----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------S A R A G SOME ALGORITHMS IN REAL ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY Version 1.

1 --------------------------------------------------------------maintained and developed by Fabrizio Caruso under the scientific guidance of Marie-Francoise Roy at the University of Rennes 1, France with support from the RAAG network further developed at the University of Pisa, Italy The code for the multivariate certificate of positivy has been developed by Richard Leroy. --------------------------------------------------------------Please report bugs to: fabrizio.caruso@posso.dm.unipi.it caruso@dm.unipi.it caruso@science.unitn.it --------------------------------------------------------------Also part of the free interactive book "Algorithms in Real Algebraic Geometry" by Saugata Basu, Richard Pollack, Marie-Franoise Roy Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003 which together with SARAG is available for download at http://name.math.univ-rennes1.fr/marie-francoise.roy/bpr-posted1.html ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------THE SARAG LIBRARY --------------------------------------------------------------This is a free open source Maxima library for real algebraic geometry. As of this version it focuses on univariate real root counting and isolation, topology of bivariate polynomials and certificate (computer-generated simple proof for the positivity/negativity of a univariate polynomial in a given interval)

In particular SARAG provides functions for (1) linear algebra, (2) theory of subresultants, (3) Cauchy Index and its application to real root counting, (4) isolation of real roots, (5) sign determination and Thom encodings, (6) study of the topology of bivariate polynomials (7) certificate of positivity for univariate polynomials ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------REQUIREMENTS --------------------------------------------------------------- MAXIMA (5.9.2 or above) The library has been developed and tested with Maxima version 5.9.2 and 5.9.3. SARAG with the only exception of plotting (e.g., "drawTopology") also works on Maxima 5.9.1. The latest version of Maxima is available on line at http://maxima.sourceforge.net/ - GNUPLOT (3.7.x, 4.0.x or above) The function "drawTopology" in this library uses Gnuplot for plotting graphs and it has been tested successfully on Gnuplot 3.7.x and 4.0.x. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------LOADING THE FILES sarag.mac --------------------------------------------------------------The library is contained in the following files: sarag.mac (it loads all the files) settings.mac (general settings) constants.mac sarag_initialization.mac aliases.mac (name conventions) lowLevel.mac (low level routines) sarag_linear_algebra.mac (linear algebra and matrix manipulation) rootCounting.mac (real root counting) rootIsolation.mac (root isolation by De Casteljau method) signDetermination.mac (sign determination) intervalArithmetic.mac (interval arithmetic) topology.mac (topology of curves) certificateOfPositivity.mac (certificate of positivity) arag_test.mac (test file for "Alg. in Real Alg. Geom.") hard_test.mac (heavy test files with mostly topology computations) other_test.mac (test of functions not included in the book) readme.txt (this manual)

This library is included in the latest versions of Maxima and it is simply loaded by the command load(sarag); For previous versions of the library either load each single file with the "LOAD" Maxima command or edit a file that takes care of loading all the files or load the file "sarag.mac" that will load the files if they are in the current directory. In order to test the library use: batch(<path>/arag_test.mac,test); and batch(<path>/hard_test.mac,test); and batch(<path>/other_test.mac,test); ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------THE MANUAL readme.txt --------------------------------------------------------------This manual describes the high level functions ("main functions") of the SARAG library and the most important auxiliary functions. For more details and for the theory behind the algorithms we refer to "Algorithms in Real Algebraic Geometry" by S. Basu, R. Pollack, M.-F. Roy which together with SARAG is available for download at http://name.math.univ-rennes1.fr/marie-francoise.roy/bpr-posted1.html ATTENTION: (*) Items marked with this symbol are not fully tested or are missing some minor features. (**) These items are not available, yet, but will be included soon. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------SETTINGS settings.mac --------------------------------------------------------------The library contains some settings in the file "settings.mac". The main settings and their default values are: - DEFAULT_VERBOSITY [0 (non-verbose)] (**) Verbosity level of the commands. - LINEAR_SOLVER [linsolve (built-in Maxima linear solver)] Solver of linear systems used in some routines.

