so theyre very good for attracting the readers attention 2. They put across your sales message very powerfully 3. With the bigger leaflets you can include a cutout form for enquiries or immediate purchases.
importantly - think about the kind of people who are likely to buy it.
Where do they live? Are you just aiming at people in your
neighborhood? Or do you have wider ambitions? Will saturation coverage of your area reach the people you want to find? Or will your leaflets just get chucked in the bin?
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The Main Disadvantages are

1. They have to look good so you may have to pay someone to design them and produce the camera-ready copy 2. Printing can take time so you have to plan ahead 3. Flashy ones can be quite expensive. There are some basic rules for designing leaflets - but there is also great scope for artistic inspiration. Like most things, the more you do the better you get. Start by being clear what your leaflet is intended to achieve. Many leaflets are part of a two-step campaign - where the object is to persuade the reader to phone, write, fax or email for more information. If you want them to write, and you can afford the space, include an information request form for the reader to fill in and post to you. This makes life easier for them. And you can make sure they fill in all information you need. You can also put a code on the form so you know which campaign produced the response. One-step campaigns - where the object of the leaflet is to persuade the reader to buy your product immediately - are less common. Youll need to describe the product, persuade readers to buy, and tell them where to send their order and payment which takes space and increases the cost. If you can afford the space, include an order form for the reader to fill in and post to you. This makes life easier for them. And you can make sure they fill in all information you need. You can also put a code on the form so you know which campaign produced the response. Your customers get bombarded with lots of leaflets. Most get thrown straight in the bin. So, if you dont want your message to end up in landfill, youll have to use your artistic ingenuity to make your leaflet stand out from the crowd.
Short phrases enclosed in simple graphics (banners, stars, speech balloons, etc) can be used to attract the attention and put across key points. For example, Sale!, Special Offer!, New!, Half Price!. Use all these special effects sparingly. A few of them will create a strong visual impression. Too many looks fussy - or even a mess! Leave some white space around the content as that helps to draw the readers eyes. The headline - the first phrase or sentence - is critical. It should be written in large bold type, possibly capital letters, and separated from the rest of the text. Use the headline to attract the readers attention - and make your leaflet stand out from the rest. Take some time thinking of alternative headlines and picking out the best. You want people to stop and read your leaflet - not other things around it. If youre inserting in publication with a broad readership, eg. the local paper, then your headline should probably specify your product, eg. Rare Books!. This will only attract the attention of people who are genuinely interested in rare books. If youre inserting in a publication with a specialist readership, eg. Bikers News, then your headline can focus on what makes your product different from the rest. For example, More Studs Than Any Other Jacket. Another powerful approach, especially suitable for business opportunities, is to forget the product and lead with the benefit to the customer. Examples include: Be your own boss! Earn in your spare time! Or you can use blatant attention grabbers like: Free! Brand New! Only Rs20! Two for the price of one! The middle wording needs to interest the reader and build up their desire. Where possible, emphasise the benefits for them. Give enough information about the product so they understand what youre offering. But, if youre two-stepping, dont attempt to do the job of your brochure or your telephone sales pitch. Make good use of power words - words that make the reader sit up and take notice. These include: avoid, bargain, bonus, discover, earn, easy, enjoy, exciting, exclusive, extra, fast, fortune, free, how to, learn, money, more, mystery, new, now, profit, save, special, win. Dont force these words into your leaflet - but use them rather than weaker alternatives. The tail end of the leaflet must tell the reader what to do next. For example: Phone 567890 for details. Send 4 x 26p stamps to Anita at ... Visit our website at www.mehraonlin.com Proof read this bit especially carefully. It would be a crying shame to excite your customers desire and not be able to receive their responses. If youre one-stepping, include an order form for the reader to cut out, fill in and post to you. This makes life easier for them. And prompts them to fill in all information you need. Put a code on the form so you know which leaflet and publication produced the response. Make sure it tells them who to make out their cheque to, and clearly shows your postal address. Check with your company. They may already have some effective leaflets you can use or modify. They can probably supply you with camera ready copy - which will save a lot of effort. Also they may have restrictions about where or how you distribute leaflets. They may insist on approving your leaflet
All Leaflets Should Follow the Tried and Tested AIDA Formula
Attract the readers Attention Interest the reader in the product Excite the readers Desire Ask for Action from the reader
The big advantage of leaflets is that you can use photographs, drawings and logos to attract the readers attention. If you cant afford the artwork, or youre limited for space, maybe you can use lines, boxes, large print or special typefaces to achieve the same effect. Some printers offer colors, but these usually cost more. Glossy paper looks more professional but costs more. Photographs or drawings of people help catch the attention. Obviously they need to be happy people. If your customers are mostly men then a picture of a woman will be most effective - and vice versa. (Reverse that if your target market is gay people). Pictures of the product dont just catch the attention. They also help to arouse the readers interest and desire. Theyre especially important if youre trying to sell off-the-page. If youre selling a service then consider a picture of something related to it. For example, a car for motor insurance, or someone on the phone for cheap calls. Logos also work well, especially if the brand name is well known.
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before its published. Youll definitely need permission to use their trade names, photos and logos. Make sure you proof read what you send for printing. Spelling errors and nonsense wording make you look an idiot. Incorrect contact details will lose you business and annoy your customers. If youre setting the leaflet yourself, youll need to send camera ready copy to the printers - a good quality original of your leaflet. It must be clear and sharp enough for them to photograph or scan into their publishing / printing system. For simple non-glossy leaflets, you can produce acceptable camera ready copy using your PC with a good laser or inkjet printer. If you dont have the expertise or the facilities you may have to pay someone else to do this. Some printers will produce the artwork for you - for a fee! For very small leaflets check whether the printer can photo-reduce a larger original. This may well give a sharper image than you can achieve directly from your PCs laser or inkjet. If youre posting camera ready copy to the printer - dont fold it! It wont photograph cleanly with a fold line down the middle. And put a stiffener or some padding in the envelope so your precious original doesnt get mangled by the postman. For most publications there is no flexibility about their deadlines. If you want your leaflet to go into a particular issue, get it to the publisher in good time for the deadline. Make sure you tell them (preferably in writing) which issue you want it to go in. If you dont tell them itll be your own fault if it goes wrong. And you wont be able to claim a refund.
Modern telephones are very good at picking up background noises - even with your hand over the mouthpiece. For some reason the television, the kids fighting, and the toilet flushing - all sound much louder over the phone than they do in the room. So try to find somewhere quiet for your business calls. Never, ever, make remarks about the caller! Assume they can hear everything. If you just want to capture the callers details and send them an information pack then keep the call short and business-like. Capture the bare minimum of information: name, address, postcode, phone number, what product theyre interested in, and where they saw the leaflet. Write it all down - there and then. Keep a notepad and pen by the phone. Human memory is notoriously unreliable - so dont rely on it! If you want to clinch the sale over the phone then make sure youre well prepared. Work out the key points of your sales pitch and rehearse how youre going to say them. Emphasis and intonation can be quite important here. Prepare counters for objections they might raise. For example: It costs more than brand X, Yes, but you use less each time so it lasts longer. Try to establish a personal relationship with the caller. Make sure you get their name early on and use it occasionally. If they mention their family, or their job, or where they live - show an interest, or tell them something similar about yourself. But dont overdo this or youll spend all the time gossiping rather than selling. Make a note of key points. Theyll come in handy the next time you talk to them. Listen carefully to what the caller is saying. Ask them open questions (ones that cant be answered yes or no) so youre clear what theyre looking / hoping for. This should be a conversation - with them speaking as much as you. Dont let it degenerate into a monologue. Try to tune your comments to fit in with their train of thought. Find ways to agree with them. Simply dropping in the occasional Yes helps build a rapport. Even if you have to disagree with them try to say Yes, but .... When youve told them about the product and its benefits, and they seem to be interested, you come to the crunch point asking them to buy. Sales people call this closing the sale. Dont approach this head on. Do you want to buy one? comes across as aggressive - and allows them to answer No. Much better to ask them a question that implies they have decided to buy. Like How many would you like, Which color would you like?, How would you like this delivering?, or How would you like to pay?. Usually theyll just answer the question and you can move swiftly on to capturing their order details. Even if they baulk at this question all is not lost. Theyll probably say I dont know or I havent decided. You just switch back into your sales pitch and try to close the sale when theyve had a bit more time. If you dont have the enough time to make the sales pitch - eg. you have to get the kids out of school - explain the problem, take the callers name and phone number, and sort out a mutually convenient time to call them back. You should call them (and pay the call charges) because youre the one causing
Handling Responses
Telephone Calls Good telephone manner is vitally important. Speak clearly and at a comfortable speed - not too fast - not too slow. Try to sound keen and interested in what the customer is saying. But be yourself. If you try to put on airs it will sound false. Work out a standard greeting and use it whenever you answer an incoming call. This should include your trading name - so the caller knows theyve got through to the right number - and your name - so they know who theyre dealing with. For example: Akash traders Anil speaking. You should also get an answering machine to field your calls when youre out, or otherwise unavailable. Murphys Law says that the phone only rings when youre in the toilet. Work out a standard message along the lines of: Thank you for calling Akash Traders. Im sorry we cant take your call right now. If youd like to leave your name and number after the tone, well get back to you. Note this doesnt say youre out (which might give a hint to burglars) and it doesnt say when youll call back (which might raise false hopes). Your friends and family may think youre a bit odd - but the only alternative is a separate phone number. Answering with Hello? will make your customers wonder just what kind of business they are dealing with. Youll also have to train the family to answer the phone properly too. Stroppy teenagers often baulk at this - it doesnt help their street cred. Explaining that new clothes or computer games depend on business success may tip the balance.
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the problem. Whatever you promise to do - do it! This is essential to build up their trust. At the end, thank them for their call - and say goodbye. Then wait for a second so they can hang up first (otherwise they may think youre glad to be rid of them). Youd be surprised how many people forget these simple courtesies. If youve promised to send the caller an information pack then get it on its way today! Follow the guidance below about replying to letters, faxes and emails. If youve taken an order from the caller then move it on to payment collection and delivery promptly. If possible despatch the order today. Fast delivery is always very impressive and makes them well-disposed towards further purchases. Letters, Faxes and Emails First rule - strike while the iron is hot! Your customer has seen your leaflet and taken the time to ask for more information about your product. Its vitally important to reply quickly while theyre still keen. Aim to post, fax or email your reply the same day. If illness or absence delays your response then apologize! Keep an accurate record of who has responded and what you have sent to them - with dates. Store their personal details securely - and dont give this information away to anyone else. What are you going to put in the reply? Make sure it includes everything the customer needs to make their purchase decision and return their order. Where possible, use the standard brochures, price lists and order forms produced by the company who supplies your products. Theyre usually well printed on glossy paper with nice pictures. And the wording has usually been carefully crafted to present the product in a good light, explain the offer accurately, and comply with the law. Substitute your own material at your peril. Make sure your name and contact details appear on the material you send out - even if you have to add a sticky label to each item. Adding a short personalized letter or note is a nice touch that can endear you to the customer. But write it neatly (or type it) on quality paper - or you can undo all that goodwill at a stroke. The same goes for the envelope. Appearances really matter a lot. If youre replying by fax or email then take your time to get the wording right. Also lay out the text so its easy to read and the page looks visually attractive. Youll only get this one chance to make your pitch so prepare it with the same care as you lavished on the original leaflet. You can use graphics on faxes to improve their appearance but check what they look like after faxing. Shades of grey get changed to black or white, which can have some unfortunate effects. If you have a PC with a modem, try sending your faxes direct from the PC. The appearance at the receiving end is often much better than if you send from a low-cost fax machine. If youre replying by letter, make sure you put enough stamps on it. Having the postman knock on their door to demand excess postage will put a customer right off you. Check the weight of the sealed envelope on your kitchen scales if youre in any doubt. If you can afford it, use first class postage for replies. Second class may be cheaper but it allows the customer 24 hours longer
to cool off and gives the impression youre less serious about wanting their business.
Following Up
Your campaign will have given you the names and contact details of paying customers (even if you didnt recover your costs). Record these people in your customer list and guard it jealously. Once youve captured a customer, follow up every few weeks/ months. Send them the latest brochure when its updated. Or phone them for a brief chat (but back off if they dont seem keen to be called). Your aim is to encourage them to buy again. Remember, its much easier to get further orders than to find new customers.
Sanity Check
OK. Youve now worked out what leaflets to distribute where - and what to do with the responses. However, its possible to design a leafleting campaign that successfully sells products to customers - but ends up losing you money! So, before you leap into action, take a short breather and conduct a Sanity Check on your plans.
Review Results
At the end of your campaign you should review how well it worked so you can learn how to do better in future. Count up how many responses your leaflet produced (and, if youre two stepping, how many orders). Work out the value of the orders taken and your commission / profit. Then take away your costs. Did you recover your costs? Earn a bit of extra cash? Were the response rate, order rate and average order value what you predicted before you started? If they were higher - well done, your campaign design worked better than expected. Remember that publication and the key elements of your leaflet. Theyre probably worth using again. If your campaign didnt do as well as you hoped, have you any clues as to why it went wrong? Should you use that distribution option again? Was there something wrong with the leaflet? Keep a note of what happened, and bear this hard-won learning in mind for future campaigns. Types of Leaflet Most organizations produce leaflets or brochures for any number of reasons: 1. To prublicise goods or services 2. To promote special events an promotions 3. To give information of any kind Such leaflets may take the form of a single page or they could be designed as a folded document A4 size couldbe folded once or twice to make a four page or six page leaflet as shown here:
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Most infections get better without antibiotics
In cases where patients will get better without antibiotics, it makes sense for your doctor not to prescribe them. Your bodys defence system can often protect against infection without the need for antibiotics.
Listen to your doctor Your doctor will be able to recognize whether you have an infection that needs antibiotics, so you should not always expect to be given a prescription. Doctors need to prescribe antibiotics with care: This is because inappropriate use of antibiotics can be dangerous for individual patients and for the whole population. Overuse of antibiotics can also cause resistance and result in them not working in the future. This is a very worrying trend, especially for patients with serious life threatening infections. Harmful side-effects Potential side-effects are another reason why doctors are cautious about prescribing antibiotics. Some antibiotic treatment can cause side-effects such as stomach upset and thrush. For women on the pill, antibiotics can reduce contraceptive protection. Antibiotic facts Antibiotics have no effect on viral infections (eg. Colds, flu and most sore throats). Viral infections are much more common than bacterial infections. Inappropriate use of antibiotics can encourage the development of resistant bacteria. This could mean that the antibiotic may not work when you really need it. Some antibiotics have harmful side-effects such as diarrhoea and allergic reactions. Antibiotics do not just attack the infection they are prescribed for they can also kill useful bacteria which normally protect you against other infections such as thrush.
There are effective alternative remedies for managing the symptoms of many infections.
If you are prescribed antibiotics ensure you take the medication according to instructions. (1) Although you may begin to feel better, you must take the full course of antibiotics to prevent your illness coming back. (2) Not taking the full course of antibiotics can lead to future antibiotic resistance.
If you have an infection such as a cold, flu or sore throat (1) Take paracetamol according to the instructions to help reduce fever and relieve aches and pains. (2) Drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration. (3) Ask your pharmacist (chemist) for advice. Many infections can be managed effectively with over-the-counter medications. The pharmacist will refer you to your doctor or practice nurse if they think it is necessary. When to contact your GP Call your GPs surgery for advice if, after taking overthe-counter medications as directed, you or your child are experiencing any of the following: symptoms which are severe or unusually prolonged. extreme shortness of breath. coughing up of blood or large amounts of yellow or green phlegm.
DOCTOR PATIENT PARTNERSHIP Promoting a healthy partnership between patients and health professionals BMA House Tavistock Square London WC1H 9JP Fax : 0171 383 6403 Internet : www.doctorpatient.org.uk Reproduced courtesy of Doctor Patient Partnership
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LESSON 34: INVITATIONS

By the end of this lesson you should be able to State reasons why invitations are used Compose formal and informal invitations Reply to formal and informal invitations
of a feather with a carefully cut tip. As one wrote, while holding the pen in one position, the characters that were formed were thin in one direction and broad in the other. For example, a circle or o might be thin at the top and bottom and wide on the sides. When you couple excellent penmanship with the writing instrument of the day, handwriting, by todays standards, was a work of art.
Students I am sure you must received many invitations for birthday parties, weddings, etc. You must have liked some of the invitations you have received. Can you tell me what did you like about that invitation? Is it the wordings or is the paper quality or the color combinations, what? Many companies organize special functions for various reasons:
To publicize a special event The launch of a new product The opening of a new branch office The retirement of a senior executive
The Wording
The actual wording was very similar to the socially correct wordings used today. The major difference was that the wording, in most cases, included the name of the guest as part of the wording. Everything was spelled out, including the event date and time. Once written, each invitation was placed in a protective enclosure (a handmade envelope). That envelope, what is now called the inner envelope, would include the invitees names (For example, The Duke and Duchess of Windsor). When finished, a hot wax seal was affixed to the envelope. (Wax seals often indicated the crest of the family.)
You may be expected to know how to prepare invitations to such functions , or how to reply to such invitations, when your employer gives you an instruction simply to accept or refuse.
The History of the Invitation

There is a long history to the evolution of the Invitation, as we know it today. How did they arise? Who used them? How was a wording composed? How were they delivered? What was the impact of the printing press? Why do current invitations all appear to follow a consistent style? Why is calligraphy so popular? Knowing the history and the traditions behind the social invitation will help you in your selection. You can then take exception to current standards and still conform to socially accepted standards. Or if you wish, you can create a new, unique invitation that will set you apart from the norm yet still be in good taste.
The Postal Service

Without any form of postal service, these invitations had to be hand delivered. This was the task of one of the servants, on horseback, under all weather conditions. Thus arose the need for an outer envelope. This outer envelope served a dual purpose. It was used to protect the inner envelope from water and dirt and to also provide directions to the recipients estate, castle, or farm. In addition, there were no addresses. Thus, the inner envelope was again wrapped or placed in an outer envelope. The address was often a set of directions something like, Go one days travel down the road to Chelsea. There, cross the stone bridge and proceed past the three farms until you see the stone entrance marked Wesley. There, remove this covering, and give to the doorman. Wait for a response and make note of same.
Only for the Elite . . .

