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In high speed machines, the skin and proximity effects cause significant increase of the total copper losses in stator windings at the high frequency. Eddy currents are induced by slot flux leakage, which redistributes the current density over the cross section of the conductor unevenly. For higher frequency, the skin depth o is smaller, which means more current concentration around the periphery.
In high speed machines, the skin and proximity effects cause significant increase of the total copper losses in stator windings at the high frequency. Eddy currents are induced by slot flux leakage, which redistributes the current density over the cross section of the conductor unevenly. For higher frequency, the skin depth o is smaller, which means more current concentration around the periphery.
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In high speed machines, the skin and proximity effects cause significant increase of the total copper losses in stator windings at the high frequency. Eddy currents are induced by slot flux leakage, which redistributes the current density over the cross section of the conductor unevenly. For higher frequency, the skin depth o is smaller, which means more current concentration around the periphery.
Droits d'auteur :
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Formats disponibles
Téléchargez comme PDF, TXT ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
Abstract -- In high speed machines, the skin and proximity
effects cause significant increase of the total copper losses in stator windings at the high frequency. The cause and behavior of the eddy currents are studied at two extreme time moments. The AC copper losses are divided into 3 components with different sources. The dimensions of the conductors must be carefully selected to minimize the stator AC copper losses. The optimal strand thicknesses at 4 different frequencies are investigated. The ratio between AC and DC resistances calculated in finite element (FE) model is compared with the results from the analytical method.
Index Terms-- AC copper losses, eddy current, finite element method, form-wound windings, high speed machines, proximity effect. I. INTRODUCTION HEN a conductor carrying alternating current of high fundamental frequency, for example, in stator windings of high speed machines, or the cross section of the conductor is relatively large, such as a typical stator winding in the large turbo generators, eddy currents are induced by slot flux leakage, which redistributes the current density over the cross section of the conductor unevenly. The skin depth is commonly used to evaluate the current concentration on the conductor periphery. It is close-related to frequency, conductivity of the conductor and magnetic permeability of the conductor. For higher frequency, the skin depth o is smaller, which means more current concentration around the periphery. Two types of slot flux leakages in electrical machines are distinguished. The self flux leakage is caused by the alternating current flowing in the conductors. The direction of this flux is perpendicular to the teeth. The resulting eddy current losses from this component are investigated in analytical approaches in [1] and [2]. The self flux leakage exists in each single conductor. The external flux leakage refers to the leakage from the air gap through the wedge as result of rotor movement. It can also be called slot fringe leakage. The direction of the external flux is in parallel with stator teeth. It only influences the conductors located close to the air gap [3]. The eddy current losses caused from the external flux are studied at the no-load condition [4]. In the high-power high speed machines, the form-wound windings are commonly applied to meet the voltage and current specification. The volumes of the high speed machines are usually small, which results in less space for cooling and thus tougher requirement for the cooling system. Therefore, the lower electromagnetic losses are
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This work was supported by the ABB Corporate Research Center. The authors are with Corporate Research Center, ABB, SE 72178 Sweden. (email: wenliang.chen@se.abb.com, yujing.liu@se.abb.com, jahirul.islam@se.abb.com, dmitry.svechkarenko@se.abb.com). strongly desirable. This can be achieved by using very thin conductors or random wound wire in the stator windings. The AC copper losses of the random wound windings are studied in switch reluctance machine, surface mounted permanent magnet synchronous machine and high speed induction machine in [5], [6] and [7] respectively. However, for the high voltage and high power electrical machines, the form-wound winding provides more preferable filling factor and insulation. A time-stepping FE circuit model is developed to analyze the eddy current and circulating current in the form-wound multi-conductor windings [8]. The influence of the machine design parameters, such as slip, frequency, air gap length, wedge material and thickness on eddy current losses are studied in. The radial position of stator bars is concluded to be a very important design parameter to decrease the stator AC copper losses. However, the study is limited to a 50 Hz induction machine with a particular strand thickness. The main objective of this work is to study the eddy current phenomena for a high speed machine with different fundamental frequency by using time-stepping finite element method. The study will provide the simulation results of AC copper losses with different strand thickness for different fundamental frequencies. II. TECHNICAL WORK PREPARATION DC copper losses are defined as the resistive losses in a conductor when a direct current is applied. The DC copper losses, 1_ cu dc P , can be expressed as 2 2 1_ 0 0 (1) cu dc dc RMS RMS c l P R I I b h o = = where dc R is the DC resistance, c o is the conductor conductivity, l is the length of the conductor, 0 b is the strand width and 0 h is the strand thickness. The DC copper losses are commonly referred to as copper losses for random-wound-winding machines with 50 Hz (or 60 Hz) as negligible skin and proximity effects. The definition of AC copper losses was first introduced in [1]. When an alternating current is present the effective resistance of the conductor is increased. The total resistive losses, 1_ cu ac P , in the conductor can then be defined as [6] 0 2 2 0 1_ 0 (2) h cu ac ac RMS c b l P J dh R I o = = } where J is current density and ac R is equivalent resistance of the conductor. The ratio between the AC and DC copper losses can then be expressed as Strand-level Finite Element Model of Stator AC Copper Losses in the High Speed Machines Wenliang Chen, Yujing Liu, Jahirul Islam, Dmitry Svechkarenko
W 978-1-4673-0141-1/12/$26.00 2012 IEEE 475
2 , 2 , , , . (3) , , RMS ac k RMS dc k P R I R ac k ac k P R I R dc k dc k = =
The derived expressions only consider the active part of the windings. In this analytical approach, the skin and proximity effects in the end windings are disregarded. A. Machine Specification A 6.5 MW high speed induction motor is considered for AC copper losses at high frequency. The specifications of the machine are listed in Table I.