- MOD_TEST_PRIME [2] Prime used in some modular tests. - NORM_ALGORITHM [lambda([x],ratexpand)] Normal form computed in "sSubRes" and related algorithms - ASSUME_EXPANDED [false] Assunption on whether the polynomial input of the main functions is in expanded form - WARNINGS [true] Warnings - ASSUME_GENERIC_POSITION [false]; Assumption on the generic position of curves - PLOT_STYLE ["set noxtics; set noytics; set nokey;"] Preamble to be fed to gnuplot to set its style - PS_OUTPUT [false] Printable file output for "drawTopology" - PS_OUTPUT_FILE_NAME ["test.eps"] Name of the postscript file output for "drawTopology" For the other settings we refer to file settings.mac ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------NAMING CONVENTIONS aliases.mac --------------------------------------------------------------The names of main functions are formed by adding prefixes to specify the method/algorithm to be used and suffixes to specify an alternative version of the function or output. Auxiliary functions may not follow such conventions. Therefore the general name convention for the names of the high level functions is the following: METHOD | WHAT IS TO BE COMPUTED | MODIFIER When a prefix is added capitalization of the function is used to distinguish the parts of the new name. When no prefix or no suffix is used the default version of function with the default method/algorithm will be called as set in the file: "aliases.mac" NOTE: In this manual some possible modifiers will appear in brackets.

Examples: tarskiQuery [computes the Tarski query over all R with the default algorithm] sRemTarskiQueryBetween [computes the Tarski query over an interval using the signed remainder sequence] det [computes the determinant of a matrix with the default algorithm] bareissDet [computes the determinant of a matrix by using Bareiss method] sSubRes [computes the signed subresultant sequence] sSubResExt [computes the extended signed subresultant sequence] ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------COMMANDS --------------------------------------------------------------Here we describe the most important functions: all the "main functions" and some important "auxiliary functions". REMARK: Our naming conventions and the global variables DEFAULT_VERBOSITY and ASSUME_EXPANDED only apply to "main functions". When multiple methods are available for a main function we list all of them. They are accessible by adding the name of the method as a prefix and by capitalizing the first letter of the name of the function. For more details on names of functions read the section on naming conventions. ATTENTION: ------------------------------------------------Polynomial Input in Expanded Form If ASSUME_EXPANDED is set to TRUE then whenever the input of a main function contains polynomials we are always assuming that they are in EXPANDED FORM. Independently on the value of ASSUME_EXPANDED we will always assume that the polynomial input of auxiliary functions is in EXPANDED FORM. Therefore, in these cases, when defining a polynomial use for instance: p : expand(...);

------------------------------Form of the Output The output of all functions of the library is a Maxima expression. Maxima uses brakets "[", "]" to describe couples and lists (e.g. an open inteval ]a,b[ is described by a couple containing the ends, which in Maxima is "[a,b]") --------------------------------------------------------------LINEAR ALGEBRA sarag_linear_algebra.mac --------------------------------------------------------------This file contains functions related to Gaussian elimination and matrix manipulations. --------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions - matrixProd(a,b) INPUT : a and b are lists of lists representing the rows of two matrices such that a has the same number of columns as b as rows OUTPUT : the row-column product matrix of a, b --------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - det(m) INPUT : m is a list of lists representing the rows of a matrix METHOD : -- gauss [Gaussian elimination with no pivot optimization], -- bareiss [Bareiss method] OUTPUT : the determinant - elim(m) INPUT : m is a list of lists representing the rows of a matrix METHOD : -- gauss [Gaussian elimination with no pivot optimization], -- bareiss [Bareiss method] (**) OUTPUT : [t,c,z] where 1) t is an upper triangular equivalent form of m with possibly some zero rows computed by Gaussian elimination with divisions and columns exchanges 2) c is the list of couples describing the columns exchanges 3) z is the list of zero rows ----------------------------------------------------------------CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL sarag_linear_algebra.mac -----------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions - getCoeffFromNewton(ns) INPUT : a list containing the the Newton sums of a given polynomial OUTPUT : an array containing the coefficients of the corresponding polynomial ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - charPol(A,var) INPUT : A is a list of lists representing the rows of a matrix, an indeterminate var METHOD : -- gauss [Gaussian elimination with no pivot optimization], (**) -- bareiss [Bareiss method], (**) -- babyGiant [baby step, giant step trace-based method] OUTPUT : the characteristic polynomial of A in the indeterminate var ----------------------------------------------------------------SIGNED REMAINDER SEQUENCE rootCounting.mac --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - sRem(a,b,x) INPUT : a, b polynomials in the x indeterminate OUTPUT : list containing signed remainder sequence - sRemExt(a,b,x) INPUT : a, b polynomials in the x indeterminate OUTPUT : [r,u,v] forming the extended signed remainder sequence where r is the signed remainder sequence and u and v are the corresponding sequences of cofactors ----------------------------------------------------------------SIGNED SUBRESULTANTS rootCounting.mac --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - sSubRes(a,b,var) INPUT : a,b polynomials in the x indeterminate with deg(a)>deg(b) OUTPUT : [sSubRes,s] where 1) sSubRes is a list containing the signed subresultant sequence 2) s is the list of the corresponding coefficients - sSubResExt(a,b,var) INPUT : a,b polynomials in the x indeterminate with deg(a)>deg(b)