The aristocracy in England and France probably beginning in the 18th century used invitations to social events. It may be possible to go back another hundred or two hundred years to find the foundations, which began the tradition of the invitation. The Kings, Queens, Lords, Ladies, Dukes, Duchesses, or in todays vernacular, High Society would invite their peers to their social events with hand written announcements of the event. The wife, butler, or secretary wrote these. Writing was a mark of education. Even after the printing press, the aristocracy hand wrote invitations since mass production would be in bad taste.
The Printing Press

The printing press appeared in Europe in the mid 13th century. Even so, the printing of wedding or social invitations did not begin until the start of the 20th century. Some of the elite, fascinated with industrialization, began using mass produced invitations probably as either a novelty or simply as another expression of wealth. The real beginning of the commercially printed wedding invitation began in the United States probably after World War II. One or the great features of the combination of democracy with industrialization is to give the common man the ability to mimic the life-styles and materialism of societys elite. About the same time, Amy Vanderbilt and Emily Post appear on the scene to help correct the fumblings of society.
Calligraphy
In those days, society was not in a hurry, and most who could read and write had excellent penmanship. Do you recall what the pen was like as an early writing instrument? It was a quill made
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The first appearance of the printed invitation was probably for large events hosted by wealthy industrialists wishing to exploit new technology. Gradually, these factors coalesce to give you and I, an affordable, commercially printed invitation.
these can be three dimensional with multiple layers of paper, custom or hand-drawn artwork, even with moveable layouts, pop-ups, or doors. (Such invitations are often in the region of tens to hundreds of dollars each.)
The Tissue
Technological advances in the design of the printing press increased the speed at which paper could be printed. Since printers ink took some time to dry, as each invitation was removed from the press, a tissue was place over it so that the next invitation laid on top would not pick up the ink from the one below. One might ask why it became common place to send invitations with this protective tissue still in place. One could guess the answer. Was it simply a mark to clearly show that the invitation was printed using a new and fascinating technology . . . as opposed to the old fashioned hand written invitation? In any event, the inclusion of the tissue continues to this day.
Mimic the Elite and Stick with Tradition

Now you know why there are inner envelopes and why there are tissues. These are simply the traditional assets from the old days. Similarly, envelope seals are the mass produced equivalent for replacing the hot wax seal. What is not so apparent is that raised ink is a cheap alternative to engraving. But consider this, engraving was a less time consuming way to mimic true handwriting. If you want the finest invitations possible, you must purchase the finest paper and hire an artist and a calligrapher. The artist will personalize your invitation with a hand drawing on each. The calligrapher will hand write your wording and address your envelopes.
Raised Ink Versus Engraving

Ordinary printing simply stamps ink rolled on lead type onto the paper. It is a messy process and does not produce very high quality lettering. Lithography, on the other hand, is a method of printing which retains a very high quality replica of drawn or sketched artwork. It produces very sharp and distinctive inking. If you and I could afford ordinary printed invitations, then the socially elite needed to distance themselves from such an abomination. They then elected to have their invitations engraved. This served a second purpose. It permitted the printed invitation to emulate hand writing since engraved copper plates were made by hand. Engraving, as the name implies, requires an artisan to hand write in reverse into a metal plate using a carving tool. To this day, the finest invitations are engraved. But todays engraving plates are made by first producing a photographic plate of the wording using a typesetting machine. This plate is then used to expose a sensitized copper plate which is then acid etched. Movable lead type is replaced by computers with a wide variety of lettering styles, called fonts. Some fonts even mimic calligraphic lettering styles. So if you are upper-crust, your invitations are engraved and printed on only the finest paper stock. Us lesser folk, not to be outdone, again tried to mimic the quality open only to the very wealthy. Along comes a cheap version of engraving called Thermography or raised ink printing. Unlike ordinary printing, engraving actually cut the surface of the paper. The print quality was beautiful and you could feel where the ink was deposited because you could feel the slight cuts in the surface of the paper. The thermography process, unlike engraving used ordinary lead type washed with ink. When the printed paper is removed from the press with wet ink, a plastic powder is sprayed on the wet ink and then blown off. The plastic powder absorbs the ink color. The paper is then heated until the plastic powder melts leaving a raised ink which you can feel.
Or are there New Technologies

What of the truly old fashioned, hand written invitation? You can see that over the years, technology on has given you the ability to mimic the old traditions. Else why would we stick with inners, outers, tissues, envelope seals, raised ink, and engraving? Consider this, while adhering to all the old stuff, the most important aspect of the invitation has been ignored. Your invitation is mass produced and is not directed to the recipient. Their name is MISSING!!! Today, you can go the full circle. You can print invitations each including the Guests name as part of the wording and you can do this with your computer. Even better, while all the social experts tell you to hand write those envelope addresses and to hand write the Guests name on the Respond Card, you can print all of these things on your computer. Is raised ink or engraving important? No, these were just technological innovations. By printing your own, you are about as close to truly following the original intent of the invitation as you will ever be. But wait . . . what about emailing those invitations? Sorry, thats for people with no taste.
Contents
1. Names of party hosts or sponsoring organization. 2. Type of event (birthday party, business networking meeting, etc.). 3. Place. 4. Date. 5. Time. 6. RSVP date and phone number. 7. Any special dress requirements from black-tie to bathing suits. 8. Rain date (if any). 9. Be specific about who is invited, whether addressee only, with guest, or with spouse and children.
Three Dimensional Hand Made Invitations

To be complete, there is one more form of the invitation. This is a custom invitation, hand made and assembled. Typically,
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Tips
1. Always send written invitations for formal events such as business gatherings, formal dinners, and special occasions like showers, weddings or events honoring someone. 2. If guests are not from your local area, include a map to location of event. 3. Send anywhere from 8 - 2 weeks in advance depending on formality of occasion. Weddings require the longest leadtime; casual dinners and brunches require the least. Do you have an engagement, wedding, baby shower, or graduation coming up? Is there a performance, school event, or meeting to which you want to invite people? Any special religious ceremonies like Communion or a Bar Mitzvah? Do you want to invite someone to speak at your meeting or conference? Whatever your event is, the following will help you write an effective invitation.
The name of the contact person along with phone numbers
and addresses where the person can be contacted; and

Finally, articulate your pleasure of having the person speak at
the meeting or conference.
Guidelines for Writing Invitations

State the occasion, date, time, and place. Include addresses
and a map if necessary. Mention if refreshments will be served. List any charges that may apply. Include a telephone number for RSVPs. If there is a dress code, state the preferred dress in the lower left-hand corner of the card.
If you need a response, include a self-addressed, stamped
reply card or envelope with your invitation.

Express that you are looking forward to seeing the person. Do not use abbreviations and do not use contractions
(dont; well) except for name titles, such as Mr., Mrs., etc.
If dinner will be served, state two separate times: the time
people can start arriving and the time dinner will be served. If you do not want gifts, briefly state that gifts are not wanted or needed. Explain that their presence is the only gift you need.
Make sure you send your invitations out with ample advance
notice.
If you have guests coming from out of town or from other
countries, you may want to send out your invitation several months in advance (especially if your event takes place around a holiday.) This will allow your guests adequate time to make preparations, reservations, save money, etc.
For smaller, less formal events that include local guests or
guests from nearby areas, you may only need to provide a few weeks notice.
If you are inviting someone to speak at a conference, your
invitation should include the following information:

Name of the conference and the sponsoring organization; Date, time, place of the conference and speech; Type of audience; The type of speech, topic, and how long the speech should be; Any accommodations that will be made, including lodging, meals, and transportation;
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Format for Writing Invitations

Formal Invitation
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Mr. and Mrs. Arun Mehta cordially invite you to a reception celebrating the engagement of their daughter Meghna with Yash Sharma to be held on Sunday, the sixth of June at six o'clock Le Meridian 108 , Akbar lane Bangalore
RSVP Semi-Formal Dress (202) 555-6908
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Business Invitation
Longman's Transportation Services Cordially invites you to the 15 Annual Employees Appreciation Picnic.
th
Personal Invitation
You are invited to Aneeshas 10th birthday!
The whole family is welcome! 12:00 pm to 8:00 pm Saturday, May 22, 1999 New Friends Colony club New Friends Colony, Calcutta Food, drink, games, and entertainment will be provided.
Date: Saturday June 12, 1999 Time: 11:30 am to 3:00 pm Where: 345 Eastern Avenue New Delhi Call Tania at (307) 555-1234 to RSVP
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Wording Etiquette
When writing wedding invitations keep these rules close in mind:
There is no punctuation, except for commas after the day of
Envelopes and Addressing

Addressing the Inner Envelope Write the guests names only. Use Mr. and Mrs. for married guests; first names for children under 13 years old (i.e. Mr. and Mrs. Matthew and Kate) ; and family names for relatives (i.e., Aunt Mehra, Grandmother, etc.). Addressing the Outer Envelope
Avoid the expression and family. If the couple lives together, use their full names and join
the week and periods after abbreviations such as Jr., Mr., and Mrs.
All dates and times are spelled out. A.M. and P.M. are never used. Complete times with
oclock. You may also choose to write three oclock in the afternoon or seven oclock in the evening etc. Avoid the expression and family.
Do not include the address of the church or place of
them with an and (i.e. Mr. Amit Rai and Ms. Eliza Tondon)
Print the list of names with the appropriate titles: Mr. - Mrs.
worship unless the guests are unfamiliar with its location, such as the case may be in a large city.
Do not mention anything about gifts on your invitations,
whether you want them or not. If you do not want gifts, have family and friends spread this message.
No words are capitalized except proper nouns, such as titles,
- Ms. - Miss - Dr. - Reverend - Captain - Lieutenant - Rabbi Fr. - Messrs. - Honourable - etc. Spell out the addressees middle name if you are going to include it, otherwise leave it out.
Use full addresses with no abbreviations. Always spell out
Street, Drive, Road, and Boulevard.

For a married couple, address the envelope to both parties:
peoples names and titles, place names, and names of the day and month.
Print names with the appropriate titles: Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss,
Mr. and Mrs. Allen Johnson

If a widow: Mrs. John Smith If divorced: Mrs. Susan Smith (as opposed to using her ex-
Reverend, Captain, Lieutenant, Rabbi, Fr., Messrs., Honorable, etc. Doctor is usually written in full unless the name following is quite long.
When sending invitations to guests invited to the wedding
husbands first name).

For children over 13 and living at home, they receive their
ceremony only, an RSVP is not included. Practice Sheet for Wording a Formal Invitation With Enclosure
(Names of parents/hosts) ________________________________________________ request the honour of your presence at the marriage of their daughter (given names only) ________________________________________________ to (groom's name written in full, including Mr., Doctor, etc.) ________________________________________________ (day and date written out) _______________________________________________ at (time, written out) ________________________________________________ (place, without street address) ________________________________________________ (city and state) ________________________________________________ (enclosure) Reception immediately following the ceremony at ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
own invitation or are list their individual names separately on the inside envelope of their parents invitation:
Over 13, living at home with parents:
Mr. and Mrs. Bernard Shaw Ms. Melissa Shaw

Under 13
Mr. and Mrs. Bernard Shaw Melissa If inviting two people sharing a home or living together, or a married couple with different names, use both full names: Dr. Katrina Ross Mr. Peter Campbell
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LESSON 35: PRACTICE CLASS: LEAFLETS AND INVITATIONS

By the end of this unit you will be able to
Compose invitations Reply to invitations Prepare a leaflet
nurses and health visitors. You have been asked to design a leaflet to highlight the work of the nursing team. Practice Nurses and Health Visitors = role developed to bridge the gap between medical and nursing care. They see anyone with minor illnesses (some throats, earache, coughs / fever / asthma, diarrhea and vomiting, minor traumas, sticky eyes) Doctors = more time for more serious consultations. Nursing Team always works closely with Doctors to ensure best possible care for all. Practice Nurses are available Mon Fri 8.30-12.15. Mon/ Wed/Fri 2.00-6.00, Tues/Thurs 4.00-6.00. Design either a leaflet (either A4 size, or fold A4 into three to make a six sided leaflet) to issue to patients at the health center.
Students this will be a very interesting class where in you need to use your creativity in designing invitations and leaflets. 1. Your company will be opening its new branch in a nearby town next month and is arranging a cocktail reception to mark the occasion. Prepare an invitation, which can be printed to send to a number of special clients. 2. Prepare a reply accepting the invitation from one of the clients. 3. Prepare a reply from Doctor Anthony Long of Orchard Medisave Pte Ltd. Unfortunately Dr Long cannot attend the cocktail reception as he will be overseas on a business trip. 4. Here is an invitation which I received. Follow my instructions and prepare a reply.
Angela and Tony would like to invite Shruti Tondon to celebrate the Blessing of their Marriage on Saturday 22 nd August at Taj Mahal Hotel at 4pm followed by a party at Golf and Country Club, Akbar Lane, Calcutta RSVP by 15 th May 1998
5. Your company, Arora Holdings, of Temple House, Temple Street, Delhi , has recently appointed a new office manager Mr Anurag Purie who will replace Mr Abhishek Mehta. Write a letter to be signed by the Managing Director Harshvardhan Sharma to one of your customers (make up the details). Invite the customer and his partner to a reception to mark Mr Puries retirement and to introduce Mr Mehta to them. It is to be held on 14 October at 7.30 pm at the Park Royal Hotel, New Delhi . 6. You work at a local health center where the aim is to provide a high standard of service for all patients. To help to meet this aim there is a team of fully qualified and trained practice
LESSON 36: REFORMULATING AND SUMMARISING

UNIT 4 CHAPTER 9 : REFORMULATING AND SUMMARISING
Complete look and write production tasks involving labeling a diagram, form or flow chart Complete reformulation tasks involving expanding, reducing or selectively rewriting a passage of English for a specific purpose Use summarizing skills effectively Produce a business summary from a given passage of English.
This exercise will help you be aware of such expressions and spot them, and others like them, when summarizing. Reduce the expressions shown without changing the meanings. Use the number of words shown in brackets: 1. In the near future (1) 2. It appears that (1) 3. Put up with (1) 4. The same amount of (1) 5. In modern times (1) 6. As a result (1) 7. Because of this (1) 8. Always bear in mind (1) 9. A lot of (1) 10. At all times (1) 11. At the beginning of each day (2) 12. Owned by private individuals (2) 13. Equipment should be checked (2) 14. Make a record of all appointments (3) 15. On the day of the interview (3)
What is a Summary?
To make a summary means to convey all or most of a section of text using a reduced number of words. We use summarizing skills all the time in response to question like what did you do last night? Or so how was your holiday? This is usually done orally instead of in writing. The written summary will not be new to you. It is something most of us have done throughout our school days. However, it is very rare in business to be asked to do a straightforward continuous prose summary. Summaries in business may be written in the form of an advertisement or notice, an article for the staff newsletter, a handout for issue to trainees. These are all exercise in summarizing, picking out relevant and important information and then presenting it in an appropriate manner. It is to this type of more realistic exercise, which many examiners are now turning in order to provide realistic tasks, which an employee may very well be asked to perform in the business world. This type of business summary will be discussed in more detail later.
One Word for Many

Summarizing means saying the same thing but in not so many words. In these sentences replace the section in italics by providing just one word. 1. When the meeting is over, you must produce the accurate transcript of the accurate transcript of the main discussions, which took place and the decision made.
Using Synonyms
When summarizing or reformulating you may be expected to use your own words as far as possible instead of quoting huge chunks of the original passage. This exercise is designed to give you practice in choosing synonyms for words. Provide synonyms for each of the following words (remember that very often more than one word could be used): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Huge Afraid Regularly Retain Impression Accurate Honesty Specimen Common Immune 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Certain Vital Price Desire Apparent Inquisition Objective Reluctant Inadequate Terminate
2. She is not interested in work only in tennis, swimming, hockey, golf anything requiring physical activity.
3. The next meeting of the board is coming up soon. I must prepare the list of items to be discussed at the meeting.
4. The person who greets visitors to an organization must portray a good impression.
Reducing Phrases
There are many expressions in the English language, which are long winded and could be expressed in a simpler or shorter way.
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5. When goods have been purchased, it is used to send out an itemized statement informing the buyer of the quantity, description and price of the goods which were bought.
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6. We must send out a document to all the customers on our mailing list
Reason? Clue? 3. All business documents should be grammatically correct, i.e. they should contain no errors in grammar, spelling or punctuation. Reason? Clue? 4. It is becoming popular for large organizations to use a house style for their correspondence in the same, standardized formats. Reason? Clue? 5. Business letters should be free of slang and other colloquialisms, i.e. expressions used only in conversation. Reason? Clue? 6. Some circular letters are unsolicited. This means the recipients have no particular interest in the message. Reason? Clue? 7. It is important to retain grammatical precision when writing business documents. In other words, all sentences in a series should consistently follow the same grammatical pattern. Reason? Clue? 8. Many companies, particularly the larger ones, are turning more and more to computerization of their clerical procedures. Reason? Clue? 9. A quorum must usually be present at formal meetings, e.g. annual general meetings, meetings of shareholders. Reason? Clue? 10. Certain items appear on the agenda of many regular meetings, e.g. any other business and date of next meeting. Reason? Clue?
7. This is a list of all the duties which the employee may be required to perform. (2 words).
8. Some job advertisements require applicants to send a separate schedule showing their education, qualifications, employment history and other personal details when applying for jobs. (2 words)
Retain or Remove?
Summarizing anything requires the ability to find and remove unimportant details or , more to the point, choose which details should be retained. A lot of information which can be removed from summarizing exercise can be categorized, e.g. example definitions, additions and rephrasing. clues are often given in such cases, as shown below. Categories 1. Examples 2. Definitions 3. Rephrasing Clues For example .., e.g.. This is .. This means . In other words That is . , i.e. 4. Additions ., especially .. .., particularly example : (the information to be removed has been underlined) it has been argued, (1) especially in recent years, that an examination summary is not a realistic exercise, (2) i.e. not the type of summary one is required to do in the business worls. Number 1 : Number 2: why should it be removed? (addition) What was the clue given? (especially) why should it be removed? (rephrasing) What was the clue given? (i.e.) The sentences below all contain some information, which should be removed from a summary examples, definitions, rephrasing or additions. Highlight the details which should be retained, and state the reason why the rest should be removed, together with the clue which was given. 1. An essential part of any documentary evidence, for example letters, invoices, orders, is that it should have the names and the addresses of both parties to the correspondence. Reason? Clue? 2. References often include departments and file numbers, especially in correspondence with government departments.
Removing Reasons
1. Read the following passage and use it to complete the table below In the name of safety, gangways between desks should not be blocked with boxes, files or waste bins as employees may trip over them causing injury. Filing cabinet drawers should be closed immediately after use, or the cabinet may become unbalanced and topple over. Torn of frayed floor covering could cause a person to fall, so it should be repaired or replaced. Office doors should be locked and windows secured at the end of the day. This will prevent burglars from breaking in. to avoid a fire hazard electrical appliances should be unplugged and switched off at eh end of each day.
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Safety Precaution
1. Do not block gangways between desks with boxes, files or waste bins. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Reason
If you indicate that you have used the precise number of words instructed (perhaps a white lie?) then the examiner may just spot that it looks too long or too short, and will double check. If you do not indicate the number of words used, you will also be penalized. The best option is to try to stick within the word limit and always include it at the end in brackets.
A Worked Example of a Short Summary

There are many ways in which summaries can be handled, and many different final versions, which could all able quite satisfactory. However it may be helpful to take a look at the various stages involved in just one method of producing an effective summary. Step 1 Step 2 Read through the next carefully. Highlight important words and phrases, by using the method of circling shown here, by underlining, or by using a highlighter pen
(NB: Retain consistency of expression by using verbs at the start of each item in column one.) 2. Read the following passage and use it to complete the table below: When transcribing recorded dictation assess the size of paper can be chosen. To avoid making unnecessary errors and having to type the document again, always check any doubtful points in the dictation with the dictator. If there is any doubt about spelling, look up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. Letters required urgently by the dictator should be typed and returned to him first, so that the document can be dealt with quickly. Letters cannot be signed with grammatical errors, so make sure they are grammatically perfect. To avoid having to insert the paper back into the typewriter to correct errors, always proofread carefully before removing work from your typewriter.
Summaries the following passage using approximately 50 words.

A lot of personal contact is associated with secretarial work contact with people inside the company, eg fellow employees, juniors, management, other departments, as well as clients and other people outside the company. Being able to communicate well with people is therefore a most important aspect of the secretarys role. The nature of a secretarys job means she is in constant communication with many people in her own company, and she is expected to treat all office personnel, form senior management to the junior mail clerks, with the same amount of respect. Tact, diplomacy, a pleasant disposition, friendliness and helpfulness are some of the invaluable qualities a secretary needs when dealing with people outside the organization. When in contact with such people, either by telephone or in person, the secretary, as a representative of her company, is expected to reflect a good image of the organization she represents at all times. (148 words)
Rules for Transcribing Reason

1. Assess the size of each document before typing it. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Step 3 Step 4
Having double checked that nothing in the original has been overlooked, produce a first draft. nothing that too many words have been used in the first draft, again highlight key words and phrases. Make notes about how it can be reduced still further, and where words can be altered.
Counting the Words

Summary assignments normally state the number of words to be used. This will usually be expressed in one of two ways: 1. Use no more than 160 words In this case, do not exceed 160 words. 150 160 will normally be accepted, but anything less than 155 will be penalized. 2. Use approximately 160 words Here, 155 165 will not be penalized.
What to Count
When counting the number of words used, do not count the words in the heading or any numbers used in your display. Sub headings, however, should be included in your word count.
A lot of personal contact is involved with secretarial work. A secretary is in constant contact with people both inside and outside the company. An important aspect of the secretarys role, therefore, is the ability to communicate well. As she communicates a lot with people inside her own company she must be able to treat all personnel with the same amount of respect. She also deals with various people ourside her organization; so many invaluable qualities will be necessary for this. As a representative of her company, it is important that she reflects a good image at all times, (99 words)
Step 5
Produces your first summary.
Will yhe Examiner Check?

