2011 Senior High 2 H2 Mathematics

NJC Mathematics Department

Complex Numbers: Algebra and Loci

OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, students should be able to understand that i = 1 is a root of x 2 + 1 = 0 , and that a quadratic equation has two real roots or two complex roots. recognise that the set of real numbers is a subset of the complex numbers carry out addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers given in Cartesian form [x + iy, x, y ], including finding the square root of complex numbers. find the modulus and argument of a complex number given in Cartesian form. use the relation zz* = |z|2 to calculate the modulus and the reciprocal of a complex number. solve simple equations involving a complex variable by equating real parts and imaginary parts. understand that roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients are either real, or occur in complex conjugate pairs. solve polynomial equations with real coefficients when a root (either real or complex) is given. represent complex numbers expressed in Cartesian form by points in the Argand diagram, and interpret the terms real part, imaginary part, modulus, argument and conjugate geometrically. convert a complex number from Cartesian form [x + iy, x, y ] to polar form [r(cos + i sin ), r > 0, < ], exponential form [ rei ] and vice versa. carry out multiplication and division of two complex numbers given in polar form. represent complex numbers by points in the Argand diagram, and interpret geometrically the effects of adding/subtracting and multiplying/dividing two complex numbers. interpret the multiplication by i as rotation by 90 anti-clockwise in the Argand diagram. use De Movires Theorem with rational indices to find the powers and nth roots of a complex number. sketch the loci of simple equations and inequalities in the Argand diagram.

Important Note: Throughout this set of notes, the symbol can be used to solve the problem. indicates that the graphic calculator (GC) symbol.

Parts where you have to attempt are indicated with

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A Brief Complex History History of complex numbers began sometime in the 16th century when Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano was considering cubic and quartic polynomials and realised that sometimes to solve them, the manipulation of square root of negative numbers was required. About 30 years later, this idea was further developed by hydraulic engineer Rafael Bombelli, who assumed that numbers of the form a + b existed. This laid further groundwork for development of complex numbers. From then, there were more works which made use of these complex numbers and through these works, much more was discovered. However, it was only during the time of Leonard Euler when he started the use of the alphabet i to represent 1 . What followed was the Argand diagram in 1806 named after Jean Robert Argand where complex numbers were represented geometrically. Complex numbers continued to develop after this. Work on them led to the fundamental theorem of algebra and a branch of mathematics called complex analysis. They are also widely used in the study of physics such as in quantum mechanics and electric circuitry.

Definition and Terminology A complex number, z , is a number of the form z = x + iy , where x, y . The imaginary unit, i, takes the value of i = 1 . x is the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z). y is the imaginary part of z is denoted by Im(z). [The symbol (i.e. Re( z ) = x ) (i.e. Im( z ) = y )

is used to denote the set of complex numbers.]

In particular, if x = 0 , then z = iy is a purely imaginary number. if y = 0 , then z = x is a real number.

Hierarchy of the number system: Complex Numbers Real Numbers Rational Numbers Integers Negative Integers Zero Purely Imaginary Numbers

Irrational Numbers

Fractions Positive Integers

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Equality of Complex Numbers Given that z1 = x1 + iy1 and z 2 = x 2 + iy 2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 R , then

z1 = z 2
In particular,
z=0

x1 = x2 and y1 = y 2 .

x = 0 and y = 0 .

Example 1 Find x and y, where x, y R , if x + 2 y + i(3 x y ) = 4 + 2i .

x + 2 y = 4 (1) 3 x y = 2 (2) 8 10 Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get x = and y = . 7 7

Solution Comparing real part on both sides, we get Comparing imaginary part on both sides, we get

Note: We must ensure that the terms on both sides of the simultaneous equations are real.

3 3.1

Algebraic Operations on Complex Numbers i follows all operations in algebra.

i = 1

(i) (iii)

Addition:

3i + 4i = 7i

(ii)

Subtraction:

10i 3i = 7i

Multiplication:

a i = ai ; i( a + b) = ia + ib ;
i 2 = 1 (iv) Division: ;
i 3 = ( i 2 ) i = i

ai bi = abi 2 = ab

, where a, b .

i4 = i2 i2 = 1

; etc

1 1 i i i 1 = = = 2 = i i i i i

For sections 3.2 to 3.4, consider two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z 2 = x 2 + iy 2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 R . 3.2 Addition & Subtraction of Complex Numbers (a) (b)

z1 + z2 = ( x1 + i y1 ) + ( x2 + i y2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 ) z1 z2 = ( x1 + i y1 ) ( x2 + i y2 ) = ( x1 x2 ) + i ( y1 y2 )

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3.3

Multiplication of Complex Numbers (a) (b)

kz1 = k ( x1 + iy1 ) = kx1 + iky1 , k

z1 z2 = ( x1 + iy1 )( x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + iy1 x2 + ix1 y2 + i 2 y1 y2 = ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

3.4

Division of Complex Numbers This is done by realising the denominator.

z1 x1 + iy1 x2 iy2 x1 x2 i 2 y1 y2 ix1 y2 + ix2 y1 = = 2 2 z2 x2 + iy2 x2 iy2 x2 i 2 y2 = = ( x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i( x2 y1 x1 y2 ) 2 2 x2 + y2 x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 x1 y2 + i 2 2 2 2 x2 + y2 x2 + y2

Example 2 Express the following in the form x + iy, where x, y R .