OUTPUT : [sSubRes,s,u,v] where 1) sSubRes is a list containing the signed subresultant sequence 2) s is the list of the corresponding coefficients 3) u, v are the corresponding cofactors -------------------------------------GCD and GCD-free part by subresultants - gcdFreePart(P,Q,var) (*) INPUT : polynomials P,Q in var OUTPUT : a couple [g,f] where g is gcd(P,Q) and f is the gcd-free part of P with respect to Q, both the gcd and the gcd-free are considered up to a constant multiple ----------------------------------------------------------------ROOTS COUNTING rootCouting.mac rootIsolation.mac (for De Casteljau-based's method) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions - sturmSequence(p,x) INPUT : polynomial p in the x indeterminate OUTPUT : the Sturm sequence of p ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions ---------------------------------------------Cauchy Index on the real line - cauchyIndex(q,p,x) INPUT : q,p polynomials in the x indeterminate, METHOD : -- sRem [signed remainder sequence] -- sSubRes [signed subresultants] OUTPUT : Cauchy index of q/p in the whole real line - tarskiQuery(q,p,x) INPUT : q,p polynomials in the x indeterminate, METHOD : -- sRem [signed remainder sequence] -- sSubRes [signed subresultants] OUTPUT : Tarski query of q,p in the whole real line - numberOfRoots(p,x) INPUT : p polynomials in the x indeterminate METHOD : -- sRem [signed remainder sequence] -- sSubRes [signed subresultants] -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for isolation] -- monomial [monomial method for isolation] (**) OUTPUT : number of real roots of p

-------------------------------------------------Cauchy Index on an open interval Remark: Here we assume that a and b are not roots - cauchyIndexBetween(num,den,x,a,b) INPUT : num,den polynomials in the x indeterminate, a,b are either real or -INFINITY or +INFINITY METHOD : -- sRem [signed remainder sequence] -- sSubRes [signed subresultants] OUTPUT : Cauchy index of num/den in the interval ]a,b[ - tarskiQueryBetween(q,p,x,a,b) INPUT : q,p polynomials in the x indeterminate, a,b are either real or -INFINITY or +INFINITY METHOD : -- sRem [signed remainder sequence] -- sSubRes [signed subresultants] OUTPUT : Tarski query of q,p in ]a,b[ - numberOfRootsBetween(p,x,a,b) INPUT : p polynomials in the x indeterminate, a,b are either real or -INFINITY or +INFINITY METHOD : -- sRem [signed remainder sequence] -- sSubRes [signed subresultants] -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for isolation] (**) -- monomial [monomial method for isolation] (**) OUTPUT : number of real roots of p in the interval ]a,b[ ----------------Hankel Signature - hankelSignature(seq) (*) INPUT : sequence seq of odd length of elements of an integral domain OUTPUT : signature of the Hankel quadratic form for seq ----------------Complex Roots with positive/negative real part - posNegDiff(p,x) INPUT : polynomial p in x OUTPUT : difference between the number of roots of p with positive real part and those with negative real part ----------------Bezoutian related - bez(p,q,var,x,y) INPUT : p,q polynomials in var, variables x,y OUTPUT : Bezoutian of p,q with respect to x,y ----------------------------------------------------------------ISOLATION OF ROOTS rootIsolation.mac -----------------------------------------------------------------