Table I. Machine parameter Parameters Value Output power 6.5 MW Frequency 200 Hz Supply voltage 6 kV Number of poles 2 Stator slots 36 Rotor slots 28 Number of turns per coil 5 Number of parallel strands 4 Number of strands side by side 2
Fig. 1. Geometry of the half machine B. Strand-Level FE Model The high speed machine specified in Table I is studied by using a 2D time-stepping FE model, built in the FE program Flux. The 3-phase distributed windings are placed in the stator slots. There are two layers in each slot which consists of 5 turns each, with 4 parallel strands in each turn. Two strands are placed side by side as shown in Fig. 2 (a). A path is selected from slot bottom to the first conductor for the analysis of the eddy currents in all the conductors, referred as path A.
(a) (b) Fig. 2. Numbering of the strands in a stator slot and path A.
One of the phase windings is modeled strand by strand in the form of solid conductors, which allows the current density variations to be observed. The individual conductor represented as a rectangular in Fig. 2 is represented by a solid conductor in the circuit model in Fig. 3. Conductor number 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 in Fig. 2 are the same strand in one coil. They are represented as solid conductor M1, M3, M3, M5, M7 and M9 respectively in the electrical circuit model. Conductor number 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 are the same strand series-wounded in another coil. To model a whole phase, 240 solid conductors are used in the circuit model. The windings from the other two phase are modeled as whole coils in the form of coil conductors, which current density is assumed to be uniformly distributed with the value equal to the average current density. All of the coils in phase A and B are modeled as coil conductors: SS1BP1p1, SS1AP1p1 and SS1AM1p1.
Fig. 3. Circuit model in FEM. The voltage source is 200 Hz sinusoidal.
The resistance and inductance in each parallel branch represent the end winding part of the strand. Considering the relatively low leakage flux density, the skin and proximity effects in the end windings are neglected in this study. It is essential to assign the mesh elements in all of the conductors in order to capture the current density variations, and thus obtain accurate calculations of the eddy current losses. The mesh elements of the conductors in one stator slot are shown in Fig. 4. The skin depth for copper at 150C and 200 Hz is 5.75 mm, larger than conductor thickness. The mesh element is then selected to be 30% of the conductor thickness. The FE model contains 56500 mesh elements.
Fig. 4. Mesh elements in stator strand. 476
III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS The 2D FEM study is carried out on a 2-pole high speed machine with 200 Hz fundamental frequency. The necessary machine dimensions are listed in Table I. A. Discussion of the Current Density and Flux Leakage Two specific time moments are selected for more detailed analysis: time moment A with the instant strand main current being 0, and time moment B when the instant strand main current reaches its peak value. The corresponding current density distributions at these two time moments in the stator windings are captured and presented in Fig. 5. At time moment A, as the strand main current reaches 0, the non-zero current density in the strands is due to the induced eddy current; For time moment B, as the strand main current reaches maximum, the bottom conductors have rather uniform distributed current density. Eddy currents only exist in the lower conductors, which are near the slot opening. The current density in each conductor along the radial distance from slot bottom to the slot opening (scaled from 0 to 1) is plotted at the two time moments in Fig. 6. The uneven distribution of the current density in every single conductor shows the existence of eddy current.
(a). Moment A (b). Moment B
Fig. 5 Curernt density in stator winding at two specific time moments. (The stator strands are placed above the air gap)
Fig. 6. Current density in winding conductors
By subtracting the average current from the current density shown in Fig. 6, the eddy current density in each conductor is obtained. The graph in Fig. 7 shows how the eddy current density varies with the distance from the slot bottom to the slot opening. The maximum eddy current in all strands is induced at the moment when the phase current is 0. When the phase current reaches its maximum value, the induced eddy currents are insignificant (except in the conductors next to the slot opening where the eddy current is induced by the air gap flux leakages). The strand main current is of the same frequency as the eddy current. This shows the phase shift between strand main currents and eddy currents are approximate 90 electrical degrees.
Fig. 7. Eddy current density in winding conductors when the main current is 0 and maximum respectively.