(a) (2 + 3i) (1 + 2i)

(b) (2 + 4i)(1 i)

(c)

5 + 10i 4 + 3i

Solution (a) (2 + 3i) (1 + 2i) = 2 + 3i + 1 2i = 3 + i

(b)

(2 + 4i)(1 i) = 2 2i + 4i 4i2 = 2 + 2i + 4 = 6 + 2i

(c)

5 + 10i 5 + 10i 4 3i 20 15i + 40i + 30 50 + 25i . = = = = 2+i 4 + 3i 4 + 3i 4 3i 16 + 9 25

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Example 3 Solve the simultaneous equations (1 i) z + 2iw = 0 and Solution

(1 i) z + 2iw = 0 ----- (1)

3iz + (1 + i) w = i .

3iz + (1 + i) w = i ----- (2)

From (1), we have z =

2iw . Substituting into (2), we get 1 i

2iw 3i + (1 + i) w = i 1 i 6w + (1 + i) w = i 1 i 6w + (1 i 2 ) w = i (1 i ) 8w = i + 1 1 1 w= + i 8 8
Example 4 Find the square root of 3 + 4i .

Therefore, 1 1 2i + i 1 (1 i ) 1 8 8 = 4 = z= 1 i 1 i 4

Solution 2 Let x + iy = 3 + 4i . Then ( x + iy ) = 3 + 4i x 2 y 2 + 2ixy = 3 + 4i . Comparing the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we have:

x 2 y 2 = 3 ----- (1)

2 xy = 4 ----- (2)

From (2), we have x =

2 ----- (3) . y Substituting (3) into (1), we get 4 y2 = 3 2 y 4 y4 = 3 y2 y4 + 3y2 4 = 0 ( y 2 + 4)( y 2 1) = 0 y 2 = 4 (rej.) or y 2 = 1

Thus, y = 1 Hence, x = 2 . The square root of 3 + 4i are 2 + i or (2 + i).

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Complex Conjugates

If z = x + iy, then the conjugate of z, denoted by z*, is defined by z* = x iy.

z = x + iy and z* = x iy are called a conjugate pair.

Some important results: The product of any complex number and its conjugate is real. zz* = ( x + iy )( x iy ) = x 2 i 2 y 2 + iyx ixy = x 2 + y 2 z + z* = 2Re(z) z z* = i 2Im(z) (z*)* = z (kz)* = kz*, where k (z1 z2)* = z1* z2* Can you verify the above results?
Example 5 If z1 = 2 + i and z 2 = 3 i , find ( 2 z1 + z2 ) * and ( z1 z2 ) * . Solution ( 2 z1 + z2 ) * = 2 z1 * + z2 * = 2 ( 2 i ) + ( 3 + i ) = 4 2i + 3 + i = 7 i

(z1 z2)* = z1*. z2* (zn)* = (z*)n, where n

* z1 z1 = * z2 z2
*

( z1 z2 ) * = z1 * z2 * = ( 2 i )( 3 + i ) = 6 + 2i 3i i2 = 7 i

Example 6 If z = 4 + 9i , find zz*. Solution zz* = ( 4 + 9i )( 4 9i ) = 16 + 81 = 97

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Example 7

Let w = 1 + i and t . Given that z = x + iy and z = wt + curve x 2 y 2 = 4 .

Solution

w* , show that z lies on the t

From z = wt +

w* , we get t

x + iy = (1 + i ) t + = t + it +

(1 + i ) *
t

1 i t 1 i = t + it + t t 1 1 = t + + it t t

Comparing real and imaginary parts,

x=t+
1 1 and y = t t t

------------

(*)

Substitute (*) into LHS of x 2 y 2 = 4 , we get

1 1 1 1 LHS = x y = t + t = t 2 + 2 + 2 t 2 2 + 2 = 4 = RHS t t t t
2 2 2 2

Thus, z lies on the curve x 2 y 2 = 4 . (Shown)

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Complex Numbers in GC

This section aims to equip you with some basics of using GC in complex numbers, however you are also strongly encouraged to read up any GC guidebook to acquire the basic skills required to utilise a GC and to explore its various functions. Note that you may use the GC to help you in your calculations involving complex numbers, unless it is stated that the problem given needs to be solved without the use a calculator, or if the exact solution is required.
Getting Started

1.