An examiner with many scripts to mark will know approximately how much space your summary should rake up on your answer sheet. He / she will be able to see if yours looks too long or too short.
Secretarial work involves much communication with people both internally and externally. It is, therefore, essential to acquire effective communication skills. Inside the company, the secretary should treat all levels of staff with equal respect. When dealing with people outside, many personal qualities are vital. A good impression of the company must always be reflected.
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Guidelines for Writing Summaries

1. Read the instructions carefully and determines what is required in your summary. May be only a certain theme from the passage needs to be picked out, or perhaps it should all be summaries. Whatever, many students produce very good summaries, but lose marks because they have not done what the instructions requested. 2. Read the passage through carefully twice the importance of this reading period cannot be over emphasized. You really need to think yourself into the theme of the passage and ensure a complete grasp of the topic before continuing. 3. After checking the instructions again, go through the passage highlighting the information, which should be included in your summary. 4. Re check what you have highlighted in case you have missed something or highlighted something incorrectly. 5. Make a rough draft from your highlighting, using your own words and avoiding the language of the original passage wherever possible. 6. Check your draft carefully against the original, making sure that you have not left out anything of importance, or added anything, which is not relevant. 7. Write out the summary in its final form. Take every possible opportunity to rephrase in an attempt to cut down on the number of words used. 8. Count the words used, and if necessary make some more amendments ot keep within the limit prescribed. 9. Read your summary through carefully to check for grammatical, punctuation or spelling errors.
Notes for a Speech

For reference when making a speech, again enumeration would probably be easier to follow, perhaps also with subheadings for different aspects of the main theme. NB: There ca be no hard and fast rule to say Oh its a handout I must do it like this, or whatever. The instructions will tell you for what purpose your summary is to be used. After reading the passage carefully, and double checking the instructions, careful thought should be given to using the most suitable format.)
Covering Memo
When instructed to compose a business summary of the type discussed, it may be relevant for covering memo to be written to the person who requested it. Your memo should be short and state the source of the material which has been used.
Example
Safety In The Office As requested, I have made a summary of the article which appeared in the May edition of Business Digest for its inclusion in the next issue of the staff newsletter. I hope you find this satisfactory. Enc
A Worked Example of a Business Summary

As with any assignment, it must be remembered that no two people will produce identical summaries, yet many could be suitable for the purpose intended. However, this worked example of a business summary is given to illustrate the principles and procedures involved in effective summarizing. Step 1 Your employer is giving a talk entitled Running your own Business at a local club. She says to you, will you please list the main points about being your own boss and the misconceptions people have about it from this leaflet? It will help me in giving my talk. Use approximately 120 words for your summary. Read the instructions carefully, marking the important points.
Your employer is giving a talk entitled Running your own Business at a local club. She says to you, will you please list the main points about being your own boss and the misconceptions people have about it from this leaflet? It will help me in giving my talk. Use approximately 120 words for your summary.
Business Summaries
The summaries we have looked at so far have been continuous prose, i.e. a straightforward paragraph or two. However, the recent trend is towards realistic summaries, summaries to suit a specific purpose. Virtually any type of presentation could, therefore, be required. It is important that the instructions are studied carefully so that you pick out only the information required in your summary, and that you display it appropriately. Here are some example of different types of business summaries which you could be asked to produce:
Advertisement / Notice
Obviously an advertisement or notice should be presented suitably. Items should be centered to attract attention. Perhaps points can be listed, with subheadings. Use capitals and underscoring to add to effect.
Step 2 Consider a suitable format. Your summary is to be used by your employer as reference when giving a talk about Running your Own Business. Your employer stresses she wants a lists of the main points as well as misconceptions. These two terms give you a clue as to sub headings, which could be used. Also important here is the world list obviously your employer does not want to read from a script, so continuous prose will not be suitable. A list will be easy to refer to, and your employer will be able to expand on each point, thus making her talk sound very natural.
Checklist
Enumeration is required in any checklist. Perhaps an introduction is necessary also. Take care with consistency of expression, so that all points on the checklist follow the rule of grammatical parallelism. (A useful word saving ploy here is to use verbs at the start of each point.)
Handout / Information Sheet

Sub headings may be appropriate, as well as numbered points. Again, take care with consistency of expression
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Step 3 Read the passage carefully several times, highlighting the important points.
There are all kinds of reasons for wanting to be your own boss. Some people like the idea of there being no one in authority over them, telling them what to do, saying their work is not up to standard, turning down their ideas, or insisting on methods that seem pointless. Others are attracted by the thought of deciding their own hours, or days, of works. Running your own business gives you the status of being self employed perhaps also of being a company director. There is the general feeling of independence, and that your income is in your own hands. Some are attracted to the idea of starting a small gardener tends his plot and makes a number of creating further growth. If your are your own boss, say some people, worked is so much more pleasant. You can get someone else to do the less interesting jobs and you are not bogged down in annoying details. Work becomes easier, too, because you can get someone else to do the more difficult tasks. Many others want to set up a little business of their own ot occupy their spare time, and as a pleasant way or earning extra money from work they like doing. These are just a few of the reason commonly given. Some have good sense behind them; others are based on completely false ideas. Most contain some element of truth which gets magnified out of all proportion and seized upon without it being borne in mind that there are other points to consider as well. As with so much else in life, running an enterprise of your own entails disadvantages as well as advantages. It is surprising how rarely people stop to consider in real detail just what the drawbacks are, yet this is an essential first step for anyone thinking about whether it is even practicable for him to be his own boss. An important reason why there is such glamour about being in charge of your own business is that when you are working for someone else, many of the petty irritations of life, as well as the chore of often having to get sown to work that you do not feel like doing at that particular time, become associated with being an employee. There is a feeling that, if only you were your own boss, life would immediately become infinitely pleasurable and free from irksome details. This is almost entirely misleading. Many of the little annoyances probably have nothing to do with being an employee: being interrupted when you have at last immersed yourself in some disagreeable task, missing the bus when you are in a hurry, feeling tired or in other ways not really up to working hard At the moment, and so on. These occur just as much when you are your own master. In fact, they tend to happen much more often, while at the same time, their effects can be far more upsetting. There are very real drawbacks to running your own business, though for the right kind of person, immeasurable benefits also.
Step 5 Get through your draft/ notes and make marginal notes regarding amendments / synonyms / rephrasing. Remember that your summary should be expressed in your own words wherever possible.
Main Points No one to give you instructions Choose own hours/ working arrangements Self employed status directory? Independent, responsible for own income/ life Satisfaction from seeing enterprise grow Less interesting work other people also more difficult work Business occupies spare time earn money too
Misconceptions Few consider all details essential first step. Being the boss seems glamorous thinking that life would be better if no mundane chores, no annoyances, like employees wrong! Irritations also when you are boss more often? Effects more upsetting! Conclusion Consider drawbacks carefully. If right for you immeasurable benefits.
Step 6 Produce your final summary by linking up the notes into full sentences. Count the words. If necessary, make further amendments. Make sure your summary reads smoothly and is correct in spelling and punctuation. Finally, ask yourself if your summary is a satisfactory condensed version of the original, and also if your summary could be used for the purpose mentioned in the instructions. Step 7 Dont forget to produce a brief covering memo for summaries of this nature.
Memorandum To Ref Mrs Anita Sharma, Managing Director GS / ST From : Rakesh Singh Date 12 july 19 - Running Your Own Busines I have summarized the leaflet you gave to me, listing the main points about being your own boss, together with misconceptions. This is attached. I hope this helps you in giving your talk next week. Enc
Step 4 Produce a rough draft or notes from the original, referring to the instructions again to ensure you are picking out what is required.
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Running Your Own Business Benefits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. You have no one to answer to, and have self-employed may be director, standing. You make your own choices, including working hours. You are self reliant, accountable for your own income. You obtain pleasure from seeing your company grow. Delegations is possible of the simple and the laborious jobs. It can fill your spare time and create income formwork you enjoy. Some do not consider the drawbacks a vital preliminary step. Some feel life would improve without the aggravations often encountered as an employee. However, most of such aggravations occur to employers as well as employees, but with more disagreeable consequences. Conclusion Consider the disadvantages carefully. If it is for you, the rewards are limitless. (115 words)
Here is an Example Original

At a typical football match we are likely to see players committing deliberate fouls, often behind the referees back. They might try to take a throw-in or a free kick from an incorrect but more advantageous positions in defiance of the clearly stated rules of the game. They sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee or linesmen in an offensive way which often deserves punishment or even sending off. No wonder spectators fight amongst themselves, damage stadiums, or take the law into their own hands by invading the pitch in the hope of affecting the outcome of the match. [100 words]
Misconceptions
Summary
Unsporting behavior by footballers may cause hooliganism among spectators. [9 words]
Further Readings
Purposes of the summary Before you write the summary, consider why your audience (professor, boss, client) wants to read it. Why shouldnt the reader just read the original? Summaries benefit the reader because they offer a concise, general version of the original information. For a busy reader, summaries provide quick overviews of material. Summaries also show readers that you have understood the general point of a text, and in this way, teachers can test your knowledge. The process of summarizing someone elses material enables you to better understand that material. Finally, summaries allow you to introduce knowledge within a research context: you can summarize someones argument in order to analyze or critique it.
Summarizing Tips
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. A summary is a short version of a longer piece of writing. It contains all the main parts of the original, but puts them more briefly. Summarizing is a very useful skill when gathering information or doing research. The summary should be written in your own words. Its better to re-write, rather than copying out parts of the original. You might need to summarize a passage as a comprehension exercise. This proves that you can understand it. Read the original quickly, and try to understand the main subject. Then read it again - in more detail.
What and When to Summarize

Many student writers tend to quote when they should summarize material. Quote only when the author expresses a point in a particularly telling or interesting language. Otherwise, simply summarize. Use a summary to restate an entire argument. Use a summary to present information. Summary is more economical than quotation because a summary allows the writer more control over the argument.
How to Summarize
1. Read the original passage or text very carefully. 2. Use a pencil to highlight or underline what you take to be the main point of the original text, or make notes in the margins or on another sheet of paper. 3. If youre summarizing an entire essay, outline the writers argument. 4. Now tell your audience what the original source argued.
10. Underline or make notes of the main issues. Use a highlighter if this helps. 11. Look up any words or ideas you dont know. 12. Make a list of the main topics - or make a diagram. 13. A simple picture of boxes or a spider diagram can often be helpful. 14. Write a sentence, which states the main idea of the original writing. 15. Then write a paragraph which combines all the points you have made. 16. The final summary should capture the main point of the original. 17. Remember that it should be in your own words.
Summary Conventions
1. Summaries can range in length from two sentences to several pages. In any case, use complete sentences to describe an authors general points to your reader. Dont quote extensively. If you quote, use quotation marks and document the quotation. If you fail to document the quotation, ven one word that the author used, you are plagiarizing material (presenting another persons information as if it were your own).
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2. Use the authors last name as a tag to introduce information: Smith argues that population growth and environmental degradation are causally related. Brown notes that education in the U.S. has undergone major revolutions in the past 20 years. 3. Use the present tense (often called the historical present tense) to summarize the authors argument. Green contends that the Republican and Democratic parties are funded by the same major corporations.
Writing Summaries

A summary is intended to highlight objectively the main points of another writers work. Although written in your own words, the summary does not include your opinions of the piece you are considering. Since the summary eliminates those details that are not needed to convey the major points, it is naturally shorter than the original. In general, a summary is from one fourth to one half the length of the original. piece of writing is figuring out what to include and what to leave out. Below are some tips on how to choose material to include in your summary.
The problem we all face when attempting to summarize a
Cross out the less important detail Underline topic sentences and key ideas in each paragraph Take notes on those key ideasjot down the information
that clarifies a topic sentence, for example.

Model the summary on the structure of the original. Keep
the size of your paragraphs in roughly the same proportion as the paragraphs of the original and in the same order. This will help you eliminate details that should not be included.
These steps may also help you write a good summary: Read the piece for understanding first. Never summarize as
you read the article for the first time.

Before you begin to write, check for topic sentences and key
words (words that are underlined, italicized, or capitalized). These will clue you in on main ideas.
Jot down the organization of the original and follow that
pattern in your summary.

Check your summary to be sure you have been objective.
Your opinions are not part of the original!
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This is a practice class, which will help you hone your skills on summarizing. At the end of this lesson you will:
Use summarizing skills effectively Produce a business summary from a given passage of English
Look at the interviewer directly and dont avoid eye contact or it will not give a good impression. When answering questions, avoid using yes or no - they tell an interviewer absolutely nothing and result in a very dull interview. Try to answer as fully as possible, without going off the mark. Remember that the aim of an interview is to allow the interviewer(s) and the interviewee to get to know each other in a short space of time in order to decide quickly if. it would be possible to work together. it is not intended to be like entering the torture chamber Relax - and try to enjoy it! 2 All the secretaries in your organization use audio transcription, as the employers prefer not to use shorthand dictation. In informal talks with many secretaries personally, you know there is a considerable amount of fru8tration because of poor audio dictation technique by their employers; You recently came across the following article in a secretarial magazine, and feel it includes helpful advice for employers on effective audio dictation techniques. You decide to summarize it as a checklist for employers to follow when dictating, and to send it to the editor of the staff magazine asking him to consider it for inclusion in the next issue. (Use approximately 100 words.) Using dictation machines saves considerable time, as the secretary does not need to be present, thus it leaves the secretary free to deal with her other responsibilities while the boss dictates his correspondence. But how many secretaries out there continually bang your head against the office wall in frustration because the boss has coughed loudly in your ear? Does your boss mumble, talk too loudly occasionally and then almost whisper? How many times have you rewound and listened to an unfamiliar word 20 times and just wished the boss had the sense to spell it out? Well maybe your boss is an admirable Accountant or a marvellous MD, but good dictation technique requires considerable practice. I hope this advice will be helpfulperhaps you can casually put it on your bosss desk with his coffee in the morning, but dont admit where it came from of course! Before starting dictation, it is essential to be organised. All the necessary papers should be to hand. Otherwise youll get frustrated and start scrambling about in the mi4st of dictation and it will be especially infuriating for your secretary if you forget to switch off the mike during this process! Interruptions will affect your train of thought during the dictation so try to time your recording when you know you have some time free and do it in a room which is free from noise. Once these preparations have been made, youre off. Before starting dictation on each piece of correspondence, do state the exact nature of the document, e.g. short letter, long
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1 You are secretary to the Principal of a secretarial college and the Principal feels the following article contains useful points for students who will be leaving shortly, in preparing them for job interviews. Make a suitable summary for the Principal to issue to teachers for the_ to use in class discussion. Use no more than 70 words. Interviews - experiences which some people love, and some hate. Whichever category you belong to, a few tips should be borne in mind to ensure interview success. In nearly all meetings, the first impression is that which makes the strongest impact on new acquaintances, be they colleagues, friends or other associates. If that goes wrong, it may be impossible to correct. Secretaries are often seen as status symbols, so an employer would prefer a smart and presentable person to fulfill this role. Not many employers would be impressed by a provocative evening-type dress and hair tossed seductively, and it certainly would not be everyday office attire, so plan your wardrobe carefully. Personal freshness is also important, particulate when under stress. You must consider the effect you may have on the people around you. If you have ever stood next to someone on a bus whose personal aura makes you rush to get off before your stop, then you know what I mean. Give your teeth a good going-over too, to make sure they sparkle and that your breath smells fresh. Long tapering nails also wouldnt be able to whizz across a keyboard if you are asked to do a typing test, so give yourself a good manicure and ensure your nails are. attractive. The evening before the interview, get all your clothes ready so as to avoid a panic and not being able to decide what to wear. Make sure your hair is clean and shining too. A rumbling tummy is a sure sign of nerves, so avoid embarrassment by having a hearty breakfast. Nerves can often make. Your nose run too, for no apparent reason, so be sure to carry tissues. If you are wearing tights, make sure you carry .a spare pair in case you damage them on the way to the interview. Before you walk into the interview room, take a few deep breaths to calm your nerves - always -a useful calming technique. And when you walk in, smile! Dont get carried away so that your smile looks forced, but be as natural as you can. Be friendly in the interview itself, and it will make it easy for the interviewer to conduct the interview. However nervous you feel, sit in as relaxed a manner as you can, and dont keep twitching nervously, with your fingers, with the strap of your handbag, with your skirt hem, or whatever.
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report, etc. Also give an indication of the number of copies which will be required. This type of information is invaluable to your secretary as to the correspondence to be transcribed. As for the dictation - the microphone is not a lollipop, so dont try to eat it! Hold it two or three inches away from your mouth. If you hold it too close, your speech. will be blurred; too far away and you wont be heard at all. Dont mumble into the mike, but try to ensure your speech is clear. And please dont go like a bull at a gate - a secretary will not thank you if you dictate at 50 miles an hour! When you have dictated the first sentence or so, listen to it again by playing back the recording, so that you can make any necessary adjustments - the sound may. be too high or too low, so its much better to correct it at this point than deafen your secretary later! If the volumes OK, then go ahead. We all need to pause for thought now and again, so when you find it necessary to do so, or when the phone rings, remember to switch off the mike. Your secretary doesnt want to listen to a few minutes of nothing, or to :i conversation with your wife about whats for dinner! Wherever you can, try to include a mention of new paragraphs, and give clear instructions to your secretary regarding headings and any items which need to be numbered. Your secretary will also need to clarify things with you every few minutes if you dont spell out personal names, place names, foreign names anything which she may be unfamiliar with. Numbers too - prices, sums of money, percentages, etc. When youve successfully reached the end of a document, mark the length of the document on the index slip - this will be a valuable reference tool for your secretary on the size of paper to use for the correspondence. Finally, make sure you keep any letters, memos, reports, files and other relevant documents connected with the dictation in a special pill and pass all this to your secretary with the recording. In this way all the information she needs will be just where she can find it, and she wont need to bother you with queries. If you follow the above advice, it should save your Secretary much frustration - and a happier secretary makes your life easier too, doesnt it? Happy Dictating! 3 After reading the following assignment carefully, study the answer given. Discuss what is wrong with it, and rewrite the answer more appropriately. You have been asked to give a talk at a secretarial seminar on the secretarys duties in connection with meetings, and the text of your speech is printed below. You have also been asked for a one-page summary of your speech for inclusion in the seminar booklet, which delegates will keep for future reference. Using an appropriate format make your summary in not more than 150 words. Meetings form an essential part of business life and, as secretaries; our role is to ensure that they are organized and
administered efficiently, and that all the paperwork is dealt with correctly. I would like to talk to you today on the various things we have to think about when preparing for meetings, and the disorientation involved. Once it has been agreed that the meeting will take .place on a particular day there are many practical tasks you should attend to. First of all make sure you enter the date of the meeting in your bosss diary and your own. This will, of course, avoid the risk of a clash of apP9intments at a later date. Then check the venue for the meeting, and if there is a regular room make sure it is available. This may be the companys own board room, or in the case of a departmental meeting perhaps you will use the managers office. You then need to prepare and circulate the notice of meeting and agenda. If you will turn to page 41 of your seminar booklet you will see examples of the wording and layout of the notice and agenda. (NB: Discuss from examples printed in seminar booklet page 41.) Any additional documents for distribution, such as reports, statistics, etc., should be circulated with the notice and agenda, so that members may become thoroughly familiar with their contents prior to the meeting. Remember also to make additional sets of such documents - isnt it .always the case that someone forgets to bring their copies on the day of the meeting, and we end up having to get extra copies for them at the last minute! If you take extra copies to start with, you will avoid this last-minute rush. In consultation with your Chairman you should then produce a draft of the Chairmans agenda which he may amend as necessary. The Chairmans agenda is a little more detailed than the ordinary members agenda. It is .for use only by the Chairman, containing extra notes for his own reference in helping him to conduct the business of the meeting efficiently. So much for the preliminary documentation, what about other matters? If you have a regular caterer, a provisional order should be made for refreshments at this stage, which will be confirmed when. the number of participants is known nearer the date. Any equipment which may be required at the meeting should be arranged, including making sure any visual aids required will be available if necessary. (Does anyone require the overhead projector, spirit pens, video recorder, etc.?) Place names should be prepared if these are needed to identify the participants at the meeting. Obviously these will not be necessary at a departmental meeting where everyone knows everyone else, but at more formal meetings they may be useful. Once these provisional arrangements .have been attended to, you can more or less relax until the day of the meeting itself. Then you will need to make sure everything is organised as efficiently as possible, using- a bit of the foresight we are supposed to develop as secretaries. First of all arrange the meeting room, attending to such things as seating arrangements, water and glasses, writing paper and pencils, and ashtrays. Any-doc-Nments to because during the meeting should be laid out on the table. Spare copies of the agenda and. minutes of the last meeting should be at hand, as well as the
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official minute book and any other reports which I mentioned earlier. You should also check that any equipment and accessories required are in the right place and in working order. You dont want your boss to switch on the OHP during the meeting only to find the bulb has blown, or for him to write on a transparency only to find the spirit pen has run out! Next reconfirm that refreshments will be served at the appropriate time, and give any last-minute instructions regarding the number of members attending the meeting. . The switchboard and receptionist should also be given a list of participants at the meeting, together with instructions for diverting their calls as necessary. Perhaps a colleague will be called upon to take all calls, or the switchboard operator herself may be required to take messages. Whatever the arrangements, make sure the relevant people know what is required of them. If you are attending the meeting as secretary, gather your own paperwork together with suitable materials to take down the minutes. Ensure that you have your own and your bosss diaries available to check details of appointments when future dates have to be arranged during the meeting. Finally place a meeting in progress notice on the door. This will ensure no one walks in and disturbs the progress of the meeting. I will not mention anything about Minutes here because my colleague will be discussing that with you in detail later in the programme. Arranging meetings can be a bit of a headache - collating all the reports and material for the meeting, making sure all the documentation is issued at the appropriate time, and. all the various other matters which we have to attend to. But if you thiI1k them through logically, step-by-step, and use the summarized checklist which I have included in the seminar booklet, you can ensure that. nothing is overlooked. So whether you are organising your first meeting or your fiftieth, I wish you success.
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LESSON 38: COMPREHENSION
UNIT 4 CHAPTER 10 : COMPREHENSION