The routines contained in this files deal with the problem of isolation of real roots by using the conversion to the Bernstein basis and De Casteljau's method. ----------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions -------------------------Cauchy Bounds - cauchyRootUpperBound(pol,x) INPUT : polynomial pol in x OUTPUT : upper bound for the absolute values of all its real roots - cauchyRootLowerBound(pol,x) INPUT : polynomial pol in x OUTPUT : lower bound for the absolute values of all its non-zero real roots - primeCauchyRootUpperBound(pol,x) INPUT : polynomial pol in x OUTPUT : (alternative) upper bound for the absolute values of all its real roots - primeCauchyRootLowerBound(pol,x) INPUT : polynomial pol in x OUTPUT : (alternative) lower bound for the absolute values of all its non-zero real roots --------------------------Bernstein Basis - convert2Bernstein(p,d,x,l,r) INPUT : polynomial p in the x indeterminate of degree at most d, parameters l,r OUTPUT : list containing the coefficients of p in the Bernstein basis of degree d for l,r - bernsteinCoeffList(p,x,l,r) INPUT : polynomial p in the x indeterminate, parameters l,r OUTPUT : list containing the coefficients of p in the Bernstein basis of degree deg(P) for l,r - bernsteinSplit(coeffList, l,r,m) INPUT : list coeffList containing the coefficients of a polynomial in the Bernstein basis of degree d for l,r parameters l,r,m OUTPUT : [bern_lm, bern_mr] where 1) bern_lm is a list containing the coefficients in the Bernstein basis of degree d for l,m and 2) bern_mr is a list containing the coefficients in the Bernstein basis of degree d for m,r - specialBernsteinSplit(coeffList,l,r) INPUT : list coeffList containing the coefficients of a polynomial P in the Bernstein basis of degree deg(P) for l,r, parameters l,r OUTPUT : [bern_first,bern_second]

where bern_first is a list containing the coefficients in the Bernstein basis for l,(l+r)/2 of 2^deg(P) P bern_second is a list containing the coefficients in the Bernstein basis for (l+r)/2,r of 2^deg(P) P ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - isolateRoots[withZ](pol,x) INPUT : polynomial pol in x METHOD: -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for root isolation] -- monomial [root isolation in the monomial basis] (**) MODIFIER: -- withZ : it only computes integer Bernstein coefficients OUTPUT : list of elements of the form either a) [pt] describing the real root pt or b) [a,b] describing the open interval "]a,b[" - isolateRootsBetween[withZ](pol,x,search_interval) INPUT : polynomial pol in x, the open interval search_interval METHOD: -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for root isolation] -- monomial [root isolation in the monomial basis] (**) MODIFIER: -- withZ : it only computes integer Bernstein coefficients OUTPUT : list of elements describing roots in the interval search_interval of the form either a) [pt] describing the real root pt or b) [a,b] describing the open interval "]a,b["

- findRoots[withZ](pol,x,threshold) INPUT : polynomial pol in x, theshold for the intervals METHOD: -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for root isolation] -- monomial [root isolation in the monomial basis] (**) MODIFIER: -- withZ : it only computes integer Bernstein coefficients OUTPUT : list of elements of the form either a) [pt] describing the real root pt or b) [a,b] describing the open interval "]a,b[" smaller then threshold