Press to display mode settings. Scroll down to select a + b i so that you can obtain complex number solutions in Cartesian form. It is also recommended that you use radian mode for calculations involving complex numbers. To enter the complex number i, press .

2. 3.

Other operations or functions for complex numbers can be found in the Math CPX menu, which contains standard operations involving complex numbers. Press to get to the CPX menu.

A brief description of the 7 operations or functions in the menu:

Operation: Form : Explanation:

1: conj( 2: real( 3: imag( 4. angle( 5: abs( 6: Rect 7: Polar

conj(complex number z) real(complex number z) imag(complex number z) angle(complex number z) abs(complex number z) Complex number z Rect Complex number z Polar

Returns the complex conjugate z* of z. Returns the real part, x, of z = x + yi = rei. Returns the complex part, y of z = x + yi = rei. Returns the principal argument, , of z = x + yi = rei. Returns the modulus, r, of z = x + yi = rei. Displays z in Cartesian form, z = x + yi. Displays z in Exponential form, z = rei.

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Example 8 Solution Step 1:

Given that z =

7 + 17i , find (i) z 1+i

(ii) z 2 +

1 z*

Store z as

7 + 17i in the GC. 1+i

to store the complex Use number as z. After pressing Enter, GC will simply express the number in Cartesian form. [Note that you should have changed the mode to a + bi form.]
Step 2:

Find

z.

to call out z, we obtain 3 + 2i as a Using square root of z. [To check your answer, you may want to square 3 + 2i to see if you can get back z.] Find z 2 +
1 . z* Using conj(z) from MATH CPX menu to represent z*, 1 we can see that z 2 + = 118.97 + 120.07i. z* You will need to scroll to the right to obtain the numbers.

Step 3:

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2011 Senior High 2 H2 Mathematics

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6 6.1

Complex Roots of Equations Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

An equation of degree n has exactly n roots (real or complex).

6.2 Quadratic Equation Given a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , where a, b, c are real constants, we get the following cases for the roots: Value of D = b2 4ac D>0 D=0 D<0 Example 9 Solve x 2 + 2 x + 5 = 0 . Solution Since the coefficients of x n , where n = 0,1, 2 are real and b 2 4ac = 16 < 0 , we will expect a pair of complex conjugate roots. Type of Roots real and distinct real and equal complex and occurs in conjugate pair

x2 + 2x + 5 = 0 x =

2 22 4(1)(5) 2 16 = = 1 + 2i or 1 2i 2 2

6.3

Polynomial Equation of Degree n

In general, if z is a complex root of a n x n + a n 1 x n 1 + a n 2 x n 2 + .... + a 2 x 2 + a1 x + a 0 = 0 where ai R, for i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n 1, n , then z is also a complex root of the equation. In other words, complex roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs.

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Example 10 If (1 i ) is a root of x 3 x 2 + 2 = 0 , find the other roots. Solution Since all the coefficients are real numbers, complex roots must occur in conjugate pairs. Hence the other complex root is (1 + i ) . The third root must be a real number, a.

By trial and error, we have f (1) = (1)3 (1) 2 + 2 = 1 1 + 2 = 0, where f ( x) = x3 x 2 + 2 . Therefore, a = 1 is the third root. Hence the other roots are x = 1 and x = 1 + i . A cubic equation with real coefficients has either 3 real roots, or 1 real root and a pair of conjugate complex roots.

Example 11 By completing the square, solve the equation z 2 + (4 2i) z 8i = 0 . Explain why the solutions are not a conjugate pair. Solution
z 2 + (4 2i) z 8i = 0

( z + 2 i)

8i ( 2 i ) = 0
2

( z + 2 i ) = 8i + ( 2 i ) 2 ( z + 2 i ) = 8i + 4 4i 1
2 2

= 3 + 4i

From Example 4, we have found that

3 + 4i = ( 2 + i ) .

Hence, z + 2 i = 3 + 4i = ( 2 + i ) z = 2i or z = 4 .

In this example, the complex root does not occur in conjugate pairs since not all the coefficients are real. Note: The graphic calculator is unable to solve polynomial equations with complex coefficients.

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7 7.1

Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers The Argand Diagram

A complex number z = x + iy can be represented by a vector OP , where P is the point with Cartesian coordinates (x, y ) on the x-y plane.

Imaginary Axis Im (z) y P

Real Axis Re (z)

The x-y plane is called the Argand diagram where the horizontal axis is known as the real axis, denoted by Re(z) and the vertical axis the imaginary axis, denoted by Im(z).
Example 12

Represent the following complex numbers in an Argand diagram: a = 2 + 3i , b = 2 + 3i , c = 2 3i , d = 2 , e = 3i , f = 3 , g = 2i

Im (z) B E A

O G

Re (z)

Question: Answer:

How are z and z* related on an Argand Diagram? They are reflections about the real axis.