Choose synonyms for given words Identify the meaning of words from the context Calculate how marks are allocated in comprehension questions Develop effective techniques to answer comprehension question
the question. This is one of the test-makers favorite wronganswer ploys. 7. If the author of the passage adopts a position, or stance, on an issue, but discusses other viewpoints as well in the passage, be on the lookout for answer choices that confuse the authors viewpoint with the viewpoints of others. This is another common wrong-answer ploy. 8. Be on the lookout for wrong answer choices that provide information not mentioned in the passageyet another common wrong-answer ploy. These wrong answer choices can be tempting, because its remarkably easy to assume that you overlooked the information as you read the passage. The importance of using a dictionary has to be emphasized. Occasions will arise when you are not familiar with a word used in a passage. Always look up unfamiliar words immediately, and relate the dictionary meaning to the contextual use of the world. In view of the importance of vocabulary work, preliminary exercises are provided in this unit on the meanings of words in context, followed by a look at the types of question asked, how to word and display your answers and how marks are allocated.
Students, No communication in our business or private life can take place successfully without comprehending. Any assignment we undertake in any aspect of our studies is an assignment in comprehension. Most examiners and assessors would comment that many questions are badly answered because candidates do not answer the question which has been set-they do not fully understand what is required before answering the question. Comprehension is tested every time we read or write. Most errors in previous units of this book will have resulted from not having read a question properly, and fully understood it, before attempting an answer. The importance of careful and thorough reading cannot, therefore, be over-stressed. It is most unlikely that you have not studied comprehension exercises before now. We all know what comprehension exercises requited a passage has to be read and then questions based on the passage must be answered. Read the first question before you begin reading the passage. By doing so, you can read more activelywith an eye out for the information you need. 1. Never confirm your answer to a question until youve read the entire passage. Information relevant to a question can appear anywhere in the passage. 2. Using your pencil and scratch paper, jot down a rough outline as you read. It will help you locate relevant details quickly as you answer the questions, and minimize vertical scrolling and re-reading. 3. Dont be overly concerned with details (dates, examples, and lists) as you read; instead, jot down in outline form where these details are located in the passage so you can locate them quickly as needed to respond to the questions. 4. After reading the entire passage, take about 15 seconds to sum it up in one sentencein the form of a rough thesis statement. Doing so is well worth the effort, because youll be able to answer some Reading Comprehension questions with nothing more than the thesis in mind. 5. No matter what type of question youre dealing with, eliminate any answer choice that runs contrary to the passages overall thesis. 6. Be on the lookout for answer choices that provide information supported by the passage but not responsive to
Using a Dictionary
Comprehension all about understanding. That is why use of a dictionary is so important, to ensure understanding. Use a dictionary if necessary to fill in the blanks in the words below. You should choose a word, which could be used to replace the phrases in italics. 1. My boss is always finding fault with anything and everything in my work. ( ftis ) 2. Since the company recruited a new Account, the accounting and book keeping records seem to have gone from bad to worse. (d- - -r- -r- - -d) 3. I understand Personnel havent decided on a replacement for the MDs Secretary, but Laura and Jackie are in the running. (c- - t- -d- -g) 4. I felt like a fish out of water on my first day at work. I knew no one at all. ( m- - - -t) 5. If I work hard at all these exercises, Im sure Ill make the grade. ( s - - - - -d) 6. You must bring home to Lesley that she cannot leave it until the last week of term before she starts work on her integrated project. ( c - -v- - -e) 7. You must be honest with yourself and others dont try to gloss over the truth. ( c - - c - -I) 8. Stella is always assuming superior airs, but shes really no better than the rest of us. ( p-tr-ng) 9. John has been the main person behind the formation of new company. ( m- - - - m - -d)
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10. When my cars engine is cold, it goes in fits and starts until it warms up. ( j - -k - -y)
c.
Irritant
d.
Irritability
Grammatical Precision
When choosing the meaning of a word mentioned in a passage, care must be taken not to alter the meaning or change the tense. You must make sure you answer fits exactly in the passage in place of the stated words or phrases. Example: He intentionally left the fire door open. Incorrect: on purpose/deliberate Correct: deliberately In each sentence below, one word is italicized. From the choices given, choose one word which could replace it. 1. This electronic typewriter is going to be superseded by a new model. a. Replace b. Replaced c. Replacing d. Replaces 2. Do you remember the balcyon days we spent whiling away the hours on Rawa, our paradise island off the east coast of Malaysis? a. c. Tranquil Tranquiliser b. d. Tranquility Tranquilising
Contextual Clues
Very often the meaning of an unfamiliar word can be identified from the context. In the following sentence: a. Choose one word from the choices given to replace the nonsense word which is in italics. b. Unsubtle the word in italics to make a synonym for the word you chose to replace it. Example : I have to act as the idyaremrinet between my boss and his callers. Answer: go-between Synonym: intermediary 1. Dont be a victim of crotinarspation you should not put off until tomorrow what you could do today. a. Dilettante b. Dilapidation c. Dilatoriness 2. Suzanne has those intone qualities which make her perfect for the job a. Inert b. Inhuman c. Inborn 3. A letter which is written in a genniscodencd tone will not give the recipient a very good impression. a. Courteous b. Patronizing c. Polite 4. If any of the companys rules are lovetiad you will not give the recipient a very good impression. a. Disobeyed b. Followed c. Obeyed 5. Since the new Chairman was appointed, the company has grown substantially and become very orpserpuso. a. Unsuccessful a. Caffeine b. Successful b Sleeplessness c. Profit sharing c. Tiresome 6. Drinking too much coffee at night causes mosainin. 7. The disciplinary matter is yebacean for the Manager to may a decision when he returns tomorrow. a. Awaiting b. Suspension c. Suspense 8. If you want to change you lunch hour, you must obtain the contains of your manager first. a. Appendix b. Deprecation c. Approval 9. The new secretary shows a lot of togismanna towards me, but I dont know what Ive done to upset her. a Resentment b. Friendship c. Contentment 10. When the fire bell rings, employees must leave the building and report to their gestideand safety officer. a. Nomination b. Nominated c. Nominal
3. My boss is always making insinuations about a pay increase, but Ive still not had confirmation. a c Hint Hinted b. d. Hints Hinting
4. If may son is contumacious, I always making insinuations about a pay increase, but Ive still not had confirmation. a. c. Disobey Disobedient b. d. Disobeyed Canceling
5. Dont forget to have your work permit abrogated before you fly home. a. c Cancel Cancelled b. d. Cancels Canceling
6. Its womens prerogative to arrive a few minutes late for a date. a. Privilege b. Privileged c. Privacy d. Private 7. Linda is a peripatetic author she been all over the world while writing her first novel. a. c. Travel Traveling b. d. Traveled Ttraveler
8. A secretary has to perform quite a lot of esoteric duties in her job. a. c. Specialist Specialized b. d. Specialize Special
Types of Answer
Most comprehension questions ask for a certain type of answer:
Who? ( a person ) When? ( a time) Where? (a place) Why? ( a reason ) How? ( a method ) What? ( a thing/idea )
9. I need a corroborator to back me up or Ill be in big trouble, even though its not my fault. 10. My boss is always very irascible over the tiniest mistake in my work. a Irritate b Irritable
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Example : Question: In what year did Henry Ford produce his first motor car? Question type: When? Answer required: A time In the following questions, what type of question is asked, and what type of answer is required. 1. Which sister wrote the book Wutbering Heights? Question Type Answer required 2. Give one reason for the drop in prices of computers. Question type Answer required 3. What did Lisas boss find was the most convenient time for dictation? Question type Answer required 4. What are the peak advertising hours on television? Question type Answer required 5. Mention one item of equipment which could help Janice with her tasks. Question type Answer required 6. In what why do Pams methods differ from those of the other secretaries? Question type Answer required 7. Suggest one reason why some people collect stamps. Question type Answer required
3. Mention two of the factors upon which the choice of method of communication is dependent. Whose opinion? 4. Why is Great Britain thought to be the ideal market for the products mentioned? Whose opinion? 5 Mention three ways in which the secretary in the passage considers information technology has changed her role. Whose opinion?
Working and Displaying Answers

An examiner often has hundreds of scripts to mark. A little extra thought in presenting your answers neatly will put him/ her in a much better mood than will a paper which looks messy and has arrows everywhere. As with other aspects of your communication course, presentation of comprehension answers is very important. Bear in mind the following guideline. 1. Do not waste time writing out the questions on your answer sheets. The examiner is well aware what questions have been set. 2. Unless the instructions state otherwise, answers should be expressed in complete sentences, not in note form. 3. Your answers must be grammatically correct and suitably punctuated. 4. It is worthwhile following the pattern suggested by the working of the question.
Study the Following Example

1. Why are bank notes advantageous over coins? Bank notes are advantageous over cons because 2. Why did the workers go on strike? The workers went on strike because 3. What impression does the writer give you of ? The impression the writer gives me is.,, 4. Which fact best illustrates the? The fact which best illustrates the is 5. Mention two ways in which Two ways in which are: a. b. 6. Why did the writer think? The writer thought because 7. How was understood in the past? In the past was understood as 8. Name four qualities essential for Four qualities essential for are: a. b. c.
Giving Opinions
Some comprehension questions require the candidate to state someones opinion. It could be one of three people whose opinion is required. 1. The authors 2. The candidates ( based on the passage) 3. Someone elses ( someone else mentioned in the passage ) If no one else is motioned, you should give the authors opinion. Example : Question: How will the new technology affect the secretaries mentioned? Answer : Give the authors opinion, as in the passage, regardless of how much you know about the subject. Decide whose opinions are required in the following questions: 1. Do you agree with the author that shorthand will never be completely redundant? Whose opinion? 2. State two advantages of facsimile transmission mentioned. Whose opinion?
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9. Which sentence in the passage shows most clearly the ? The sentence which shows most clearly the is ... 10. In your own words, what do you think is meant by the expression ? I think this expression means
a noun is given, your answer should be a noun, etc. Be careful when consulting a dictionary because often more than one meaning is provided - be careful to choose the right meaning which matches the meaning of the word in the passage. Do not copy dictionary definitions out wholesale use your initiative to rephrase accordingly. 8. Your handwriting should be legible and your expression as correct as possible. Present your answers neatly, with question numbers clearly shown. Marks can be lost because of poor presentation and untidy work:
Marks Awarded for Comprehension Questions

One way of judging whether a lot or a little is required of any question is to refer to the number of marks awarded. Some students write half a page in answer to a 2-mark question, and two lines in answer to an 8-mark question. Obviously that cannot be right! Comprehension questions need careful consideration. You should check carefully the number of marks allocated to each question and bear this in mind when looking for and writing out your answers. Very often questions ask for reasons, advantages, arguments, effects. Remember in such cases that the number of marks allocated will be divided equally between the number of reasons, advantages, etc., which you give. For example, a 6-mark question may mean there are three reasons, with 2 marks for each. An 8-mark question may mean there are four advantages, with 2 marks for each, and so on. . There can be no hard and fast rules. All I say is be aware that examiners do not usually award marks ad hoc. There is generally a strict marking scheme to which they work. Wording your answer in close relationship with the marks available should be remembered at all times. Remember, too, that, marks are probably awarded for neatness and presentation.
Assignments
1 Read the following passage carefully.
Luxor Hotels and Conference Facilities

Our company name stems from the day when the founder, George Meredith, was staying in Luxor and planning a conference to be held in. Singapore. He decided to set up his own business and began with one hotel in 1989. Today there are Luxor hotels in more than 100 countries around the world. The biggest, with 600 rooms, is in Chicago and the smallest, with 100 rooms, in Perth, Western Australia. There are no hotels with fewer than 100 rooms. All Luxor hotels in the USA have at least 250 rooms whereas European hotels prefer smaller units. Over 66% f Asian hotels have more than 300 rooms. Quality is emphasised at all Luxor hotels. They are all decorated annually, all fittings are regularly checked and any worn furniture is immediately replaced. In 1992 alone, 5000 litres of paint were used in Singapore and about 50% of the carpets were replaced in our hotels in China. During 1994, 1000 beds were replaced in Cape Town by new ones imported from Canada. In 1996 every conference centre in Asia replaced its video facilities with the newest German equipment. By 2001, half the video facilities in all European hotels will have been updated. Staff training is paramount at Luxor hotels. The largest hotels have a training manager and smaller ones are grouped together for training. All staff from senior managers to bar staff and reception staff attend training sessions annually. The quality of their work is assessed at monthly meetings with their line managers. From the very beginning, Luxors conference trade has developed at great pace. In 1990 there were three conferences with just 200 delegates, but by 1995 there was at least one conference every week of the year and almost 10,000 people attended. Subjects ranged from international trade to private meetings of national sports bodies. One of the strangest topics for a conference was plankton farming. This was attended by 700 delegates from around the world - half the number who were at the Chicago conference on whales in Lake Michigan in 1994. Luxor Hotelsand Conferences continues to grow and we look forward to the future with confidence and anticipation. Indicate whether these statements are true or false. Quote a few words from the text to support your answers. a. There are 100 Luxor hotels. Tr.ue/False b. All meetings held at Luxor hotels are concerned which business.
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Guidelines for Comprehension

1. The importance of careful and thorough reading cannot be over-emphasised. Concentrate carefully and read the passage thrum once. Then read through the questions. On your second reading of the passage, it should be possible to identify area-s to which certain questions refer. 2. Make a note in the margin of the passage as a cross-reference to the question number concerned. In some comprehension passages, questions are posed so that they work logically through the text, but this is not always the case. 3. Answer the questions one by one, tackling them in the order in which they are printed if possible. 4. Use your own word rather than those used in the passage wherever possible. 5. Take particular note of the number of marks allocated to each question. This gives you an idea of how much is required in your answer, and how much detail is necessary. 6. Base the wording of your answer on the wording of the question. This also helps to reinforce in your mind the question which is asked. 7. When you are required to give definitions of words or phrases, be sure your answer is in the same part of speech. If
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True/False c. In 1995' 50 conferences took place. True/False d. Every Luxor hotel has a training manager. True/False e. 400/0 of Asian hotels have 250 rooms. True/False _ f. George. Meredith attended a conference in Luxor. True/False g. 700 delegates visited a place called Whales in Lake Michigan. True/False . h. Half the carpets in Chinas hotels are new. True/False i. All Luxor hotels have at least 100 rooms. True/False j. Seventy per cent of the video. equipment in European hotels will be changed in 2001. True/False 2 Read this passage and then answer the questions which follow. Use your awn wards as far as possible. To. please his san, John Wilson recreated the wood and pea netting goal he had first made as a bay. He then saw the huge potential far a portable goal that could be packed away in a bag and used anywhere - beach, lawn or field. Funding came from remortgaging his home in Sheffield and from a government grant. Using Johns patented design, a local plastics company then produced goals that were strong, easy to. assemble, safe, virtually impassible to. knack aver and yet light enough far children to. carry and _rect. ITSA Goal (Inter Trading Sports Associates) was now in business. The first half: Johns initial plan to. sell the goals via sports shops was dashed when retailers told him there was no. market far a product costing 125 when <;heaper, albeit inferior, portable goals already existed. John turned to. the Football Association who. agreed to test the product, liked it and gave it official approval. Luck then took a hand. The FA was talking to. Coca-Cola about a Youth Development project far small team games far which Johns product was ideal. John calls the resulting deal a win win win situation. Coca-Cola buys regularly from me in bulk at a discounted price. I sell the goals - Coca-Cola Big Red Bag branded - to. schools and football clubs. I target through leaflets and other literature and ward-of-mouth. Customers benefit from the discounted price. I return the money from the sales to. Coca-Cola who. also. get the brand name displayed nationwide. The second half: John generously stresses the role that Midland has played in helping him aver the years. John felt he lacked sound financial advice. The Midland Branch Manager far Ratherham met that need. He restructured the whale financial side of the company and helped me with planning. Funding the business through my
mortgage wasnt sensible. Taking a business 10. an with the house as security was far mare tax efficient. The Bank Manager also. introduced me to a good accountant. For me, this was the major cultural change, realizing that an accountant needs just be someone who. cranes in and tats up the figures at the end of the year. Now we monitor the situation constantly and can plan accordingly. Today, with a 112 million turnover and growing and all Johns loans. cleared, ITSA Goals own factory produces goals and other soccer related equipment for schools, clubs and individuals throughout the UK and Europe. No question about it, John has scored with this cracking idea. Reproduced courtesy of John Wilson, ITSA Goal and Midland Bank pic a. How did John Wilson please his son? (2) b. Explain the huge potential for a portable goal. (2) c. Explain Johns initial plan to sell the goals via sports shops was dashed. (2) d. Why was Johns plan dashed? (2) e. How did John finance this project initially? (2) f. How did the Bank Manager help John? (4) g. What happened when John took on a good accountant? (6) h. What does Coca-Cola gain from the business? (4) i. What does John mean by a win win win situation? (2) Explain the following phrases used in the passage: i. Cheaper, albeit inferior (2) ii. Other soccer related equipment (2) . Total: 30/marks Read the following passage, then answer the question which follow.
Aroma Therapy
Aromatherapy involves the use of essential oils from plants. These oils are very potent and to understand their benefits you need to know what they are, and how they work in aromatherapy. An essential oil is a delicate fluid which forms the fragrance of a plant or flower. It can be stored in the stem, leaves, roots or bark, depending on the plant. Although called oil, it doesnt actually resemble one in texture; bout is a highly scented and extremely potent liquid. The powerful aroma of essential oils can affect the way we feel. Experts say the reason for this is that their aroma is transported from nerve cells in the nose to the part of the brain, which is concerned with emotion. Therefore, different oils are often used to help relieve anxiety and stress, .and to alleviate depression. It has been preyed that essential oils have a great ability to penetrate the skin. Once absorbed into the blood stream, different ones seem to have an affinity with different organs in the body. Essential oils are regenerative as well. as antiseptic, and therefore help the skin to heal faster. Lavender, for instance, is excellent
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for treating acne, boils, burns and eczema, whereas tea tree oil is good for spots, pimples and insect bites. You I1eed to smell pure undiluted essential oils to appreciate their potency and they should never be used neat. Eucalyptus and peppermint, for instance, can irritate the skin if applied undiluted. Essential oils are beneficial in various ways, so it is important to choose the right one. (Extract from Prima magazine, London) a. Explain the meanings of the following words, as used in the passage: i. Potent ii. Aroma iii. Alleviate iv. Neat b. Where do the oils used in aromatherapy come from? c. How does the aroma of these oils affect us? d. What would happen if eucalyptus was applied to the skin neat? e. With which oil should insect bites be treated? -
just one of the effects of not having enough of an essential mineral in the system. Minerals are the poor relations of vitamins. Few of us know just which minerals we need (and which we should avoid), how much we need and which foods they are found in. It gets more confusing, because if you eat too much of one mineral, such as iron, it might cause you to absorb less of another such as zinc. Even worse, minerals such as lead can be positively bad for you. And excessive aluminum has been linked with Alzheimers disease. So just what are these elusive substances? Minerals are metals which occur naturally in the soil and are absorbed into the plants and animals we eat. If we dont get enough of these minerals, we feel run down. At worst, this can cause mineral deficiency illnesses such as anaemia. Many of us could be low in certain minerals - especially if we eat an unbalanced diet, or one high in refined food. Refining often means extracting the most wholesome part of the food. White bread, for example, contains less minerals than whole meal bread because the wheat germ and bran are removed. Although the cells in our body naturally contain minute amount of minerals, they are used up as our cells become worn out. As the body is not very good at storing minerals (apart from a little calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and iron), it is vital we have enough in our daily diet. There is considerable controversy over whether or not we need to take supplements. If you continually eat on the run and you know youre not having a balanced diet, then a supplement can only do you good. . But do you need a supplement if youre eating a balanced diet of mineral rich liver, meat, fish, dairy produce, wholegrain, fruits and vegetables? Traditional nutritionists say that a balanced diet will give you all the nutrients you need. Others believe .that the use of pesticides which poison the soil, pollution and food processing mean that many of our foods no longer contain enough minerals. Whatever the truth, taking a supplement will do you no harm provided you take only the recommended dose. Taking a higher dosage can be positively harmful. Too much iron can prevent you absorbing zinc, and if you take excessive amounts of magnesium, youll get a bout of diarrhea! (Extract from Prima magazine, London) a. Explain the meaning of the following words, as used in the passage: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Excruciating Deficiency Extracting Minute Controversy
4 Acupuncture
Acupuncture - needle-therapy - hails from China. According to traditional Chinese medicine, good health depends on the bodys ability to maintain a state of inner balance. In acupuncture the needles are used to restore balance and so cure illness. Bodily harmony, or health, is said to be the result of a balancing act between two opposing forces known as Yin and Yang. Yin represents soft, feminine qualities. Yang hard,. masculine qualities. Good health also relies on the smooth flow of the bodys lifeforce or vital energy known as Chi. Emotional upsets, poor diet, overwork and stress can disturb the even flow of Chi and lead to illness. The vital Chi circulates along a network of invisible channels called Meridians. Treatment involves stimulating various defined points along the Meridians by planting needles in them. This strengthens Chi, and restores the equilibrium of Yin and Yang. These points are known as acupuncture points. Sometimes described as acupuncture without the needles, acupressure uses light fingertip pressure. In Shiatsu - the Japanese version- heavy pressure is involved too. (Extract from Prima magazine, London) a. Briefly explain the three forces on which the Chinese believe good health relies. b. What are Meridians? c. Briefly explain how acupuncture works. d. How does acupressure differ from acupuncture? 5 Read the following passage, then answer the questions that follow.
b. What causes heat cramps? c. Briefly explain what minerals are. d. Why do certain people not have enough minerals? e. Which minerals is the body good at storing?
Minerals - Are You Getting Enough?