- findRootsBetween[withZ](pol,x,threshold) INPUT : polynomial pol in x, theshold for the intervals METHOD: -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for root isolation] -- monomial [root isolation in the monomial basis] (**) MODIFIER: -- withZ : it only computes integer Bernstein coefficients OUTPUT : list of elements describing roots in the open interval search_interval of the form either a) [pt] describing the real root pt or b) [a,b] describing the open interval "]a,b[" smaller then threshold - rootsSign(isInt,p,q,x) INPUT : polynomials p,q in x, isolating list isInt for the real roots of p in the same form as in the output of "isolateRealRoots" METHOD: -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for root isolation] -- monomial [root isolation in the monomial basis] (**) OUTPUT : [[nCPtList,nCIntList],[cPtList,cIntList]] where 1) nCPtList, cPtList are lists of couples describing a real root and the sign of q at this real root 2) nCIntList,cIntList are lists of couples describing an open interval containing exactly one the real-root of p, and describing the sign of q at this root - compareRoots(p,q,x) INPUT : polynomials p,q in x METHOD: -- deCasteljau [De Casteljau method for root isolation] -- monomial [root isolation in the monomial basis] (**) OUTPUT : [com,signNComP,signNComQ] where 1) com is an isolating list for the common real roots of p and q 2) signNComP is an isolating list with signs of q for the real roots of p that are not roots of q 3) signNComQ is an isolating list with signs of p for the real roots of q that are not roots of p Remark: all these one intervals and points isolate the union of the zeros of p and q, i.e. also have empty intersection among themselves. ----------------------------------------------------------------SIGN DETERMINATION signDetermination.mac ----------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: When we refer to an algorithm that computes the Tarski query of polynomials we assume that it has the same input/output format as

"tarskiQuery" (see "ROOT COUNTING") ----------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions - matrixOfSigns(adaExpList,signCondList) INPUT : list adaExpList of t-uples of exponents, list of of t-uples signs (-1,0,1), where adaExpList is adapted to sign determination for a set of t elements (polynomials) on signCondList OUTPUT : the corresponding matrix of signs - tarskiQueryVector(adaExpList,polList,var,SQ,ptSet) INPUT : list adaExpoList of t-uples of exponents, list of polynomials in var, description of a finite set of points ptSet, algorithm SQ to compute the Tarski query with respect to ptSet OUTPUT : vector containing the Tarski Queries with respect to ptSet of the polynomials in polList with exponents given by adaExpList ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - signDetermination(polList,ptSet,sqAlg,var) INPUT : list polList of polynomials in var, a description of a finite set of points, an algorithm sqAlg to compute the Tarski query of polynomials in polList with respect to ptSet METHOD : -- naive [brute force method on a huge matrix of signs] -- smart [a method that uses much smaller matrices of signs] OUTPUT : a list representing a subset of the all elements of {0,-1,1}^polList describing the possible signs of the polynomials in polList at ptSet ----------------------------------------------------------------THOM ENCODINGS signDetermination.mac ----------------------------------------------------------------Note: Here we refer to "extended Thom-encoding" for P with respect to Q as to the sign determination for Q, all the derivatives of Q, all the derivatives of P at the roots of P ----------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions - thomLess(lhs,rhs) INPUT : Thom encodings lhs, rhs OUTPUT : TRUE if lhs<rhs, FALSE otherwise - thomSort(thomList) INPUT : list of Thom-encodings OUTPUT : order list of Thom-encodings

- extThomEncoding(P,Q,var) INPUT : polynomials P,Q in var OUTPUT : a list of "extended Thom-encodings" for P w.r.t. Q, - extThomMerge(lhs,lhsDeg,rhs,rhsDeg) INPUT : lhs, rhs are "extended Thom-encodings" for two polynomials one with respect to the other, lhsDeg, rhsDeg are the degrees of the polynomials OUTPUT : a list containing elements of the form [owner,thomInf] with the following possibilities a) [0,thomP,thomQ] for a common root of P with Thom encoding thomP and of Q with Thom encoding thomQ b) [1,thomP] for a root of P not of Q with Thom encoding thomP c) [2,thomQ] for a root of Q not of P with Thom encoding thomQ ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - thomEncoding(P,var) INPUT : polynomial P in var OUTPUT : a list containing the Thom encoding of the real roots of P - thomCompare(P,Q,var) INPUT : polynomials P,Q in var OUTPUT : a list containing elements of the form [owner,thomInf] with the following possibilities a) [0,thomP,thomQ] for a common root of P with Thom encoding thomP and of Q with Thom encoding thomQ b) [1,thomP] for a root of P not of Q with Thom encoding thomP c) [2,thomQ] for a root of Q not of P with Thom encoding thomQ - thomSignsAtRoots(P,Q,var) INPUT : polynomials P,Q in var OUTPUT : a list of couples containing for each root of P its Thom encodings and the corresponding sign of q ----------------------------------------------------------------TOPOLOGY topology.mac ----------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: When we refer to an algorithm for isolating real roots in an archimedian real closed field we assume that has the same input/output format as