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Techniques and operations used in coordinate geometry and vectors can be applied to complex numbers. Addition and subtraction of complex numbers correspond to the parallelogram law of vector addition and subtraction. Let z1 = a + ib be represented by P1 z2 = c + id be represented by P2. z = z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d) be represented by P.
Im (z) P1 P

z1

z1 + z2

In terms of vectors,
OP = OP1 + OP2
O

z2

P2

Re (z)

Im (z)

z = z2 z1 = (c a) + i (d b) In terms of vectors,
P P2 = OP2 OP 1 1
O

P1 z1 z2

z2 z1
P2

Re (z)

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7.2

Modulus and Argument

Without loss of generality, let P represent the complex number z = x + iy, where x, y R + . We have:
Modulus of z = length of vector OP = z = r = x 2 + y 2

Im (z) y P

Argument of z, arg(z) = angle between OP and the positive real axis y O x = = tan 1 , where < x is the principal argument if it lies in the principal range, ie < . is positive when measured anti-clockwise from the positive real axis and is negative when measured clockwise from the positive real axis.

Re (z)

It is important that you first check the quadrant in which z lies before computing the argument.
Example 13 Find the modulus and argument of each of the following complex numbers: 3, 5, 2i, 3 + i and 3 i Solution 3 = 3, arg(3) = 0

5 = 5, 2i = ,

arg( 5) = arg( 2i) =

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Note the following results: arg(0) is undefined. z is real arg(z) = 0 or , and z is purely imaginary arg( z ) = z, z* and z have the same modulus. arg(z*) = arg(z) zz* = |z|2 (A very useful result.)
. 2

Im (z)
y r z = x + iy

O r y x

Re (z)

z* = x iy

8 8.1

Representations of a Complex Number Cartesian Form and ModulusArgument / Polar Form (1) Cartesian / Algebraic Form: z = x + iy From the Argand diagram, we have

Im (z)
y r P

x = r cos y = r sin z = r = x2 + y2 tan =

(2)

y x

O x

Re (z)

ModulusArgument / Polar Form: z = r ( cos + i sin ) ,

where r = x 2 + y 2 > 0 & < = tan 1

Example 14 Express (i) 3 and (ii) 5 + 5i in polar form. Solution (i) 3 = 3, arg( 3) =

y . x

(ii)

3 = 3(cos + i sin )
(ii)

5 + 5i = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2, arg( 5 + 5i) = 3 5 + 5i = 5 2 cos 4 3 + i sin 4

3 4

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8.2

Eulers Formula & Exponential Form

From the Maclaurins expansion of cos , sin and e x for all real values of x and , we have cos = 1

2
2!

4
4!

6
6!

+ ... ,

sin =

3
3!

5
5!
4

... ,

x 2 x3 x 4 e = 1 + x + + + + ... 2! 3! 4!
x

If we let x = i , we get
e
i

+ ... 3! 4! 1 1 1 = 1 + i 2 i 3 + 4 + ... 2! 3! 4! 1 1 1 = 1 2 + 4 + ... + i 3 + ... = cos + isin 4! 3! 2! 2!

ei = cos + i sin

( i ) = 1 + i +

( i ) +

( i ) +

Eulers Formula:

In general, rei = r ( cos + i sin ) . Hence, any complex number can be written in the exponential form z = rei since z can be expressed in the polar form r (cos + i sin ) . Note the following: 1. For z = rei , must be in radians and < . 2. ei = cos + i sin = cos 2 + sin 2 = 1 3. ei = ei(2 n + ) , for n 4. For x, y R , e x +iy = e x .eiy = e x eiy = e x
arg e x +iy = arg e x .eiy = arg e x + arg eiy = 0 + y = y

( )

( )

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Example 15 Express the following in exponential form: 1+ i (iii) (i) z1 = 1 + i (ii) z 2 = 3 i 3 i Solution z1 = 1 + i = (i)

(iv) (1 + i)3 ( 3 i) 4

arg (1 + i ) =

z1 =

(ii)

z2 =

3 i =

, arg

3 i =

z2 =

(iii)

1+ i = 3 i
3

2e 2e

i 6

1 i 4 + 6 1 i 12 = e = e 2 2

(iv)

i (1 + i) ( 3 i) = z z = 2e 4
4 3 4 1 2

3 2 i i i 6 4 3 12 = 32 2e 2e = 32 2e

* You may use the GC if exact form is not required.

8.3

Conjugate of a Complex Number in Polar Form

If z = r ( cos + i sin ) , then z * = r ( cos ( ) + i sin ( ) ) = r ( cos i sin ) . In the exponential form, if z = rei , then z * = re i .