The weathers boiling, youve been running around, youre in a birof a lather and suddenly an excruciating cramp hits you. Such heat cramps are caused by losing sodium when we perspire -
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f. Would supplements of minerals be harmful to someone who eats a balanced diet?
Reading Comprehension
Passages are taken from the humanities, social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences. The passages are of varied lengths, but generally of 75 to 150 lines. The number of questions pertaining to a particular passage could range from 3 to 5. Strategies :
Go through the passage once to get the general idea of the passage Don't try to memorize details but instead pay attention to the topic and the focus of the passage as you read. For questions asking you to give the passage a title, look at the first and last lines of the passage for clues.
Sample Passage:
In his 1976 study of slavery in the US, Herbert Gutman, like Fogel, Engerman, And Genovese, has rightly stressed the slaves achievements. But unlike these historians......(rest of the passage) ........In sum, Gutman's study is significant because it offers a closely reasoned and original explanation of some of the slaves' achievements, one that correctly emphasizes the resources that slaves themselves possessed. Which of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage, based on its content?
A. The influence of Herbert Gutmanon Historians of Slavery in the US B. Gutman's explanation of how slaves could maintain a cultural Heritage anddevelop a communal consciousness C. Slavery in the US: New Controversy about an old subject D. The Black heritage of Folklore, Music, and Religious Expression: It's growing influence E. The Black family and extended kinship structure: How they were important for the freed slave
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UNIT 4 CHAPTER 10: COMPREHENSION LESSON 39: PRACTICE CLASS

The Body Shop and I have always been closely identified in the public mind, undoubtedly because it is impossible to separate-the company values from my own personal values and issues that I care passionately about: social responsiveness, respect for human rights,- the environment and animal protection. But I must point out that The Body Shop is not a one-woman show - it is a global operation with-thousands of people working towards common goals, engaged in their own livelihood, and franchisees running their own businesses. The Body Shop is always on my mind, in one way or another. Whether ii be in a state of delight or frustration. The relationship I have with The Body Shop is one where I sometimes cant tell the difference between stress and enthusiasm. Reproduced courtesy of The Body Shop International PLC a. Why did Anita Roddick start The Body Shop? (2) b. What did she learn from her first shop? (4) c. Anita Roddick says I had a wealth of experiences to draw on. Summarise these experiences. (6) d. Give two reasons to suggest why green is important to The Body. Shop. (6) e. What does Anita Roddick mean when she says It is impossible to separate the company values from my own personal values. Try to explain these values in your own words. (8) f. How would you sum up how Anita Roddick feels about The Body Shop? (4) Total: 30 marks Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions which follow. Use your own words as far as possible. Reproduced courtesy of British Teleco1Jlmunications pic from BTs Annual Review and Summary Financial Statement 1998
By the end of this lesson you will:

Hone your skills in understanding the passage given for comprehension. Learn to answer correctly the questions given below the comprehension
passage.
Students lets recall what we have studied in lesson 38. We will now try to understand the passages below. Read this passage and then answer the questions, which follow. Use your own words as far as possible.
Profile of Anita Roddick

I started The Body Shop in 1976 simply to create a livelihood for myself - and my two daughters, while my husband, Gordon, was trekking across the Americas. I had no training or experience and my only business acumen was Gordons advice to take sales of 300 a week. Nobody talks of entrepreneurship as survival, but thats exactly what it is and what nurtures creative thinking. Running that first shop taught me business was not financial science; its about trading - buying and selling. Its about creating a product or service so good that people will pay for it. Now 22 years on, The Body Shop is a multi-local business with 1650 stores in 47 countries, trading in 24 languages across 12 time zones. And I havent a clue how we got here! It wasnt only economic necessity that inspired the birth of The Body Shop. Women, when they want to earn a livelihood, usually earn it through what they are interested in or what they are knowledgeable about. I had a wealth of experience to draw on. I traveled, and I spent time in farming and fishing communities with pre-industrial peoples. My travels exposed me to body rituals of women from all over the world. Also the frugality that my mother exercised during the war years made me question retail conventions. Why waste a container when you can refill it. And why buy more of something than you can use? We behaved as she did in the Second World War - we re-used everything, we refilled everything and we recycled allowed could. The foundation of The Body Shops environmental activism was born out of ideas like these. I am aware that success is more than a good idealities timing too. The Body Shop arrived just as Europe was going. green. The Body Shop has always been recognizable by its green colour, the only colour that we could find to cover the damp, mouldy walls of my first shop. I opened a second shop within six months, by which time Gordon was back in England. He came up with the idea for self-financing more new stores, which sparked the growth of the franchise network through which The Body Shop spread across the world. The company went public in 1984. Since then I have been given a whole host of awards, some I understand, some I dont, and a couple I think I deserve.
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The Community Opportunity

Companies do not exist above and beyond the societies in which they operate; they are part of those societies. They are citizen companies, with all the rights and responsibilities that citizenship brings. BT is determined to make an imaginative and ejective impact in all the communities in which we conduct our business. Some 90/0 of members believe that companies have at least some responsibility to the community. We are proud to accept that responsibility. BT is committed to helping people in need and at risk to improve their quality of life through our Community Partnership Program. With a budget of around 15 million a year for working with community causes, this program is the largest of its kind in the UK. But it is not just about good citizenship. We
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also believe it is good business. Seventy per cent of the general public say that the _contribution a company makes to the community could affect their buying decisions. This is why we are careful that all our involvement is reputation enhancing. After all, a good reputation means that governments will want us in their countries, customers will want to buy from us, shareholders will want to invest in us, skilled people will want to join us, and our employees will be proud to work for us. Our community partnership activities throughout the UK are themed around access and communication. We place particular emphasis on education and training, the improvement of communication skills, support for people with disabilities, and the involvement of BT people. In the last year we have put in place a programme to enable charities and voluntary groups to make more effective use of communications technology. As part of this, we are collaborating with the charity One World On Line to offer training and support for small charities to help them run their own Internet sites. But its not just about encouraging people to talk and listen. BT is bringing the benefits of the new technology it is developing to the people who need it most. For example, BT and the Anchor Trust are developing remote health monitoring to help older people continue to live independently. More than 80 million people in the UK have some form of hearing loss, and BT is helping to address their communications needs. All our public payphones are fitted with inductive couplers to help hearing aid users and we have ,been working with the Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID) to improve deaf peoples access to arts venues around the country. Type talk, the national telephone relay service run by the RNID with finds from BT, enables 20,000 deaf or speech-impaired customers to communicate via a text phone. BT will also be one of the corporate sponsors of the millennium celebrations, not just at the Millennium Dome in Greenwich but throughout the country. We want to make a contribution that will touch everyones lives in the year 2000, so we will be launching Mill-eMail - a free electronic mail address service, which means that no-one need ever be out of touch. A comprehensive set of reports is also being published that describe BTs social, environmental and technological interactions with society. Through these reports, we aim to stimulate a wider debate into how BT can contribute to an improved quality of life for all. a. What does the writer mean by citizen companies? (4) b. Why does the company believe that it is good business? (4) c. Explain we are careful that all our involvement is reputationenhancing. (4) d. Describe BTs work with charities and voluntary organisations. (8) e. How is BT helping to celebrate the millennium? (4) f. Explain the following phrases as used in the passage: i ii. iii. To improve their quality of life (2) Touch everyones lives (2) Stimulate a wider debate (2)
Total: 30 marks Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions which follow. Use your own words as far as possible.
Wake Upto Pollution

Dont choke Britain is about persuading people to forget the car and wake up to better ways to get around. This local authority-led initiative aims to raise public awareness about the damage t_ our environment and health caused by increased traffic congestion and pollution. Embracing many local initiatives throughout June, the Dont Choke Britain Campaign urges people out of their cars and onto bikes, buses, trains and pavements. Midland Mainline has a raft of travel options which complement the vision of a less car-orientated future. Its latest offer is Door-to-Door, where two, three or four people can catch an offpeak train to London and back from as little as 39 for the group. A pre-booked taxi to and from the station_ is included in the price. Until people are offered a cheaper and more convenient alternative, such as Door-to-Door, they will continue to take the car whether its air: the way to London or just to the station, says Midland Mailings -Product Manager, Chris Lyons. Perhaps the most ambitious scheme is the proposed development of an East Midlands Parkway Railway Station, close to the M 1 motorway. As Chris Lyons says, Midland Mainline are looking hard at taking more responsibility for our customers real journey from their from door to their final destination, not just the journey from station to. station. For example to make getting to airports easier, we are looking to develop competitively priced tickets that combine rail transport on Midland Mainline with other modes of transport. Combining the various travel options in one straightforward offer will make traveling to the airport by public transport much more attractive. Clearly,co-ordinated public transport is the way forward if a cleaner greener Britain is to be achieved. Midland Mainlines services take a sizeable chunk of traffic off the Ml and thats good news for the environment. But is it realistic to think that hardened car users can be coaxed away from their steering wheels? No-one says its going to be easy, says Chris Lyons. But if the products are right and backed up with a reliable, good quality service, their its possible. Using the car has its own problems, not least of which is traffic jams, incessant road works and the prospect of heavyweight measures to curb driving such as motorway tolls, reduced access to town centres and higher taxation. Constant improvements to Midland Mainlines services such as greater frequency, new products and better customer service are definitely persuading more and more people to use the train.
Reproduced courtesy of Midland Mainline

a. What does the writer mean by Dont Choke Britain? What is the purpose of the Dont Choke Britain campaign? (4)
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b. Explain the sentence Midland Mainline has a raft of travel options, which complement the vision of, a less carorientated future. (2) c. Describe the Door-to-Door scheme. (4) d. How can the planners make it easier for people to get to airports? (4) e. What are the problems facing car users? (6) f. Explain the following phrases: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Embracing many local initiatives (2) Perhaps the most ambitious scheme (2) Our customers real journey (2) Coordinated public transport (2) Hardened car users (2)
employers day in manner both discreet and reliable. These people are the present answer to a solid, lasting and not inconsiderable demand and it would be hard to see how they could be superseded. Until some bright spark invents a machine that can think as well as take messages, compose and produce individual letters, keep a vague employer to his schedule, remember everything from the year dot and make drinkable coffee, secretaries are the best alternative. So far so good. A job to be done and a female workforce who can do it. But why can we do it? I think for the very reason that we are female. Because there will always be a large sphere of work for which I believe women are temperamentally better suited than men. Really effective secretarial work demands imagination; putting yourself in another persons place and thinking for them. And women have on the whole always been better equipped to do this. A recent movement has initiated heated debate about the comparative roles of the sexes, in the wake of which have come opportunities hitherto unheard of for women to prove themselves equal to a mans world. And some are clearly more than equal, revealing formidable ability, drive and stamina in many important areas. Certainly these prominent women will continue to focus attention on changing attitudes to their sex, but they will not after the fundamental nature of the ordinary, timeless female capacities and strengths. The debate will go on, but it will not change the fact that women by and large have more patience, attention to detail, self-control and imagination - that is, the qualities that make, inter alia, a good secretary. You might say anyone who has mastered all this and still has some energy left deserves to go places - upwards. As I have said before there certainly are women in very senior, stimulating and deeply rewarding jobs who started out as secretaries and who made the transition with resounding success. But for the rest of us, the question must be asked where are we going? For the status quo is showing signs of exciting development. The much-heralded silicon chip technology is clearly here to stay and is surely removing all the drudgery which has been built into secretarial work -the filing, the checking, the tedious garnering; of information. But because such technology cannot make decisions, the thinking part of the secretarys job - the administration, the coordination, the arranging and confirming, the liaison with people - must be thrown into relief, expanded and endowed with a new status. Result - streamlined version of an old classic: that position which is often at the very centre of power, carries a sizeable amount of responsibility, calls for the exercise of the highest level of expertise and represents really caring work, putting to good use the feminine capacity for being a buffer state, a partner and full supporting cast. Surely there is quite a good job to be made of all that? Well, here we are. We have been taught to take shorthand (and sometimes we can even read it back!) and to type. The same broad aims and much the same problems concern us all. How to create order out of chaos how to raise or foster the public image of the company, how to bring the best out of the people and the crises. And how about when we dont really understand the technicalities of the work we are dealing with - or no-one
Total: 30 marks 9. The Personal Assistant to the Far East Divisions Chairman is to give the opening address at a secretarial seminar, and she has submitted a draft of her speech to you. Read it carefully and answer the questions which follow. In the days of illiterate kings and barons, when most dealings were conducted verbally through intermediaries, the job of secretary conjured up a icture of someone employed by the rich and powerful as a private .ear, intent upon the concealment of dirty linen. However, take heart. By the late Middle Ages the word secretary had gained in status, referring to one whose office it was to write for another, especially one who was employed to conduct correspondence, to keep records. So the written word became the chief medium of communication, and when the Victorians launched the newest profession in the widest sense of the word; commerce - with all its attendant record-keeping, and invented the Penny Post, the business letter as we know it was born From that point the phenomenon has been developed to a high degree; indeed, doubtless far too many such letters are written now, causing literally tons of paperwork to be produced, processed and stored every working day. Hence secretaries have really come into their own and not just as transcribers of letters. For as busy decision-makers in all spheres, be they MPs, surgeons, barristers, bankers, civil servants or business executives, cannot write all their letters out by hand, equally they cannot make every single telephone call, book all their own appointments or keep track of all their file copies. So they need someone to bail them out. Someone who will give a reliable and sensible back-up service, will hold the strings, acting as a base or nerve-centre in the hectic flow of events, and can be trusted to handle all information passing before them in an adult and serious fashion. In other words, guess who? A secretary can now signify anything from a thigh-booted, nail polishing dolly who sits behind a typewriter thinking about her boyfriend and waiting for 5 pm, to the high-flying and terrifying paragon who can speak five languages_ take shorthand at 3 00 wpm while piloting a VC10 and run a press reception for 1000 before breakfast. At its most accurate the word denotes those who occupy the area between these two - that small army of quiet and efficient persons whose job it is to deal with their
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ever thinks we need encouragement - or is there just too much work? Well, you can take a deep breath and get cracking - with the aid of a philosophical acceptance of what you probably cant change, some firm priorities held well in view, a degree of skill, and a few well-tried life saver tips - which is what this two-day seminar is all about. I hope you enjoy it and I wish you luck! (Adapted from Super Secretary by Sally Denholm-Young, published by Settle Press,. London) a. Explain the meaning of the following, as used in the passage: i. ii. iii. Superseded Inter alia Status quo iv) liaison (4 marks)
Cause-and-effect words as a result, therefore Time words meanwhile, before Contrast words in contrast, conversely Addition words also, in addition Emphasis words more important, remember
Watch for questions that test your knowledge of the
relationships between the topic and the supporting ideas. Understand definitions, recognize examples, understand explanations, find similar or unlike characteristics of two things or whatever, learn what produces a result and what its effects are.
Go over the passages with familiar subjects. Then read the
passages whose topics are less familiar. Description of the types of questions tested in the comprehension passages
Main idea questions test your understanding of the whole
b. To what phenomenon is the writer referring when she says. the phenomenon has been developed to a high degree? (4 marks) c. The writer refers to a secretary in one context as ... a terrifying paragon who can speak five languages, take shorthand at 300 wpm while piloting a VC10 and run a press reception for 1000 before breakfast... Explain what you think her meaning is, in your own words, simply and clearly. (6 marks). d. Why does the writer believe the secretarial workforce is made up mainly of women? (6 marks) e. To what transition is the writer referring when she Says ... who have made the transition with resounding success? (4 marks) f. What effects is new technology having on the role of the secretary now? (6 marks) (Total: 30 marks)
passage rather the individual parts. Specific detail questions are based on the supports presented in the reading. Scan the passage to spot the key words for the specific details. Some specific detail questions are negative and are singled by the words NOT, EXCEPT, MOST ,and LEAST. If you cannot find the correct answer for negative specific details, eliminate the choices given in the reading and choose the choice that remains as the correct response.
Inference questions ask you to draw a logical conclusion
from what you read in the passage. The answers to these types of questions are not explicitly stated.
Language expression questions include pronouns and
vocabulary questions.
Pronoun questions ask you to spot the correct antecedent or
Helpful Testing Hints

More than 50% of the time, the main idea of a passage is stated in the first sentence of the paragraph. Sometimes the main idea or topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph and, on occasion, anywhere in the paragraph. They may not be stated at all, but simply implied. Make a habit of reading the opening and closing statement of each paragraph. The most effective way to answer the main idea question is to ask yourself what the whole passage is about, not just a portion of it. The answers that cover specific details are either too narrow or too broad. The correct answer is usually a restatement of what is said in the whole passage; therefore, the options that have the same words from the reading are almost always incorrect.
noun to which the pronoun refers to. To locate the correct answer to these types of questions,concentrate on the sentence(s) before and a few sentences after the pronoun appears.
Vocabulary questions ask you the meaning of a word or
phrase within the context of the passage.

Questions about the organization of the passage, the
authors point of view, analogy, or the following paragraph are not as common as the other types.
Sample Passage
1. The sugar maple is a hard maple tree. It can grow as tall as 100 feet and as wide as 2. 4 feet. The sugar maple is commercially valued for its sap, which is used in the 3. Making of maple syrup. Two northeastern states, Vermont and New York, 4. Rank as major producers of maple syrup. In Canada, Quebecs annual syrup 5. Production surpasses 2.5 million gallons. To make pure maple syrup, holes are 6. Made in the trunk of the tree at the end of the winter or in early spring. The water-
Main Idea Questions