"isolateRoots" (see ROOT ISOLATION). ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - archimedianTopology(P,isolAlg,x,y) INPUT : a square free polynomial P in x and y, algorithm "isolAlg" for the isolation of real roots in an archimedian real closed field OUTPUT : a couple containing i) the number "a" of changes of system of coordinates in order to obtain a curve in generic position, i.e. we assume that the system has been changed by x -> x+a*y, ii) the topology with respect to the x-axis of the curve, which is represented as a sequence alternating numbers and couples where ii.1) the numbers describe the number of intersections of the curve with projections to the x-axis in intervals between critical points ii.2) the couples contain: ii.2.1) the number of intersections with projections to the x-axis on critical points ii.2.2) the position of the critical on the projection (in bottom-up order). -drawTopology(tpg) (*) INPUT : the topology of the curve (as in the second element of the output of archimedian topology) OUTPUT : number of critical points EFFECT: it uses gnuplot (3.7.x, 4.0.x or above) to draw the topological graph corresponding to description in tpg ----------------------------------------------------------------INTERVAL ARITHMETIC intervalArithmetic.mac (*) ----------------------------------------------------------------- evaluatePolAt(P,var,interval) INPUT : polynomial P in var, an interval describing a root of P OUTPUT : an interval describing the value of P at the root described by the input ----------------------------------------------------------------CERTIFICATE OF POSITIVITY certificateOfPositivity.mac ----------------------------------------------------------------Note: [0] A certificate is an elementrary proof of the positivity

of a given polynomial in a given interval. [1] A certificate of positivity/negativity for a polynomial P in a given interval R is a LIST of : [<sub-interval of R>, C, <Bernstein basis of C P>] where the sub-intervals cover entirely R. [2] The output of the main functions for a given polynomial P are of the following form: (a) When the polynomial P has a root in the considered interval: [ 0, <interval [a,b] such that Q(a)Q(b)<0 for a polynomial divisor Q>, <A polynomial divisor Q of P>] (b) When the polynomial P is positive/negative in the given interval: [ 1/-1, <list of certificates covering the considered interval>] ----------------------------------------------------------------Auxiliary functions - sqFreeCertificate(pol,var) INPUT : square-free polynomial in var MODIFIER :sqFreeCertificateBetween(pol,var,search_interval) OUTPUT : list of local "certificates" of positivity/negativity that cover the default interval ([-1]). - bernsteinMerge(lhsBern, rhsBern) INPUT : certificates lhsBern, rhsBern OUTPUT : a certificate for the interval covering both lhsBern and rhsBern - compressCertificate(cert_list) INPUT : a list of certificates OUTPUT : a possibly shorter and equivalent list of certificates ----------------------------------------------------------------Main functions - certificate(pol,var) INPUT : polynomial in var MODIFIER : certificateBetween OUTPUT : list of local "certificates" of positivity/negativity that cover entirely the default interval ([-1,1]). - certificateProof(pol,var,search_interval) INPUT : a polynomial in var, a search interval (ex. [-1,-1]) OUTPUT : number of subintervals used for proving the positivity/negativity EFFECT : it prints a formal proof of positivity/negativity of pol in

search_interval or of the existence of a root ----------------------------------------------------------------MULTIVARIATE CERTIFICATE OF POSITIVITY multivariateCertificateOfPositivity.mac ----------------------------------------------------------------- multiCertificate(P,V,vars,d,sub,cert) INPUT: polynomial P in vars, simplex in V, list of variables "vars", degree d, subdivision algorithm "sub", type of certificate "cert" EXAMPLE: f:9*y^2-24*x*y+12*y+16*x^2-16*x+5; Cf:certificate(f,[[0,0],[1,0],[0,1]],[x,y],2,bisection,pos); - (wx)drawMultiCertificate(C,sc) INPUT: output of "multiCertificate", scale sc EFFECT: it draws the subdivision corresponding to the certificate C