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9 9.1

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form From an Algebraic Point of View

Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) = r1ei1 and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r2 ei2 Then,

z1 z2 = r1 ( cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r1r2 ( cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i ( sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 ) = r1r2 cos (1 + 2 ) + isin (1 + 2 )

or Hence,

z1 z2 = r1ei1 r2 ei 2 = r1r2 ei1 ei2 = r1r2 e ( 1

i + 2 )

z1 z2 = r1r2 = z1 z2

and

arg ( z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 )

We can extend the above result to get z1 z 2 z 3 ...z n = z1 z 2 (a) (b)

z 3 .... z n

arg ( z1 z2 z3 ....zn ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) + arg ( z3 ) + ..... + arg ( zn )

In particular when , z1 = z2 = z3 = ... = zn = z , we have (c) (d)

zn = z

arg z n = n arg( z )

( )
)
n

From above, we can see that for n

z n = rei

and z = rei ,

= r n ein = r n ( cos n + i sin n ) --- using Eulers Formula

n

ie. r ( cos + i sin ) = r n ( cos n + i sin n ) In fact, De Moivres Theorem states that For all real values of n, z n = r ( cos + i sin ) = r n ( cos n + i sin n )
n

Also,

z1 r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) = z2 r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = = =

r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) ( cos 2 i sin 2 ) . r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) ( cos 2 i sin 2 ) r1 ( cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 ) + i ( sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 sin 2 ) r2 cos 2 2 + sin 2 2 r1 cos (1 2 ) + isin (1 2 ) r2

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or

z1 r1ei1 r1 i(1 2 ) = = e z2 r2 ei2 r2

Hence,

z z1 r = 1 = 1 z2 r2 z2

and

z arg 1 = 1 2 = arg( z1 ) arg( z2 ) z2

Note that the results in the boxes are very useful when we need to evaluate the exact values of the modulus and arguments of products and quotients of complex numbers.
9.2 From a Geometrical Point of View

We first consider the special case of multiplication of a complex number by i .

Let z = 3 + 2i. iz = i(3 + 2i) = 2 + 3i i2z = (3 + 2i) = 3 2i = z i z = i(3 + 2i) = 2 3i i4z = 3 + 2i = z

i2z = 3 2i
3

Im (z)
iz = 2 + 3i z = 3 + 2i

Re (z)

i3z = 2 3i

Using the same scale on both axes on the Argand diagram, we observe that if a point P represents a complex number z, then the point representing iz is obtained by rotating OP 90o anti-clockwise about the origin. In general, we consider multiplying a complex number z1 = r1ei1 to another complex

number z2 = r2 ei2 . The result is z1 z2 = r1ei1 r2 ei 2 = r1r2 ei1 ei2 = r1r2 ei(1 + 2 ) .

Geometrically, the length of z1 has been scaled by factor r2, and it has been rotated by 2 degrees anti-clockwise (assuming 2 is positive).
Questions to Ponder:
z1 z2 = r1r2 e ( 1
i + 2 )

Im (z)

1. What happens when 2 is negative? 2. How would you illustrate division geometrically?
1 + 2

z1 = r1ei1
1

Re (z)

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Example 16 Express the following in polar and exponential form. 2 (1 i 3 ) 6 (ii) (1 i 3 ) 3 (1 + i) 2 (iii) (i) 1 + i ( 1 + i ) 3 Solution

(i)

2 3 2 2 2 = = = 2, arg = arg(2) arg ( 1 + i ) = 4 1 + i 1 + i 2 1 + i

i 3 2 3 = 2 cos + i sin = 2e 4 . Thus, 1 + i 4 4
3

(ii)

(1 i 3)3 (1 + i) 2 = 1 i 3 1 + i =

arg (1 i 3)3 (1 + i)2 = arg(1 i 3)3 + arg(1 + i) 2 = 3arg(1 i 3) + 2 arg(1 + i)

( )

1+ 3

)(
3

1+1

= 16

= 3 tan 1 3 + 2 = 4 2

Thus, (1 i 3) (1 + i) = 16e
3 2

i 2

= 16 cos + i sin . 2 2
6 6

(iii)

(1 i 3) = 3 (1 + i)3 1 + i
6

1 i 3

( = (

1+ 3

)= 2 1 +1) ( 2)
3

= 16 2

(1 i 3)6 17 = 6 arg(1 i 3) 3arg(1 + i) = 6 tan 1 3 3 = arg 3 (1 + i) 4 4 (1 i 3)6 = principal arg 3 (1 + i) 4

i (1 i 3 )6 = 16 2e 4 = 16 2 cos + i sin . Thus, 3 (1 + i) 4 4

* You may use the GC if exact form is not required.