What is the main purpose of the passage? What does the passage mainly discuss? With what topic is the passage mainly concerned? Which of the following does the passage mainly discuss? * Pay attention to signal words and phrases. They help you understand the relationship between the ideas within a paragraph(s).
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7. Like sap seeps through the holes and runs through a plastic spout that is put into 8. The hole. Afterward, the collected sap is transferred into tubes that are hooked up 9. To a tank kept in the sugar house. Then the sap goes through the boiling process. 10. Boiling enhances the flavor as well as adding color to the sap. Once the sugar 11. Content of the sap is about 65-66%, the sap is ready to be strained and marketed. 12. The maple syrup found in the supermarkets, however, is usually not pure and 13. Has other additives. The color of pure maple may range from golden honey to 14. Light brown. Between 35 to 50 gallons of sap are needed to produce 1 gallon of 15. Maple syrup. Also popular for strength and finish of its wood, the sugar maple tree 16. Has been put to use in furniture, interior woodwork, flooring, and crates. 1. What is the main purpose of the passage? A. To examine the economic viability of a tree B. To list a number of the major producers of maple syrup C. To provide information on how maple syrup is made D. To emphasize the use of the maple lumber in furniture and other products This is a general inference question. Most of the passage explains the technique used for making maple syrup. The best answer is (C). The choice (A) is inaccurate. The choices (B) and (D) are both specific details but not the main idea of the passage. 2. For which of the following words does the author provide a definition? A. The sugar maple (line 1) B. A tank (line 9) C. Additives (line 13) D. Furniture (line 16) This specific detail question tests your understanding of a definition. Only the sugar maple (line 1) is defined. The choices (B), (C), and (D), even though mentioned in the passage, are not defined. 3. According to the passage, which of the following periods is ideal for sapping? A. Late January through April B. May to late July C. August to early October D. Early November to late December This is a specific detail question. Based on the information in the passage, sapping takes place at the end of the winter and in early spring. Therefore, (A) is the best answer.
4. Where in the passage does the author first mentions the consistency of the sap? A. Lines 6-8 B. Line 9 C. Lines 10-11 D. Lines 14-15 This specific detail question directs you to the exact line and asks for the first occurrence of the word. These types of questions are relatively easy to locate. The correct response is (A). Pay attention that numbers are always in ascending order. 5. All of the following is true about boiling EXCEPT A. It enhances the color. B. It improves the flavor. C. It increases the sugar content. D. It reduces the shelf life of the syrup. This specific detail question is negative. In order to answer it correctly, eliminate all the choices A, B, and C that are used in the paragraph; therefore, (D) is the correct choice. 6. What can be inferred about the production of maple syrup? A. It is rather simple, but time-consuming. B. It is labor intensive. C. Its processing demands complicated equipment. D. The higher the volume, the less predictable the quality is. This question tests your inference ability. The answer to the question is not directly stated in the passage. (A) is the best answer. The production technique is quite straightforward, but it takes time. The producers have to depend on the natural flow of the sap. 7. In line 11, the phrase to be strained could best be replaced by A. To be tried B. To be purified C. To be filtered D. To be solidified This is a language expression question. The question is based on the closest synonym for the phrase to be strained. Even though all the choices are grammatically sound, (C) is the most logical choice according to the context. 8. In lines 13-14, what is the authors purpose in mentioning golden honey to light brown? A. To provide a visual description B. To make the reading more technical C. To illustrate the difference in quality D. To persuade the reader to buy the product This inference question asks the authors purpose. The passage is non-technical; therefore, the choice (B) is inaccurate. The choice (C ) is incorrect because the difference in quality is not a concern of the passage. The choice (D) is incorrect considering the author is not persuading the reader to buy any specific product. Therefore, the best choice is (A). 9. The word its in line 15 refers to
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A. Sap B. Maple syrup C. Color D. The sugar maple tree This is a language expression question as well. This type of question always gives you the line number, so it is easy to locate. The correct answer is based on the antecedent, the noun to which the pronoun refers. Reading the sentence, we notice that its is a possessive pronoun which refers to the noun phrase, the sugar maple tree; therefore, (D) is the correct choice. 10.The relationship between the wood and the maple tree is similar to the relationship between A. A vase and a bouquet of flowers B. A painter and a canvas C. A novel and a writer D. An inlet and a sea This analogy question tests your understanding of the relationship between the ideas. These types of questions need attention. The analogy here is the relationship between a part and a whole. The choice (A) shows the relationship between cut flowers and a vase. The choice (B) shows the relationship between the performer and the tool. (C) is incorrect because it indicates the relationship between a creator (writer) and the work created (novel). (D) is the correct choice. The relationship between an inlet (a part) and a sea (a whole) is similar to the relationship between the wood (a part) and the maple tree (a whole). 11. Which of the following would best describe the organization of the passage? A. A persuasive argument in favor of the maple syrup industry is advanced. B. A comparison and contrast between pure and commercial maple syrup is made. C. A cause and effect analysis of the maple syrup production is presented. D. A step-by-step explanation of how maple syrup is made is given. This question tests your understanding of how the author organizes the information in the passage. Most of the passage explains a step-by-step process of how maple syrup is made; thus, the correct choice is (D). The author does not attempt to convince the reader; consequently, the choice (A) is not true. The passage neither expresses the causes of the maple syrup production nor lists the similarities between pure and commercial maple syrup; therefore, the choices (B) and (C) are incorrect. 12. The following paragraph will probably discuss A. Ways to eradicate diseases attacking maple trees B. Other uses of the sugar maple tree C. Marketing plans for import distribution D. The diversity of the ecosystem This is an inference question. Based on the conclusion we can draw from the passage, the correct choice is (B). Since the sugar maple trees popularity for strength and finish of its wood is
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mentioned at the end of the passage, it makes sense to know something about its other uses. The choices (A), (C), and (D) can not be inferred from the passage. The new test of TOEFL starting July 1995 will have:
At least two or three vocabulary or phrase questions. These
questions are based on the meaning of the vocabulary or the phrase within the context of the passage. Sometimes these questions test your understanding of the meaning of a complicated sentence or an important comment or idea expressed in a paragraph.
More pronoun and antecedent questions. More detailed questions about the methods of development
in the passage. These questions test your understanding of definitions and explanations presented for a term or a word in the passage. Sometimes the specific lines on which the definitions and explanations appear are mentioned.
Effective Ways to Improve Your Vocabulary

If you do not know the meaning of a given word, the prefix
and suffix information can help you unlock its meaning. Study the common prefix list to increase your knowledge of a word. To illustrate, nourished means having proper nourishment. Malnourished means improper nourishment. The prefix mal means bad or improper. In addition, learning common suffixes can be an extremely helpful tool for the acquisition of new words. For instance, suffixes can help you with the understanding of different parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. If you add the suffix ment to the verb develop, the new word development is a noun. Further, if you decide to add the suffix al to the noun development, the new word developmental is an adjective.
The best way to increase your vocabulary is to study 15-20 new words a day. Write the new word and its pronunciation on the front of a three by five inch index card; on the back, write the definition of the word and the sentence in which you saw the word. Keep reviewing your index card pile and adding new vocabulary. Before long, you will have a rich assortment of words.
How to Tackle the Vocabulary

Be careful with word choice that has the prefix clue, which can
be a distractor rather than the correct response. The prefix ex means out, but the word extension is not a synonym for exterior. The exterior of modern churches lacks typical Gothic architectural features. A. Appearance B. Outside C. Extension D. Facade The correct choice is (B).
Do not study unusual or technical words related to specific
fields of study such as chemistry, biology, geology, and
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physics. The vocabulary in the Reading Comprehension section includes only general words that have synonyms. Definitions of minerals, animals, planets, chemicals, plants, etc. are not tested. Other types of words labeled as Slang, Informal, Nonstandard, Rare, Vulgar, Poetic, and Archaic are not tested.
The correct response is (D). Even though (B) has the same preposition, it is not the correct answer. Associated with is the appropriate synonym for related to.
If you do not know the answer, guess. You will not lose any
points for guessing.
Helpful Testing Hints

Use context clue to guess the meaning of the words or
phrases tested in the reading comprehension passages. From the four answer choices given, choose the word or the phrase that is closest in meaning, or is a synonym, to the vocabulary or the phrase. Some of the choices might have similar meanings, but only one will be the most appropriate meaning within the context.
The vocabulary items vary in degree of difficulty. While some
may be easy, others may be semi-difficult or difficult. Study all three types of vocabulary.
Nouns and adjectives as well as verbs and adverbs are tested
in the vocabulary section. The ratio varies from test to test. Some vocabulary items are two-or three-word phrasal (for example, get into , look over , count on ).
The words tested on TOEFL are similar to those used in
college-level textbooks.
If you do not know the meaning of a word or a phrase, read
the entire sentence because the sentence may provide additional clues. The sentences used before or after the sentence in which the word or phrase appears often supply clues to the meaning of the word or phrase. The following example shows this point. Although mint hybrids are infertile, true mints can be propagated from seeds. A. Reproduced B. Selected C. Planted D. Derived Pay attention to the context clue and construction of this sentence. The information in the dependent clause is in contrast with the information in the independent clause. The word infertile means barren, something that can not reproduce, while the word propagate means reproduce; therefore, the correct response is (A).
DO NOT be tricked into choosing the correct answer on the
basis of its grammatical form. All the possible answers have the same grammatical form. For instance, if the vocabulary is a phrasal, all the answers will be phrasal, but the correct answer does not necessarily have the same preposition. Look at the example. Coral, a gemstone, is related to living plants. A. Compatible with B. Partial to C. Accompanied by D. Associated with
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LESSON 40: TECHNIQUES OF CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to describe the major barriers to cross-cultural communication and how to overcome them. To reach this goal, you should be able to:
Explain why communication clearly across cultures is important to
UNIT 5 CHAPTER 11: EMERGING TRENDS
business.
Define culture and explain its effects on cross-cultural communication. Describe cultural differences in body positions and movements and use
people of different cultures involves the same problems of human behavior that are involved when people of the same culture Communicate. In either case, people can be belligerent, arrogant, prejudiced, insensi-tive, or biased. The miscommunication these types of behavior cause is not a product of culture. Second, one must take care not to over generalize the practices within a culture. We say this even though some of the statements we make in the following paragraphs are over generalized. But we have little choice. In covering the subject, it is necessary to make generalizations such as Latin Americans do this or Arabs do that in order to emphasize a point. But the truth of the matter is that in all cultures, subcultures are present; and what may be the practice in one segment of a culture may be unheard of by other segments. Within a culture townspeople differ from country dwellers, the rich differ from the poor, and the educated differ from the uneducated. Clearly, the subject of culture is highly complex and should not be reduced to simple generalizations. Culture has been defined in many ways. The classic definition most useful in this discussion is one derived from anthropology: Culture is a way of life of a group of people . . . the stereotyped patterns of learning behavior, which are handed down from one generation to the next through means of language and imitation. Similarly, a modern definition is that culture is the shared ways in which groups of people understand and interpret the world. While we can all talk on wireless phones and drink Coca-Cola at McDonalds, these activities can be interpreted very differently in different cultures. A Coke at McDonalds in America and a conversation on a wireless phone in Israel may be com-mon occurrences, but in Moscow a trip to McDonalds is a status symbol, as is a wire-less phone. In other words, people living in different countries have developed not only different ways to interpret events. They have different habits, different values, and different ways of relating to one another. These differences ate a major source of problems when people of different cultures try to communicate. Unfortunately, people tend to view the ways of their culture as normal and the ways to other cultures as bad, wrong, peculiar, or such. Specifically, these problems are related to two kinds of cultural differences: (1) differences in body positions and movements and (2) differences in views and practices concerning vari-ous factors of human relationships (time, space, intimacy, and so on).
this knowledge effectively in communication.

Explain the language equivalency problem as a cause of miscommuni-
cation.
Technological advances in communication, travel, and transportation have made busi-ness increasingly global. This trend is expected to continue in the foreseeable future. Thus, the chances are good that you will have to communicate with people from other cultures. Both large and small businesses want you to be able to communicate clearly with those from other cultures for several reasons. A primary reason is that businesses sell their products and, services both domestically and internationally. Being able to com-municate with others helps you be more successful in understanding customers needs, communicating how your company can meet these needs, and winning their business. Another reason is that in addition to being a more effective worker, you will be more efficient both within and outside your company. You will be able to work harmoniously with those from other cultures, creating a more comfortable and productive workplace. Furthermore, with cultural barrier broken down, you will be able to hire good people despite their differences. Also, you will avoid problems stemming solely from misinterpretations. A final reason is that your attention to communicating clearly with those from other cultures will enrich your business and personal life. In preparing to communicate with people from other cultures, you might welt begin by reviewing the instructions given in this book: Most of them fit-all people. But many do not especially those involving massage writing. To determine which do- not, you must study the differences among cultures, for cultural differences are at the root of the exceptions. In addition, you must look at the special problems that our language presents to those who use it as a second language. It is around these two problem areas that this review of cross-cultural communication is organized.
Problems of Cultural Differences

A study of the role of culture in international communication properly begins with two qualifying statement First, culture is often improperly assumed to be the cause of miscommunication. Often it is confused with the other human elements involved. We must remember that communication between
Body Positions and Movements

One might think that the positions and movements of the body are much the same for all people. But such is not the case. These positions and movements differ by cul-ture, and the differences can affect communication. For example, in our culture most people sit when they wish to remain in one place for some time, but in much of the world people squat. Because
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we do not squat, we tend to view squatting as primitive. This view obviously affects our communication with people who, squat, for what we see when we communicate is a part of the message. But how correct is this view? Actually, squatting is a very normal body position. Our children squat quite natu-rally until their elders teach them to sit. Who is to say that sitting is more advanced or better?
how one uses eye movement can be in-terpreted as being impolite on the one hand or being shy on the other. Touching and particularly handshaking differences are important to understand in cross-cultural communication. This is made difficult by other cultures adopting West-ern greetings. However, some cultures, like the Chinese, do not like much touching. They will give a handshake you might perceive as weak. Other cultures that like touch-ing will give you greetings ranging from full embraces and kisses to nose rubbing. If you can avoid judging others from different cultures on their greeting based on your standards for others like you, you can seize the opportunity to access the cultural style of another. Here are some types of handshakes by culture.
For another example, people from our culture who visit certain Asian countries are likely to view the fast, short steps taken by the inhabitants as peculiar or funny and to view our longer strides as nominal. And when people from our culture, see the inhabi-tants of these countries bow on meeting and leaving, each other, they are likely to interpret the bowing as a sign of subservience or weakness. Culture Handshakes Similarly, people from our Americans Firm culture see standing up as the Germans Brusque, firm, repeated upon arrival and departure appropriate thing to do on French Light, quick, not offered to superiors, repeated upon arrival and departure certain occasions (as when British Soft someone enters the room), Hispanics Moderate grasp, repeated frequently whereas people from some Latin Americans Firm, long-lasting other cultures do not. Middle Easterners Gentle, repeated 'frequently' Gentle; for some, shaking hands is unfamiliar and uncomfortable (an As you know, movements of Asians exception to this is the Korean, who generally has a firm handshake) certain body parts (especially the hands) are a vital form of human communication. Some of these movements have no In our culture, smiles are viewed positively in most situations. definite meaning even within a culture. But some have clear But in some other cultures (notably African cultures), a smile is meanings, and these meanings may differ by culture. To us an regarded as a sign of weakness in cer-tain situations. (Such as up and down movement of the head means yes and a side-tobargaining). Receiving a gift or toughing with the left hand is a side movement of the head means no. These movements may serious breach of etiquette among Muslims, for they view the mean nothing at all or some-thing quite different to people left hand as unclean. We attach no such meaning to the left from cultures in which thrusting the head forward, rais-ing the hand. And so it is with other body movement searching the eyebrows, jerking the head to one side, or lifting the chin are eyebrows, positioning the fingers, raising the arms, and many used to convey similar meanings. more. All cultures use body movements in communicating, but in different ways. In addition, the two-fingered victory sign is as clear to us as any of our hand ges-tures. To an Australian, whose culture is not vastly different from ours, the sign has a most vulgar meaning. The OK sign is terribly rude and insulting in such diverse places as Russia, Germany, and Brazil. In Japan, a similar sign represents money. If a busi-nessperson completing a contract gave this sign, the Japanese might think they needed to give more money, perhaps even a bribe. Even the widely used thumbs up sign for things are going well could get you into trouble in countries from Nigeria to Australia. In our culture a side-by-side hand movement can be interpreted to mean hello. The same movement can be interpreted to mean go away or no in India. And so it is with many of our other body movements. They differ widely, even within cultures. The meanings that movements of our eyes convey also vary by culture. In North America, we are taught not to look over the heads of our audience but to maintain eye contact in giving formal speeches. In informal talking, we are encouraged to look at others but not to stare. In Indonesia, cooking directly at people, especially those in higher positions and older, is considered to be disrespectful. On the other hand, our practices of eye contact are less rigorous than those of the British and Germans. Un-less one understands these cultural differences,
Views and Practices Concerning Factors of Human Relationship

Probably causing even more miscommunication than differences in body positions and movements are the different attitudes of different cultures toward various factors of human relationships. For illustrative purposes, we will review seven major factors: time, space, odors, frankness, and intimacy of relationships, values, and expression of emotions. Time. In our culture, people tend to regard time as something that must be planned for the most efficient use. They strive to meet deadlines, to be punctual, to conduct business quickly, and to work on a schedule. In some other cultures (especially those of the Middle East and some parts of Asia), people view time in a more relaxed way. They see planning as unwise and unneces-sary. Being late to a meeting, a social function, or such is of little consequence to them. In fact, some of them hold the view that important people should be late to, show that they are busy. In business negotiations, the people in these cultures move at a deliber-ately slow pace, engaging in casual talk before getting to the main issue. It is easy to see how such different views of time can cause people from different cultures to have serious miscommunication problems.
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Space. People from different cultures often vary in their attitudes toward space. Even people from the same culture may have different space preferences. North Americans tend to prefer about two feet or so of distance between them-selves and those with whom they speak. But in some cultures (some Arabian and South American cultures), people stand closer to each other; not following this practice is considered impolite and bad etiquette. For another example, North American view personal space as a right and tend to respect this right of others; thus, they stand in line and wait their turn. People from some other cultures view space as belonging to all. Thus, they jostle, for space when boarding trains, standing at ticket counters, shopping in stores, and such. In encounters between people whose cultures have such different, attitudes toward space, actions are likely to be misinterpreted. Odors. People from different cultures may have deferent attitudes toward body odors. To illustrate, Americans work hard to neutralize body odors or cover them up and view those with body odors as dirty and unsanitary. On the other hand, in some Asian cultures people view body odors not as something to be hidden but as something that friends should experience. Some of the people from these cultures believe that it is an act of friendship to breathe the breath of the person with whom they converse and to feel their presence by smelling. Clearly, encounters between people with such widely differing attitudes could lead to serious miscommunication. Frankness. North Americans tend to be relatively frank or explicit in their relation-ships with others, quickly getting to the point and perhaps being blunt and sharp doing, so. Asians tend to be far more reticent or implicit and sometimes go to great lengths to save face or not to offend. Americans belong to a high-context culture, a Cul-ture that explicitly shares all relevant background information in our communication. Asians, on the other hand, belong to a low-context culture, extracting limit background information and thus communicating more implicitly. Thus, Asians may Appear evasive, roundabout, and indecisive to North Americans; and, North Americans may appear harsh, impolite, and aggressive to Asians. Telephone customs may be an exception, especially among the Chinese, who tend to end telephone calls abruptly after their purpose has been accomplished. North Americans, on the other hand, tend to move on to friendly talk and clearly prepare the listener for the end of the call. Intimacy of Relationships. In many cultures, strict social classes exist, and class status determines how intimately people are addressed and treated in communication. For this reason, a person from such a culture might quiz a person from another culture to determine that persons class status. Questions concerning occupation, income, title, and such might be asked. People from cultures that stress human equality are apt to take offense at such questioning about the notion of class status. This difference in at-titude toward class status also is illustrated by differences in the familiarity of address. Some Americans are quick to establish a first-name basis. This practice is offensive to people from some other cultures, notably the English and the Germans, who expect such intimate address only from longstanding acquaintances.
Similarly, how people view superior-subordinate-relations can vary by culture. The dominant view in Latin America, for example, is a strong boss with weak subordinates doing as the boss directs. In sharp contrast is the somewhat democratic work arrange-ment of the Japanese in which much of the decisionmaking is by consensus. Most in our culture view as appropriate an order between these extremes. These widely differ-ing practices have led to major communication problems in joint business ventures in-volving people from these cultures. The role of women varies widely by culture. In North America, we continue to move toward a generally recognized goal of equality. In many Islamic cultures, the role of women is quite different. To many in our culture, the practices of the people of these other cultures suggest severe restriction of human rights. In the view of the peo-ple of these cultures, their practices are in accord with their religious convictions. They see us as being the ones out of step. Values. Also differing by culture is our values-how we evaluate the critical mat-ters in life. Americans, for example, have been indoctrinated with the Protestant work ethic. It is the belief that if one puts hard work ahead of pleasure, success will follow. The product of this thinking is an emphasis on planning, working efficiently, and max-imizing production. Of course, not all of us subscribe to this ethic, but it is a strong force in the thinking of many in our culture. The prevailing view in some other cul-tures is quite different. In. some, the major concern is for spiritual and human well being. The view of work is relaxed, and productivity is, at best, a secondary concern. Views about the relationships of employers and employees also may differ by cul-ture. North American workers expect to change companies in their career a number of times; and they expect companies to fire them from time to time. Employees expect to move freely from job to job, and they expect employers to hire and fire as their needs change. Expectations are quite different in some other cultures. In Japan, for example, employment tends to be for a lifetime. The workplace is viewed much like a family, with loyalty expected from employees and employer. Such differences have caused misunderstandings in American-Japanese joint ventures. How employees view authority is yet another question that cultures view differ-ently. We North Americans generally accept authority, yet we fiercely maintain the rights of tl1e individual. In many Third World cultures, workers accept a subservient role passively. Autocratic rule is expectedeven wanted. Expression of Emotions. From culture to culture, differences in social behavior de-velop. To illustrate, in some Asian cultures public displays of affection are strongly frowned upon-in fact, considered crude and offensive. Westerners, on the other hand, accept at least a moderate display of affection., To Westerners, laughter is a sponta-neous display of pleasure, but in some cultures (Japanese, for one), laughter also can be a controlled behavior-to be used in certain social situations. Even such emotional displays as sorrow are influenced by culture. In some Middle Eastern cultures, sorrow is expressed with loud, seemingly uncontrolled wailing. In similar situations, Westerners typically respond with subdued and controlled emotions.
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We all have observed the emotion and animation people of the Mediterranean\cul-tures display as they communicate. And we have seen the more subdued communica-tion of othersnotably northern Europeans. The first group tends to see the second as disinterested and lacking in friendliness. The second sees the first as excitable, emo-tional, and perhaps even unstable. Many more such practices exist. Some cultures combine business and social plea sure; others do not. Some expect to engage in aggressive bargaining in business transactions; others prefer. Straightforward dealings. -Some talk loudly and. with emotion; others communicate orally in a subdued manner. Some communicate with emphasis on economy of expression; others communicate with an abundance of verbiage. The comparisons could-go on and on for there are countless differences-in cultures. But it is not necessary to review them all. What is important is that we recognize their existence, that we look for them, and that we understand them. We should guard against ethnocentrism, the use of cultural practices as standards for determining mean-ing in cross-cultural communication.
Problems of Language
The people on earth use more than 3,000 languages. Because few of us can learn more than one or two other languages well, problems of miscommunication are bound to occur in international communication.
Lack of Language Equivalency