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Example 17

The complex number q is given by q = (i) find the real part of q

Solution

e i , where 0 < < 2 . In either order, 1 ei 1 (ii) show that the imaginary part of q is cot . 2 2

i i cos + i sin cos + i sin e i e 2 e 2 2 2 2 2 = = q= . i = i 1 e i e 2 e 2 e i 2 2i sin + i sin cos cos + i sin 2 2 2 2 2

i cos

sin

2sin

2 = 1 + i 1 cot 2 2 2

1 1 Thus, Re(q ) = , and Im(q ) = cot . 2 2 2

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10

nth Roots of a Complex Number

Suppose we have a fixed number (real or complex), p.

p = p 2 = square root of p
4
1

p = p 3 = cube root of p p = p 5 = __________________

1

p = p 4 = _______________ p = p n = _______________
1

Suppose we need to solve the equation z n = p , where p is any fixed number (real or complex). How many roots will we obtain for the following cases?
z2 = p : z3 = p : zn = p :

No of roots = 2 No of roots = 3 No of roots = n

To know the number of roots, we look at the highest degree of z in the equation. In this section, we will be looking at obtaining the roots (or solutions) when solving equations of the form z n = p . Suppose p = x + iy . We have z n = p = x + iy , where r = x + iy and = arg ( x + iy ) .
Step 1: Convert to exponential form.

z n = x + iy = rei , where r = x + iy and = arg ( x + iy )

Step 2: Add 2k to the argument.

z n = rei( 2 k + ) , k
Step 3: Raise both sides by power
1 ( 2 k + ) i n n 1 n

1 . n

z=r e

2k + 2 k + = r cos + i sin n n

Step 4: Obtain the roots by substituting suitable integer values of k.

The solutions to z n = p are known as the nth roots of the complex number p.
Note: When p = 1, we obtain the special case z n = 1 .

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The solutions are called the nth roots of unity. Questions to Ponder: 1. In Step 1, why do we want to convert to exponential form?
Ans: Notice that in Step 3, we need to raise both sides to power of
1 . It is more n efficient to work in exponential form when dealing with powers of functions.

2.

In Step 2, why do we add 2k?

Ans: The argument of a complex number is not unique.

Im (z)
y P

Re (z)

In an Argand diagram, we can obtain the same complex number by rotating the argument by 2, 4, 6, etc. (integer multiples of 2) either clockwise or anti-clockwise about the origin. In general, we can add/subtract integer multiples of 2 to the argument of a complex number without changing its final value.

+ 2

3.

In Step 4, how many values of k do we need to obtain all the roots?

Ans: The number of values of k to take, depends on the number of unique roots of the equation. In general, if the equation has n unique roots, we will take n consecutive integer values of k. The choice of values of k determines whether we obtain roots with arguments within the principle range.

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Example 18 Find the cube roots of unity of the equation z 3 1 = 0 . Display the roots on an Argand diagram. Solution z 3 = 1 z 3 = e i 2 k , k .

z=e

2 k 3

, k = 0, 1

Taking k = 1, 0, 1 to find the unique solutions, we get

k = 1, z = e k = 0, z = 1 k = 1, z = e
i 2 3
2 i 3

2 = cos 3

2 + i sin 3

1 3 = i 2 2

= cos

2 2 1 3 + i sin = +i 3 3 2 2
Im (z)

1 3 +i 2 2

2 3
2 3

Re (z)

1 3 i 2 2

The roots of the equation lie along the circumference of a circle of radius 1.
Note:

While we could have chosen any 3 consecutive values of k (0, 1, 2 or 3,2, 1), we often choose values of k which result in principal arguments for the roots. If the argument is not in the principal range, we can easily convert to principal argument. Example: k =2, z = e 4 4 2 2 + i sin = cos + i sin 3 3 3 3 This is equivalent to the case when we take k = 1.
i 4 3

= cos

1 3 = i 2 2

The angle between each root on the Argand diagram is equal.

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Example 19

Find, in exact form, all complex numbers z such that z 5 =

an Argand diagram.

5+i . Display the roots on 2 + 3i

Solution
z5 =
1 i i 2 k 5+i 4 = 1 i = 2e z = 2 5e 2 + 3i

2 k 5 20

, k

We take k = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 (or any 5 consecutive integers) to get unique solutions. k = 2, z = 2 e

1 i 2( 2 ) 20 5 5 1 i 2( 1) 20 5 5

= 210 e = 210 e
1
1

17 i 20

1 17 = 210 cos 20

17 + i sin 20

k = 1, z = 2 e k = 0, z = 2 e

9 i 20

1 9 9 = 210 cos + i sin 20 20

2 0 1 i ( ) 20 5 5

= 210 e

i 20

1 = 210 cos + i sin 20 20

k = 1, z = 2 e k = 2, z = 2 e

1 i 2(1) 20 5 5 1 i 2( 2 ) 20 5 5

1 i 1 7 7 = 210 e 20 = 210 cos + i sin 20 20

= 210 e

3 i 4

1 3 = 210 cos 4

3 + i sin 4

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Example 20

1 1 2 5 Show that the roots of the equation ( z + 1) z 5 = 0 are 1 i cot and 1 i cot 2 5 2 5
Solution

z +1 ( z + 1) z = 0 ( z + 1) = z =1 z 2 k i z +1 5 5 i2 k Let = =e 5 , k . , then = 1 = e z z +1 1 1 . Hence, z = are the roots of the equation. , we have z = From = z 1 1
5 5 5 5

However, 1 k 0 or positive and negative multiples of 5 . Solving for z,

z= 1 = 1 =e
k i 5

k k k k i k cos + i sin cos + i sin e 5 e 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 k k k 1 k = cos i sin = cot = i cot 5 5 2i sin k 2i 5 2 2 2 5 5 e

2 k i 5

k 5

k i 5

1 1 2 When k = 2, z = + i cot 2 2 5 1 1 When k = 1, z = i cot 2 2 5

; ;

1 1 When k = 1, z = + i cot 2 2 5 1 1 2 When k = 2, z = i cot 2 2 5 . (Shown)

1 1 2 Hence, the roots of the equation are 1 i cot and 1 i cot 2 5 2 5

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11

Loci in the Complex Plane

In the Argand diagram, z = x + iy is represented by the point ( x, y ) . If the values of x and y vary according to some given condition, the set of points in the Argand diagram will describe some line or curve. This line or curve is called the locus of z.
11.1 Circle with Centre A (represented by a) and Radius, r

The locus of a circle on an Argand diagram is written as z a = r , where z is a variable complex number, a is a fixed complex number, and r is a fixed real number.
Why does z a = r describe a circle?

Im (z)
P A

Let P be a variable point and A be the fixed point. Let OP and OA represent z and a respectively. So AP represents z a (i.e. AP = OP OA ), and AP = z a = distance between points P and A . Since AP = z a = r R , where r is fixed, then P must move in a circle with centre at the fixed point A and radius r.
O

Re (z)

The locus of z expressed in the form: z a = r is a circle with centre at the fixed point A and radius r.

Let z = x + iy and a = + i , we get

( x ) + ( y )i = r

( x ) + ( y )
2

= r ( x ) + ( y ) = r2
2 2

which is the Cartesian equation of a circle centred at ( , ) with radius r.

Example 21 Describe the locus of z completely for the following: (b) 2 i 2 z = 1 (a) z 1 i = 3 Solution (a) z 1 i = z (1 + i ) = 3

The locus of z is a circle centered at (1,1) with radius 3.

(b)

i i i i 1 2 i 2 z = 2 z 1 + = 2 z 1 = 2 z 1 = 1 z 1 = 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 The locus of z is a circle centered at 1, with radius . 2 2

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11.2

Perpendicular Bisector of the Line Joining 2 Points Represented by a and b

The locus of a perpendicular bisector on an Argand diagram is written as z a = z b , where z is a variable complex number, and a and b are the fixed complex numbers.
Why does z a = z b describe a perpendicular bisector?

Im (z) A P

Let P be a variable point and A and B be the fixed points. Let OP, OA and OB represent z, a, b respectively.
So AP represents z a and BP represents z b . Hence we have AP = BP

B Re (z) O

z a = z b

ie. the distance between P and A and that of P and B are the same. Hence, P must move along a perpendicular bisector of line joining A and B.
The locus of z expressed in the form z a = z b is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the fixed points A and B. Example 22 Describe the locus of the point P representing z when i+z = 1. (a) z 3 i = z + 3 + i ; (b) iz Solution (a) z 3 i = z + 3 + i z ( 3 + i ) = z ( 3 i )

The locus of z is a perpendicular bisector of the line joining (3,1) and (3,1). (b) i+ z = 1 i + z = i z z ( i ) = ( z i ) = z i iz The locus of z is a perpendicular bisector of the line joining (0, 1) and (0, 1).

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11.3

Halfline from Point Represented by a (excluding the point), Making an Angle of with the Positive Real Axis

The locus of a half-line on an Argand diagram is written as arg( z a ) = , where z is a variable complex number and a is the fixed complex number, and < .
Why arg (z a) = describes a half-line?

Im (z) P

Let P be a variable point and A be the fixed point. Let OP and OA represent z and a respectively. So, AP represents z a . Then arg( z a ) = is the angle that the vector AP makes with the positive real axis. O

A Re (z)

Thus P moves along the half-line that makes an angle with the positive real axis.
The locus of z expressed in the form arg(z a ) = is the halfline from the fixed point A (excluding the point A) that makes an angle with the positive real axis.

Question to Ponder: Why must we exclude point A?

Example 23

Describe the locus of z if

(a) arg( z ) =

(b) arg( z + 2 + 3i ) = z 2i (d) arg = 1 + 2i 4

2 3

(c) arg(iz 1) = ;
Solution

(a)

arg( z ) =

The locus of z is a half-line from the origin, making an angle of

with the positive real axis. 2 3

(b)

arg ( z + 2 + 3i ) = arg ( z ( 2 3i ) ) =

The locus of z is a half-line from (2, 3), making an angle of with the positive real axis.