Unfortunately, wide differences among languages make precisely equivalent transla-tions difficult. One reason for such differences is that languages are based on the con-cepts, experiences, views, and such of the cultures that developed them. And different cultures have different concepts, experiences, views, and such. For el-ample, we think of a florist as someone who sells flowers and related items in a store. In some cultures, however, street vendors, mainly women and children, sell flowers. Obviously, our florist does not have a precise equivalent in/the language of such cultures. Similarly, our supermarket has no equivalent in some languages. The French have no word to distinguish between house and home, mind and brain, and man and gentleman. The Spa.T1ish have no word to distinguish between a chairman and a president, while Italians have no word for wishful thinking: And Russians have no words for efficiency, chal-lenge and having fun. However, Italians have nearly 500 words {or types of pasta. And so it is with words for many other objects, actions, concepts, and such (for example, roundup, interview, strike, tough, monopoly, domestic feminine, responsible, aloof). Another explanation for the lack of language equivalency is the grammatical and syntactic differences among languages. Some languages (Urdu, for example) have no gerunds, and some have no adverbs and/or adjectives. Not all languages deal with verb mood, voice, and tense in the same way. The obvious result is that even the best trans-lators often cannot find literal equivalents between languages. Adding to these equivalency problems is the problem of multiple word meanings. Like English, other languages have more than one meaning for many words. Think, for example, of our numerous meanings for the simple word run (to move fast, Jo compete for office, a score in baseball, a break in a stocking, a fading of colors, and many more). Or consider the multiple meanings of such words as fast, cat, trip, gross, ring, and make. The Oxford English Dictionary uses over 15,000 words to define what. Unless one knows a language well, it is difficult to, know which of the meanings is intended. Within a culture, certain manners of expression may be used in a way their dic-tionary translations and grammatical structures do not explain. Those within the cul-ture understand these expressions; those outside may not. For example, we might say, Business couldnt be better, meaning business is very good. One from another culture might understand the sentence to mean, Business is bad (impossible to im-prove). Or we might say, We could never be too nice to our customers, meaning try as we may, we couldnt be overly nice. To one from another culture, the sentence might mean We cannot be nice to our customers. Similarly, like-meaning words can be used in different ways in different cultures. One example is the simple word yes, a word
Effects on Business Communication Techniques

The foregoing examples illustrate only a few of the numerous differences that exist among cultures. Books have been written on the subject. Our objective here is only to establish the point that the differences among cultures affect communication between people of different cultures. The communication techniques presented in this book should be modified to fit the culture involved. Keep in mind that this book was written for our culture. Much of what we say does not apply to other cultures. Especially is this the case with our cov-erage of the basic message situations-those concerning directness and indirectness. People in Asian cultures, for example, generally favor a somewhat indirect approach for messages we would treat directly. They begin with an identification of context- that is, a description of the situation the message concerns. They use what appears to us as exaggerated politeness and slowness in moving the message. In fact, some of our direct messages would be regarded as rude by people in these cultures.? Our persuasive appeals may be rejected in India, where views of an older, more highly developed morality lead to thinking different from ours.8 Even the British, whose culture we think of as resembling our own, have message practices that differ from ours. They especially differ in the treatment of negative situations. They prefer an approach that we would regard as blunt and calloused. They would regard our goodwill strategies as insincere and evasive. And so it is with the many other cultures of the world. Our practices just do not fit into them. What to do about this problem? You have no choice but to become a stu-dent of culture. You must learn the cultures of those with whom you communicate. Dont expect them to understand your culture, although many of them do. With your recipients culture in mind, you then modify your communication accordingly.
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that has an equivalent in all languages. The Chinese yes, like the Japanese yes, can often be understood by Americans and British as their English yes. But the Chinese yes often means I am listening. Or it may be understood in English as the opposite of yes. For example, when an American says to a Chinese counterpart, I see you dont agree with this clause, the Chinese will usu-ally reply, Yes meaning a polite agreement with the negative question: Yes, you are right. I do not agree with the clause. Overcoming such language problems is difficult. The best way, of course, is to know more than one language well, but the competence required is beyond the reach of most of us. Thus, your best course is first to be aware that translation problems exist and then to ask questions-to probe-to determine what the other person understands. For very important oral messages, documents, or such, you might consider using a procedure called back translating. This procedure involves using two translators, one with firstlanguage skills in one of the languages involved and one with first-language skills in the other language. The first translator translates the message into his or her language, and the second translator then translates the message back into the original. If the translations are good, the second translation matches the original.
words have alone. And look how the meaning changes when the same verb is com-bined with other words: break away, break out, break in, break down. Dictionaries are of little help to nonnative who are seeking the meanings of these word combinations. There are many two-word verbs-so many, in fact, that a special dictionary of them has been compiled. Following are a, few of them arranged by the more common words that combine with the verbs:
Verb Plus Away" . give away keep away Lay away pass away put away throw away
Verb Plus ln" cash in cave in lose in dig in give in run in take in throw in Verb Plus Off break off brush off buy off check off clear off cool off finish off let off mark off payoff run off send off show off shut off sound off start off take off write off verb Plus out blow out
Difficulties in Using English

Fortunately for us, English is the primary language of international business. This is - not to say that other languages are not used in international business, for they are. When business executives from different countries have a common language, what-ever it may be, they are likely to use it. For example, an executive from Iraq and an executive from Saudi Arabia would communicate with each other in Arabic, for Ara-bic is their common language. For the same reason, an executive from Venezuela would use Spanish in dealing with an executive from Mexico. However, when execu-tives have no common language, they are likely to use English. The members of the European Free Trade Association conduct all their business in English even though not one of them is a native English speaker. in the words of one international authority, English has emerged as the lingua franca of world commerce in much the same way that Greek did in the ancient world of the West and China did in the East. Although we can take comfort from knowing that ours is the primary language of international business, we must keep in mind that it is not the primary language of many of the who use it. Since many of these users have had to learn English as a second language, they are likely to use it less fluently than we and to experience prob-lems in understanding us. Some of their more troublesome problems are reviewed in the following pages. Two-Word Verbs. One of the most difficult problems to nonnative speakers of Eng-lish involves the use of two-word verbs. By two-word verbs we mean a wording con-sisting of (1) a verb and (2) a second element that, combined with the verb, produces a meaning that the verb alone does not have. For example, take the verb break and the word up. When combined, they have a meaning quite different from the meanings the
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Verb Plus Back" cut back feed back keep back play back read back take back turn back win back verb plus down calm down die down hand down keep down let down lie down mark down pin down play down put down run down shut down sit down wear down verb plus out clean out clear out crowd out cut out die out dry out even out figure out fill out find out give out hold out hold out lose out pull out rule out
verb plus up blow up build up call up cover up dig up end up fill up get up hang up hold up keep up look up mix up pick up save up shake up
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verb plus out pull out rule out tire out wear out work out
verb plus up save up shake up shut up slow up split up wrap up verb Plus Miscellaneous words bring about catch on get across pass on put across put forth roll over set forth
verb plus over check over do over hold over pass over put over run over stop over take over talk over think over win over
Culturally Derived Words. Words derived from our culture also present problems. The most apparent are the slang expressions that continually come into and go out of use. Some slang expressions catch on and find a place in our dictionaries (brunch, hobo, blurb, bogus). But most are with us for a little while and then are gone. Exam-ples of such shortlived slang expressions are the twenty-three skiddoo and oh you kid of the 1920s and the ritzy, scram, natch, lousy, soused, , in the groove, and tops of following decades. More recent ones that are probably destined for the same fate include nerd, wimp, earth pig, pig out, couch potato, squid, airhead, and cool. Perhaps you are not aware of just how much slap we use. Most slang words are not in dictionaries or on the word lists that non-English-speaking people study to learn English. The obvious conclusion is that you should not use slang in crosscultural communication. Similar to and in fact overlapping slang are the words and expressions that we de-rive from our various activities-sports, social affairs; work, and the like. Sports es-pecially have contributed such words, many of which are so widely used that they are part of our everyday vocabulary. From football we have kickoff, goal-line stand, and over the top. Baseball has given us out in left field, strike out, touch base, off base, right off the bat, a steal, squeeze play, balk, and go to bat for. From boxing we have knockout, down for the count, below the belt, answer the bell, and on the ropes. From other: sports and from sports in general we have jock, ace, par, stymie, from scratch, ballpark figure, and get the ball rolling. Similar to these words and expressions are words and expressions developed within our culture (colloquialisms). Some of these have similar meanings in other cultures, but most are difficult for non-natives to understand. Following are some examples Head for home Have an itching palm Grasp at straws Flat footed On the beam Out to pasture Sitting duck Crying In his beer In orbit A honey A flop Dope (crazy) Hood (gangster) Up the creek without a paddle A fish out of water A chicken with its head cut off If you are like most of us, many of these words and expressions are apart of your vocabulary. You use them in your everyday communicating, which is all right. They are colorful, and they can communicate clearly to those who understand in the groove nuts (crazy) grand(thousand0 circle the wagons shoot from the hip tuckered out gumption tote (carry) in a rut pump priming make heads or tails of it tearjerker countdown shortcut educated guess
Of course, nonnative studying English learn some of these word combinations, for they are part of the English language. But many of them are not covered in language textbooks or listed in dictionaries. It is apparent that we should use these word com-binations sparingly when communicating- with nonnative speakers of English. When-ever possible, we should substitute for them words that appear in standard dictionaries. Following are some two-word verbs and suggested substitutes:
Two-Word Verbs give up speed up, hurry up go on, keep on put off take off come down go in, come in, get in Two-Word Verbs go out, come out, get out blow up think up figure out take out, take away remove return
Suggested Substitutes surrender accelerate continue defer depart, remove descend enter Suggested Substitutes exit, leave explode imagine solve go back, get back, be back
Additional problems result from the fact that some two-word verbs have noun and adjective forms. These also tend to confuse nonnatives using English. Examples of such nouns are breakthrough, cover-up, drive-in, hookup, show-off, and sit-in. Exam-ples of such adjectives are going away (a going-away gift), cover-up (cover-up tac-tjcs), cleanup (cleanup work), and turningo f f (turning-off place). Fortunately, some nouns and adjectives of this kind are commonly used and appear in standard dictionaries (words such as hookup, feedback, breakthrough, lookout, and takeover). In writ-ing to nonnative readers, you will need to use sparingly those that do not appear in standard dictionaries.
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them. Normative English speakers are not likely to understand them, however, so you will need, to eliminate such words and expressions in communicating with them. You will need to use words that are clearly defined in the dictionaries that these people are likely to use in translating your message. Following are some examples:
Not This We were caught flat-footed. He frequently shoots from the' hip. We would be up the creek without a paddle. They couldnt make heads or tails-of the report. The sales campaign was a flop. 'I'll touch base with you on this problem august. Take, an educated guess op this question. Your sales report put us in orbit We will wind down manufacturing operations in November Your prediction was right on the beam.
Specifically, it helps in gaining additional business, in hiring
good people, and generally in understanding and satisfying the needs 2. Culture may be defined as the way of life of a group of people.
Cultures differ. People tend to view the
But This We were surprised. He -frequently acts before he thinks. We would be in a helpless situation. They couldn't understand the report. The sales campaign was a failure. I'll talk with you about this problem in August. Answer this section to the, best of your knowledge Your sales report pleased us very much. We will end manufacturing operations-in November. Your prediction was correct
practices of their culture as right and those of there cultures as peculiar or wrong. 3. Variations in how people of different cultures use body positions and body movements is a cause of miscommunication.
How people walk, gesture
A General Suggestion For Communicating Across Cultures

In addition to the specific suggestions for improving your communication in English with nonnative English speakers, you should follow one general suggestion: write or talk simply and dearly. Talk slowly-and enunciate each word. Remember that because most nonnative speakers learned English in school, they are acquainted mainly with primary dictionary meanings and are not likely to understand slang words or shades of difference in the meanings we give words. They will understand you better if you avoid these pitfalls. In .the words of two highly regarded scholars in the field you should educate yourself in the use of Simplified English. You also will communicate better if you carefully word your questions. Be she your questions are not double questions. Avoid Do you want to go to dinner now or wait until after the rush hour is over? Also avoid the yes/no question that some cul-tures may have difficulty answering directly. Use more openended questions such as When would you like to go to dinner? Also, avoid negative questions such Arent you going to dinner? In some cultures a yes response confirms whether the questioner is correct; in other cultures the response is directed toward the question being asked. Finally, try to check and clarify your communication through continuous confirmation. Summarizing in writing also is a good idea, and todays technology enables parties to do this on the spot. It allows you to be certain you have conveyed your message and received theirs accurately. Even in Britain, a culture similar to ours, similar words can have vastly different meanings. For example, we use a billion to mean 1,000,000,000 whereas the British use it to mean 1,000,0000,000,000. Continually checking for meaning and using written summaries can help ensure the accuracy of the communication process.
smile, and such varies from culture to culture.

When people from different cultures attempt to
communicate, each may not understand the others body movements. 4. People in different cultures differ in their ways of relating to people.
Specifically, they differ in their practices and thinking
concerning time, space, odors, frankness, relationships, values, and social behavior.
We should not use our cultures practices as standards for
determining meaning
Instead, we should try to understand the other culture.
5. Language equivalency problems are another major cause of miscommunication in cross cultural communication. About 3,000 languages are used on earth.
They differ greatly in grammer and syntax. Like English, most have words with multiple meanings. As a result, equivalency in translation is difficult.
6. Overcoming the language equivalency problems involves hard and tedious work.
The best advice is to master the language of the nonnative
English speakers with whom you communicate.

Also, you should be aware of the problems caused by
language differences.
Ask questions carefully to make sure you are understood. For important communications, consider back translation
the technique of the second to translate back to the original.

Check the accuracy of the communication with written
summaries.
Summary By Chpater Objectives

1. Businesses are becoming increasingly global in their operations.
Being able to communicate across cultures is necessary
in these operations.
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UNIT 5 CHAPTER 11: EMERGING TRENDS LESSON 41: INTERVIEW TIPS
Upon completion of this lesson you will: Have more self-confidence in facing interviews. Learn the prerequisites in preparing for an interview. Stop worrying about Interviews.
Students this lesson will equip you to come home with a job in hand after an interview. In interviews what you have learnt so far is secondary, what matters is how prepared are you for the interview and finally the job. It is not possible to guarantee questions in any interview, but you should consider asking yourself the following questions so that you will be fully prepared during the interview. You are best placed to know your own shortcomings and where you might fall below the expected standard, so it is important to anticipate and practice the answers. Focus on your strengths and what skills you can bring to a position. The interview is a prime opportunity for you to sell yourself to the interviewer. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS: The questions most typically asked at interviews have been grouped into the following topic areas (but are seldom as structured during the interview process). The questions below are focused towards a European market; please note that the style and types of questions do vary from one country to another. This list is not exhaustive but should provide food for thought. You should prepare for questions about: your background, your aspirations, the potential employer and the position, your personality and your interests. Potential Employer Why did you apply to us? Where did you hear about the position?
What do you know about our organization? Do you know anyone who works for us? What interests you about the position? What do you think we have to offer you as a company?
Career Ambitions What are your long/short term goals? Tell me about your career aspirations. What are you looking for in a career? Do you have plans to gain further qualifications? Where do you see yourself in 2/5 years time? Describe your ideal employer. Skills and Requirements Why should we hire you? - Give me three reasons. What have you got to offer the company? - What skills will you bring? How do you work best? - Leading a group, in a team or alone? Are you prepared to travel? Are you looking for a position with training? What has been your main career achievement to date? What was the most difficult problem in your current/previous position - how did you find the solution ? You say you have x skillshow did you demonstrate these in your previous position ? Personality Describe yourself - strengths/weaknesses? How would your friends describe you? What motivates you? What are your strengths/weaknesses? How do you spend your spare time? Problem/Sticky Questions What salary or benefits are you looking for ? (We can give you advice regarding how to deal with this question prior to your interview). Why are you changing your career? Explain the gap in your work history. Given your career plans, how long do you expect to stay with our organization? Can we contact your current employer for references ? (this question is usually only asked after an offer letter has been sent - nevertheless be prepared). Questions to ask the Interviewer
Why is the position available? What skills are needed to succeed? What are the initial priorities of the position? How does the position fit into the organisational structure? How much scope (autonomy, flexibility, career growth, responsibilities) is there within this position ? What is the companys managerial style/culture ?
Questions typically asked of Graduates. Why did you chose your particular degree/discipline ? Why did you chose your college/university ? What did you most/least like about your course ? What was your strongest/weakest subject ? Tell me about your project work ? How are your studies related to this position/vacancy ? Tell me about your career aspirations ? Describe your ideal employer ? Do you plan to gain further qualifications ? How do you spend you spare time ? How would your tutor describe you ? Besides your degree, what else do you feel you gained from college/university ? Were you active in any societies ? What positions of responsibility do you hold/have you held ? PRIOR TO THE INTERVIEW Prepare - Prepare for Interview Questions, have a few to ask the interviewer, dress well. Identify - Who are you meeting? their titles, relationship to job. Research - Find out what the job entails. A good agency will always provide you with a detailed job specification. Make sure you have all the information. Plan Ahead - Get a location map, contact telephone numbers, have money, mobile phone if possible, allow yourself a good 30-60 minutes of additional time to arrive, etc. Check Out - Company brochures or website. Most companies today have a Web Site and they expect you to have researched their company. If going for a marketing/sales/finance position - research company products and the company potential (e.g. Annual review report, etc.) DURING THE INTERVIEW Smile and make eye contact. Relax and be friendly. Be positive and enthusiastic. Think about your body language.
Dont discuss salary until youre offered the job.
REMEMBER 7-10% is what you say 20-30% is how you say it 60-80% is your image, your body language and the overall impression you create. Confirming your acceptance When you are offered an interview, write back immediately, thanking the person and confirming the date, time and place. Arrive at least ten minutes before your appointment. If you are going to be late, telephone and apologize. Be courteous to the gatekeeper and receptionist, as they may be asked for their opinion of you. Researching the facts Get as much information as possible about your prospective employer. Telephone and ask for any brochures or literature and collect them if necessary. On the evening before the interview re-read this information. Write down at least four points about the organization and its products or services and memorize them. This knowledge will greatly increase your self-confidence at interview. The interviewers assessment of you Professional interviewers will try to obtain an objective assessment of candidates, by considering the following points: ...Past experience and achievements. ...Special abilities and aptitudes ...Interests and leisure activities ...Disposition and personal characteristics ...Physical appearance and bearing ...General intelligence How you are rated, particularly on the first three depends on how well you have prepared yourself Five key points for the interview Select five points from your background, education or experience, which are relevant, or which show initiative. Write these down, memorize them and make sure you talk about them at interview. An example could be: ...Fluency in a foreign language. ...Experience of part-time jobs. ...A relevant research project. ...Collection of money for charity. ...Membership of a local club. Tricky questions You maybe asked about your major personal strengths. Select something, which is
relevant, such as: getting on well with other people, always completing a job properly, etc. If asked about your weak points, choose one that still shows you in a positive light, e.g. I take on too much work. Just before the interview, you may be asked to take a series of tests. Prepare yourself by working through a book of these tests now. If you take a personality test, give honest answers, not ones that you think will improve your score. In any test, work quickly but without rushing quality is more important than quantity! Giving value for money You have to convince an employer that you are worth employing and that you have the capacity for hard work and a readiness for accepting change or further training. Your general attitude to life is one of the most important aspects on which your future employer will assess you.
LESSON 42: CASE STUDY

Business Communication Activity
Below are extracts from two cases that have occurred during the past year that highlight the importance of communication. The key events of the cases have been highlighted. Your task is to discuss each event in terms of the following:
Event 2: Accident Insurance Group

Background. The Accident Insurance Group was a company specializing in the pursuit of compensation claims for victims of accidents either at work or elsewhere. The company pursued claims for compensation on behalf of victims and takes a slice of the compensation award if successful. Following a fall in the success rates for personal injury claims and the withdrawal of a key financial backer, the company ceased trading in late May 2003. Approximately 2500 staff lost their jobs. Rumors about the future of the company began to circulate amongst staff when some received text messages advising them to look at their bank accounts because there were problems paying salaries; later text messages advised them that their salary had not been paid. There were then stories of the company actually notifying staff of dismissal by text message. The Chairman of the company, Mark Langford, claimed the decision to tell workers they had been made redundant through text message was not his and blamed the administrators, PriceWaterhouseCoopers.
What communication processes were adopted in each case

(there may be more than one)? What message/information was the sender trying to send out? that message?
How successful was that person/body in communicating What barriers to successful communication did the
information experience?
Advise the sender on an alternative approach that may have

had different results.
Learning Objectives
To understand the variety of methods and media that To understand the nature of barriers to successful
communication can be used to communicate information To understand the process of communication
Event 1 The Rio Rumpus!