2 3

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(c)

1 arg ( iz 1) = arg i z = arg ( i ( z + i ) ) = arg ( i ) + arg ( z + i ) = i arg ( z + i ) =

The locus of z is a half-line from (0, 1), making an angle of the positive real axis.

with

(d)

z 2i arg = arg ( z 2 i ) arg (1 + 2i ) = 4 1 + 2i

arg ( z 2 i ) tan 1 2 =

arg ( z ( 2 + i ) ) =

+ tan 1 2

The locus of z is a half-line from (2, 1), making an angle of with the positive real axis.

+ tan 1 2

Important Note:

1. We are able to describe the loci of a circle, perpendicular bisector and half-line if they fall into one of the following categories: z a = r ; z a = z b ; arg ( z a ) = , where a and b are fixed complex numbers and r, are fixed real numbers. 2. The coefficient of z is or must be 1 in the standard equation of the loci. 3. If the equation given is not one of the above, we will either try to change it to one of the above by algebraic manipulation, or try to obtain the Cartesian equation and 2 then describe the locus. A useful result to use is z.z* = z = x 2 + y 2 .
Example 24 Find the locus of z 1 = 2 z + 1 . Solution Let z = x + iy . Then,

z 1 = 2z +1 x + iy 1 = 2 ( x + iy ) + 1

( x 1) ( x 1)

+ y2 =

( 2 x + 1) + ( 2 y ) 2 2 + y 2 = ( 2 x + 1) + ( 2 y )
2 2

3x 2 + 3 y 2 + 6 x = 0 x 2 + y 2 + 2 x = 0, i.e. ( x + 1) + ( y 0 ) = 1 Thus, locus is a circle centred at (1, 0) with radius 1.

2

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11.4

Problems Involving Inequalities and Maximum/Minimum Example 25 Given that z 3 + 3i = 2 , find the greatest and least values of z + 1 . Solution z 3 + 3i = z ( 3 3i ) = 2
The locus is a circle centered at ( 3, 3) with radius 2.
Im (z)
P ( 1, 0 ) O

z ( 1) = distance between z and P ( 1,0 ) From the Argand diagram, the least value of z + 1 = PQ = 9 + 16 2 = 3 , the greatest value of z + 1 = PR = 9 + 16 + 2 = 7 .

3 Q

Re (z)

-3

Example 26

If arg( z + 3) =
Solution

, find the least value of |z|.

Im (z)

The least value of |z| is the distance between P and the origin. 3 3 Least value of z = OP = 3sin = 3 2

-3

P Re (z)

Example 27

Shade the region represented on an Argand diagram by (a)

z i 2

(b) 0 < arg( z + 2 + i ) <

(c)

< arg z <

and

z z 2 2i

Solution

(a)

z i = z (i ) = 2 The locus of z is a circle centred at (0, 1) with radius 2.

Im (z) 3

1 O -1 Page 31 of 34 Re (z)

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(b)

0 < arg( z + 2 + i ) < arg ( z ( 2 i ) ) =

6 , ), making an angle of

The locus of z is a half-line from (

with the positive real axis.

(c)

< arg z <

and

z z 2 2i

Re (z)

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Example 28 On a single Argand diagram sketch the loci given by z 3 = 4 (i)

(ii) z 3 3i = z Hence, otherwise, find the exact values of all the complex numbers z that satisfy both (i) and (ii).
Solution

(i) (ii)

z 3 = 4 is a circle centred at (3, 0) with radius 4. z 3 3i = z is a perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (3, 3) and (0, 0).

Im( z )

-1

Re( z )

Locus of (i)

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Alternatively using Graphic Calculator,

Step 1: Find Cartesian equation of circle : ( x 3) + y 2 = 42 y 2 = 16 ( x 3)
2 2

Key in Y1 = 16 ( x 3)

and Y2 = 16 ( x 3)

or Y1

Step 2: Find Cartesian equation of the perpendicular bisector: 30 3 Gradient of line joining (3, 3) and (0, 0) = = =1 30 3

1 Thus gradient of the perpendicular bisector is = 1 and passes through the mid 1 3+ 0 3+ 0 point of (3, 3) and (0, 0) i.e. , . 2 2 Equation of the perpendicular bisector: 3 3 y = ( 1) x 2 2 y = x + 3
Key in Y3 = x + 3
Step 3: Press Graph. Enter 2nd, trace and scroll down to press intersection to find the intersection(s) of the circle and the perpendicular bisector.

Note: You may use the GC to help you in your calculations involving complex numbers, unless it is stated that the problem given needs to be solved without the use of a calculator, or if the exact solution is required.

The End

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