The outline of the event: Rio Ferdinand, the England and Manchester United defender, is due for a random, routine drug test but forgets because he is moving house, he turns up back at the training ground but the testers have gone home. Two days later on 25th September he gives a test, which proves negative. Discussions then take place between his club, Manchester United and the Football Association, that he will not be selected from the England Squad to go to Turkey for the crucial European Championship qualifying match on October 11th. Delays to the announcement of the squad by the manager, Sven Goran Eriksson, fuel speculation and by Monday October 6th information is released through a press conference by Manchester United pointing out that Ferdinand has been left out of the squad. The rest of the England team are furious, they feel his confidentiality has been compromised and that Ferdinand is being branded as guilty without any charge being made against him; Ferdinand is due to attend a hearing on Monday 13th. The players register their discontent and mention boycotting the game as a possible option. The press gets hold of this and there are big divisions over the stance of the FA and the players. The FA and the players eventually announce that agreement has been reached and the match goes ahead.
In business, communication can be: between individuals between individuals and organisations within a business between a business and an external organisation
Communication: The Role of ICT
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Communication
Communication takes place within networks. These are some of the types of network: chain circle wheel all-channel
A circle network e.g. between people at same level
Communication
A chain network e.g formal contact
Communication
A wheel network e.g. sales teams report to head office
Communication
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Communication
An all-channel network e.g. brainstorming
Examples of ICT Use

Mobile telephones Video and tele-conferencing Lap-top computers E-mail Multi-media communications
Communication
Communication in the business world is very different today compared to twenty years ago, because of: Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Examples of ICT Use

Mobile telephones Video and tele-conferencing Lap-top computers E-mail Multi-media communications
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Communication Failure
No matter what medium of communication is used, it can fail if: jargon is used inappropriately badly written messages are transmitted the message goes to the wrong receiver information overload takes place the communication channel breaks down
Communication Failure
In the UK firms wanting to move into e-commerce can be: prevented due to slow connection speeds affected by lack of broadband services Go to the Activity for more on this.
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LESSON 43: RECENT TRENDS

concerning communication and customer relations that every business should consciously build up and nurture. . The market place can be described as a battle ground and marketing as a civilized form of warfare in which most battles are won with words, ideas and disciplined think-ing, In beating competition, businesses often do not have much choice but to use flashy words and hard-hitting ideas to penetrate markets and win over and retain cus-tomers. In as such as bottom lines are crucial for sustaining market share, the profit motive governs the rules businesses follow in pursuing communication and customer relations. Business decisions are taken more by applying the head than the heart. Be that as it may, it is to be well understood that businesses that really endure are those that show commitment to values; businesses where the ethical dimension co-exist with the pecuniary objectives. The spirit behind the words counts for a lot. Progressive business organizations make it a point to articulate values and lay empha-sis on the ethical aspects of business in general.
By the end of this lesson you will have more understanding on :
Commitment to Core Business Principles Beyond Caveat Emptor Towards Corporate Governance The Rights of Customers Changing Trends in Business Communication Data Warehousing Customer Relationship Management
Values in Business
Communication and Customer Relations--The Ethical Dimension What we have discussed hitherto in all the earlier chapters essentially relates to the content and substance of and approach to communication and customer relations. We have seen the need for good words and nice gestures in communicating with people in business and dealing with customers. These are, no doubt, essential. They are indeed a pre-requisite for ensuring effective communication and meaningful and enduring customer relationships. Yet, in todays context, businesses have to do much more than the good word and nice phrases bit. There is an imperative need to go beyond the substance; beyond the words, and look at the spirit in which communication is ef-fected and customer relations are sustained. This relates to the ethical dimension or the values concerning communication and customer relations that every business should consciously build up and nurture. The market place can be described as a battle ground and marketing as a civilized form of warfare in which most battles are won with words, ideas and disciplined think-ing, In beating competition, businesses often do not have much choice but to use flashy words and hard-hitting ideas to penetrate markets and win over and retain cus-tomers. In as much as bottom lines are crucial for sustaining market share, the profit motive governs the rules the businesses follow in pursuing communication and cus-tomer relations. Business decisions are taken more by applying the head than the heart. Be that as it may, it is to be well understood that businesses that really endure are those that show commitment to values, businesses where the ethic dimension co-exists with the pecuniary objectives. The spirit behind the words counts for a lot. Progressive business organizations make it a point to articulate values and lay empha-sis on the ethical aspects of business in general. A pre-requisite for ensuring effective communication and meaningful and enduring customer relationships. Yet, in todays context, businesses have to do much more than the good word and nice phrases bit. There is an imperative need to go beyond the substance beyond the words, and look at the spirit in which communication is ef-fected and customer relations are sustained. This relates to the ethical dimension or the values
Business Organizations are Perpetual Entities

The ethical dimension of busi-ness assumes significance when we realize that business organisati6ns, particularly in the corporate world are seen as perpetual entities. They exist to fulfill a specific need of people in the community. They will continue to thrive and survive as long as they strive to meet that specific need or a set, of needs in a manner that is acceptable to the customers or service seekers. For this, they must earn and sustain customers trust and confidence on an on-going basis. They are very much unlike the fly-by-night type of businesses, which operate with a shortsighted profit-at-any-cost motive.
Commitment to Core Business Principles

In order to earn and retain custom-ers trust and confidence, progressive organizations are value-driven and they affirm their commitment to core business principles. In their communication and customer relations they are governed by such principles to which they are committed. When it comes to advertisement or the vision document or the mission statement, words and deeds clearly reflect the value system which operates in that business organization. This set of core principles may take many forms, for example:
An Organization may decide not to advertise in any
politically affiliated newspaper or journal.

An organization may decide not to make any adverse
comments, implicitly about its competitors and their products.

An organization may decide not to pass on to the customer
any loss arising out of mistakes committed by their employees.
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Such principles can be many and varied and to proceed legally against any government department for realizing its dues, even if it means delay or loss.
Cardinal Principles of Communication

The three cardinal principles of communication for any, good business organization is a. Adequacy b. Transparency c. Consistency. Adequacy implies that all relevant information is made available by the business and its management to its employees, customers, investors or shareholders as the case may be to facilitate a fair assessment of the state of affairs. Transparency relates to the degree of openness in the sense that no attempt is made to cover up or hoodwink the shareholders. Consistency in a sense reflects the core principles, statements and performance-related claims, which the company stands by over a period of time. It means that there is no attempt to contradict the, statements and claims made by senior management functionaries and that they speak on the same wavelength.
Beyond Caveat Emptor

Value driven business organizations transcend the Caveat Emptor or the buyer beware attitude. The attempt is not to outwit the customer and make a fast buck. The attitude is not one of carrying to any customer inimical information in fine print at some corner hoping that it would miss his attention. Enlightened business managers do realize that you missed the fine print, say you suffer days are over. Good customers are hard to come by and should be given fair treatment. The sense of fair play, it is realized, is an important value that should permeate communication and customer relations.
Business Legal Compliance

Businesses have learnt hard way that their relationship with the customer extends beyond the legal aspect. Legal requirements have to be met, particularly when they are favoring the customer. Taking recourse to legal remedies and carrying on running legal battles against the customers is far from desirable, even when the legal grounds favor the business. A business can win the court case but lose the customer, and even the goodwill of a section of existing and potential customers.
The Rights of Customers

In the context of ensuring effective communication and meaningful customer relations, business organizations will have to take cognizance of customer expectations and their rights as they perceive them. Essentially, these relate to the right of information, the right of choice and the right of accountability. Right of information This right concerns the customers need to have all relevant information on the product and the company before he is in a position to decide on the transaction or relationship. The prices and rates, the terms and conditions, the incen-tives and discounts, the warranties and after-sales arrangements should all be made available. In the services sector, the right of information is gaining acceptance not only in the financial services and public utilities, but also in medical and such other professional services. The right of information in different areas would mean the fol-lowing:
Customers are Not Adversaries

All these arguments bring out the message that customers are not to be treated as adversaries. They are partners without whose sup-port no business can hope to survive. Among partners there cannot be a win-lose relationship. It has to be a win-win relationship. Beyond legal compliance, beyond the jargon, there should be a sincere effort to make the relationship mutually beneficial.
Move Towards Corporate Governance

Values relating to communication and customer relations are also to be seen in the larger context of business organizations moving towards corporate governance. The term corporate governance has a wide connotation. It supports a business ethic that shuns short cuts and unethical practices. It brings out the accountability of management to shareholders. In its broader sense, corporate governance is said to encompass the entire range of formal and informal interactions of the corporate sector with the society at large. Corporate governance strives to ensure fairness, honesty and transparency of a business organization in rela-tion to its dealings with various stakeholders viz., shareholders, creditors, the state and employees. The widely referred prescriptions of the Cadbury Code in the United Kingdom deal with the role and responsibilities of the Board of Directors and its sub-committees. Among others, the code lays down that the Board report should contain a coherent narrative, supported by the figures of the companys performance and pros-pects and that the Board has an obligation to present a balanced and understandable assessment of the companys position. These aspects of corporate governance are particularly relevant in the context of ensuring good and proper communication and customer relations.
A doctor giving his patient details about his ailment, the type
of medication and treatment he proposes to follow and may even involve encouraging the patient to seek a second opinion, if need be
For Airlines services it means giving reasons for the delay in

the flight depar-ture, the probable time of departure and the efforts being made to cut down the delay and not leaving the passengers in the dark
For a bank or a financial institution it means giving to the

borrower the full picture of the rates and charges involved, and not keeping him or her in the dark about any hidden costs
For a mutual fund agent or salesman it means keeping the

prospective inves-tor duly informed about the implications of investing in mutual funds-that the returns may vary and even the principal amount may get eroded depend-ing upon market related factors The right of information would also cover the availability of and easy access to product and company literature.
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Right of Choice
The second important expectation from the customer would relate-to the right of choice. Customers generally expect to haveadequate choice of identical or more or less similar products or services. In fact the trend in market today is to offer abundant choice and even tailor-made products or services rather than a one-size-fits--all kind of approach. To cite examples, for an airline passenger the right of choice would involve different menus to choose from; for a bank borrower, it may mean various options for foreclosure; for a mutual fund investor, it may involve the facility of shifting from one scheme to the other without much of a load factor.
Business Velocity Bill Gates makes the following observations in his recent book, Business at the speed of thought. Business is going to change more in the next ten years than in the last Fifty years. If 1980s were about quality and 1990s were about re-engineering, 2000s will be about velocity. The information access will alter the lifestyles of consumers and their expectations of business. Very soon people around the world will be living the web lifestyle.
Right of Accountability
Todays businesses have to be far more accountable to their customers than the businesses in the past. Through transparency, the customers and others get to know what is happening in the company and when things do not happen as they should be happening customers often make their voices heard. They resent if the costs of any inefficiency within the company are passed on to them. They expect the employees to turn out a days fair work and resent gossiping or idling. Similarly, customers expect the business managements to penalize their em-ployees for any mistakes they may commit, which result in losses, and not pass them on to the customers. To conclude, business organizations are laying particular emphasis on the ethi-cal part of business too. Even as they commit themselves to the core business prin-ciples, they also articulate the values, which govern their actions. People forming part of the business should make conscious efforts to reflect such concerns through communication and customer relations, so that enduring and endearing relation-ships are built up and sustained across all sections.
For business communicators, all these developments bring in new opportunities and responsibilities. Messages have to be brief, swift and focused. Transmission leakages can be brought down substantially. There is much greater choice of channels and instruments. It has become necessary to keep abreast of such developments, appreciate their advantages and use them for improving the effectiveness of business communication and customer relations. Given below are some new concepts of
Significance to the business communicator Teleconferencing Video conferencing E-mail E-Commerce E-Business Communication Networking Systems Data Warehousing
Teleconferencing
As the name suggests, is a conference or discus-sion that takes place over telephone. Telephone instruments with speaker facility en-able speaking and hearing without the handset or mouthpiece. In the process, it is possible for more than one person to speak from one end and discuss with more than one person at the other end. This way, the advantage is that people from one group or section can speak to another and have discussions, without physically meeting at a particular place. It is gaining popularity in modem business places and organizations, especially for small group interactions.
Business Communication and Customer Relations In The New Millennium

Newtrends In Business Communication The contours of business communication are changing at a rapid pace. Telecommunications and computers are driving this change across the world. Numerous technol-ogy-induced developments towards the end of the last century have brought about new dimensions to the range, speed, methods and modalities of personal and business communication. Internet, Laptops, mobiles, modems and computer based messaging systems have started impacting every sphere of activity including business communi-cation and customer relations. Businesses are undergoing a metamorphosis. Old ways of doing things are yielding place to the new and more sophisticated ones. As John Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene ob-serve, in their book Megatrends 2000, In telecommunications we are moving to a single world-wide information network, just as economically we are becoming one global market place. Thanks to globalization - and cross-border flow of ideas and resources, developments in one place are rapidly reaching the other parts of the world. The technology revolution has started impacting the rural areas as well.
Video Conferencing
Video conferencing goes a step ahead of teleconferencing, whereby apart from the audio messages, the video pictures are also available. It is possible to look at the person speaking. It is of a particular relevance when the chief of the state or the CEO of the company or any expert wants to communicate with people spread across regions. A typical example of this is the live telecast of budgets and election results, and the analysis that follows, wherein opinions and comments are sought. It is also possible that if an expert speaker cannot be physically present to address the meeting, a live telecast of his message or address can be brought to the assembly of people in a meeting or seminar. This facility, however, is available in select places institutes and is comparatively quite expensive.
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E-mail
Stands for Electronic Mail. It is a computer based messaging system that transports electronic messages from one computer system to another through a communication network. In a large organization like a bank, e-mail connectivity is established across numerous locations, such as branches, regional offices, controlling offices, service units and training centers. Each _mail location is identified by unique e-mail identification. Messages and data, which are otherwise transferred through courier, speedpost and floppies, can instead be transferred through e-mail. Data trans-mission through e-mail is both instantaneous and cost effective.
Speaking With Figures As technology makes rapid in-roads into Indian homes, E-communication is all set for an exponential growth in the next 4-5 years. Here are some projec-tions on the penetration of personal computers, use of Internet and growth of E-Commerce: PC penetration is projected to increase from 1.10 million in 1999 to7.52 million in 2004, averaging an annual growth of 47% (IDC). Internet users are projected to go up from 2.113 million in 2000 to 22.5million in 2004, averaging an annual growth of95% during 19992003 (IDC). E-commerce is projected to increase from Rs 400 crore to Rs 24000 crore by 2005 (ICRA) and Rs 27900 crore by 2004 (IDC) with particular reference to B to C (Business to Customer).
up time of around 99%. Reserve Bank of India has set up a satellite based Very Small-Aperture Terminal (VSAT) communication network across the country for the benefit of banks and financial institutions. The future holds out enormous interbank and intra-bank VSAT based applications in the financial sector, resulting in speedier, secure and cost-effective modes of communication.
Data Warehousing
Information is, the key to business success. Relevant and reliable information on markets, customers, competitors and employees often provides the much-needed competitive edge. Data Warehousing and Data-mining constitute the foundations for building a robust and comprehensive management information system that covers not only decision-making support systems but also market information and client information. Data Warehousing, as the name suggests, is a central repository of all critical data which helps the organization to take decisions based on authentic and up-to-date information. Building a Data-Warehouse however is a stupendous task. The type of data to be collected, the sources to be tapped, the frequency of updating and such other decisions have to be taken after a careful assessment of time, efforts, process and costs involved. By its very nature, it is a very long-drawn process, but when it is done well, the benefits to the business would be enormous.
The New Universal Language Nowadays everything - voices on telephones, pictures on screens, even management decisions - can be converted into ones and zeros and then stored or transmitted. Indeed, if there is such a thing as a universal language, it is not English but binary. John Micklethwait.& Adrian Wooldridge
E-commerce
E-commerce relates to business or shopping done through the electronic Internet. In other words it is paperless commerce. The transaction between the buyer and the seller is direct and there is no middleman involved. There are essentially four types of ecommerce Business to Business (B to B) Business to Customer (B to C) Customer to Business (C to B) Customer to Customer (C to C)
E-business
E-business is an all-encompassing term that includes ecommerce as well. E-business is the final stage of development, the earlier one being E-support of E-commerce. In the words of IBM, e-business is what happens when you combine the broad reach of the Internet with the vast resources of traditional information technology systems. E-business is holding out tremendous possibilities, and is transforming and redefining businesses and commerce by doing away with restraints of geography, distance and time.
Given all these developments, customer relations are to be understood in a new perspective. The primacy of the customer has come to stay. Today the customer inter-actions take place not only face to face and over the telephone, but also through email and Internet. Companies are creating their own websites and portals. Whatever be the mode of interaction, customers expect quick and efficient response. Customer Rela-tionship Management (CRM} calls for co-coordinating multiple channels of communi-cation with the customer-face to face, call center and the web. There is a need to provide flexible responses and single-window service to all high value customers. Only businesses, which promote client information and resource, update for continu-ous and highly responsive development, up gradation and delivery of products and services can hope to thrive in todays networked market.
Communication Networking Systems

Communication networking systems provid-ing on-line access are revolutionizing the world of business in general, and banks and financial institutions in particular. Communication backbone, it is worth noting, can be either through terrestrial lines or through the satellite links. Terrestrial lines include the dial up lines, leased lines and microwave. As compared to the modes of communi-cation based on terrestrial links, satellite based communication is far more reliable and efficient, with an
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Let Us Sum Up
The advent of new technology has added new dimensions to the range, speed, methods and modalities of personal and business communication. Internet, laptop, mobiles and PCs have started impacting business communication and customer relations, in urban and even rural areas. Today, there is a much greater choice of channels and instruments. Tele-conferencing, Video Conferencing, E-mail, E-commerce and communica-tion Networking Systems have
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brought about greater speed and -efficiency to the process of communication. Data Mining and Date Warehousing have facilitated build up of a robust and comprehensive management information system including a client in-formation system, which can be used to relate more meaningfully with clients and other public. The primacy of the customer has come to stay. Customer interactions now take place not only face-to-face and through telephone, but also through e-mail and Internet. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) calls for managing-all these multiple channels to create a win-win situation for both the organisation and the customer.
Definitions
n The
long-term success of the organization and improved value for its shareholders lies to a very great extent in the companys ability to develop and sustain genuine relationships with its customer. -James G. Barnes
I Review Questions
1. What is the impact of technology on communication? List out some new concepts of significance to the business communicator. 2. Write short notes on: (a) Teleconferencing (b) E-mail (c) Ecommerce. 3. What are communication networking. systems? What has been their progress in the financial services sector in India? 4. What does Data Warehousing mean? How can it be used for building up an efficient customer information system? 5. Discuss how your organization should cope with the challenges of business com-munication and customer relations in the new millennium.
Four Tools
n Complaint n Feedback n Guarantees n Corrective
Resolution
Action
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n n n n
Complaint Resolution
n
Guarantees
n
n n n
Three types of complaints: Regulatory, Employee, Customer Compensation Contrition Ease of Resolution
Customer Rights Guarantee Design:

Unconditional Meaningful Communicable Painless to invoke
Feedback
Customer Data Customer Behavior Data-gathering Analyzing Data
Barnes 4 Rs
Customer Retention Customer Referrals Customer Relationships Recovery
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Customer Retention
nA
Referrals
n Powerful
low-cost way to increase revenue. Retention is cheaper than acquisition. be voluntary. lead to long-term relationships.
tool that results from customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction. clients are already sold, before they even call you. Richard Buckingham
n Must n Must
n Referral
Relationships
n n n
Recovery
n Empower
Attempting to know the customer. Commitment and Communication Clients should call you only once. After that, you should proactively call them. Richard Buckingham
employees so that they may deal with mistakes as they occur.
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Technology
n n
Internet communication as a means of enhancing customer relationships. Ease of use of the technology important.
Brainstorm
n
A customer enters a restaurant and receives bad service, bad food, and overall dissatisfaction. Use Fosters tools or Barnes 4 Rs to resolve the problem.
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Lesson 1 Introduction To Business Communication

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Lesson 1 Introduction To Business Communication

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LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

On completion of this lesson you will understand

UNIT 1 CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

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Basic Purpose of Communication

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Notice that the strings and bars

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properties of the system and its objects.

of the book to the story told by the author.

of the broadcast to the events of the day.

at least two to communicate.

The Role of Communication

in our extremities to our brains and back.

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Thats Just What I Mean!

thoughts when others talk.

speaking, not while they are speaking.

Communication Barriers Ourselves

what interests them.

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LESSON 2: STAGES IN COMMUNICATION CYCLE

The Communication Process

Key Stages in Communication Cycle

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SENDING Encoding Transmission Decoding

Feedback Loop Encoding Transmission Decoding

Barriers to Effective Communication

transference, distortions from the past

forms of communication (see section below)

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Assumptions-eg. assuming others see situation same as you,

has same feelings as you

state of mind of two people

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Keys to More Effective Communication

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Adjust the Climate

Choose Your Channel

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Know Your Nonverbals

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LESSON 3: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

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Patterns of Grapevine Communication

Merits of informal Communication

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5. It serves to fill the possible gaps in the formal communication.

Limitations of Informal Communication

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Through the written word can be specific, self-paced

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Through the spoken word can be specific, convey tone of voice

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Forms of Business Structure

Most small businesses have this structure Key worker

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