The equi-flux lines at these two moments are captured and presented in Fig. 8. The scale is the same in the two figures, 55 lines in total with flux value range from -0.73 to -0.30 Weber. In Fig. 8 (a), only in the stator wedge there are flux lines which come from air gap. When the instant main current equals to zero, there is no flux lines in the slot body but small flux variation in the slot opening. At this moment the slot flux leakage is only the radial flux leakage from the air gap. On the other hand, the equi-flux lines are very dense in Fig. 8 (b). Most of the lines are in the circumferential direction. At this moment the slot flux leakage is mainly the tangential flux leakage, together with small value of the radial flux leakage.
(a). Moment A (a). Moment B Fig. 8. Equi-flux lines in winding conductors when the main current is 0 and maximum respectively.
The slot flux leakages are decomposited into tangential and radial directions, and analyzed versus the radial distance from slot bottom to slot opening. Time moment A and B are selected. It is easy to note in Fig. 8 that the tangential flux exists in all conductors while the radial flux only influences the top conductors. In Fig. 9 (a), both radial and tangential flux leakages have rather small values. The flux density variations over a strand thickness increase linearly with the radial distance to slot openings. However in (b), the tangential flux is increasing linearly with the radial distance from the slot bottom to the slot opening. The radial flux decays fast in conductors further away from the slot 477
opening.
(a). Moment A
(b). Moment B Fig. 9. The slot tangential and radial flux leakage when the main current is 0 and maximum respectively.
The different characteristics of the radial and tangential flux are caused by their different sources. Tangential flux is the flux leakage produced by conductor currents. This is the reason why the tangential flux is low at time moment A and maximum at time moment B. The radial flux is the leakage coming from the air gap flux. The conductors in slot bottom are not covered by any radial flux leakage. For most of the machine operating points, the slot leakage contains both the radial and tangential flux. Therefore, as the phase current reaches its lowest value, that is no-load operation, the tangential flux leakage is minimized. Majority of the slot leakage is then from the air gap flux. The tangential flux in a stator slot under locked rotor condition is much higher comparing to the nominal operating point as the stator current is much higher than rated current while the radial flux leakage becomes negligible.
Fig. 10. Vector diagram of a single strand L u Total leakage flux in the stator slot E eddy
The back electromotive force induced from L u eddy I Eddy current induced from L u
According to Ampere's law, the induced flux from an alternating current is in phase and proportional to the strand main current. From Faraday's law, the induced back electromotive force (EMF) is proportional to time derivative of the flux. Consequently, the induced EMF from the flux is lagging the main current and leakage flux by 90 degrees. Due to winding inductance, the induced eddy currents are slightly lagging the back EMF. Thus, in stator windings, eddy current is lagging the main current around 90 degrees. Fig. 10 illustrates the vector diagram of the parameters explained above. B. AC Copper Loss Components The RMS value of the current together with DC resistance bring the fundamental portion of the AC copper losses. These losses are only affected by the temperature and dimensions of the windings. For example, for the same RMS value of the alternating current, Litz wires produce higher DC copper losses considering the small cross section area of copper. Both the tangential and radial flux leakages contribute to the generation of eddy currents in the stator windings. The eddy current copper losses caused by the tangential flux leakage produces the majority of the eddy current at loaded conditions. And the number of conductors influenced by the tangential flux leakage is also higher than by the radial flux leakage. For strands close to the slot opening, the eddy current loss contains two parts: losses caused by tangential flux leakage and by radial flux leakage from the air gap. Both are contributing to the generation of hot spots in the stator windings, which requires a special attention in cooling design [9]. Considering the windings with parallel branches, the eddy current induced in one branch is different from the neighboring branches as the flux leakages exposed into are not equal. The difference between the individual branch current and the average current of all branches is circulating current. This circulating current increases the total copper losses in stator windings. The stator AC copper losses can then be expressed as 1_ 1_ 1_ 1_ (4) T R cu ac cu dc cu B cu B P P P P = + + where 1_ T cu B P and 1_ R cu B P are the eddy current losses caused by the slot radial flux leakage from the air gap, the slot tangential flux leakage from the main strand current, circulating current respectively. The strands in a slot of the example machine are studied for the AC copper losses. All the conductors are divided into leading and trailing groups, and numbered from the slot opening to stator yoke, as shown in Fig. 2. The AC and DC copper losses of each strand in the slot are presented in Fig. 11. The AC copper losses increase in the first two conductors closest to air gap increase drastically as the result of the radial flux leakage. For the rest of the conductors, the tangential flux leakage is the main cause of the copper loss increase. Due to circulating current among the 4 parallel strands, the DC copper losses in each strand differ slightly. It is also observed that more AC copper losses are generated in the strands of the leading group than on the trailing one. Because the rotation of the air gap flux, there are asymmetry of the radial flux leakage between the conductors in the two groups. 478
Fig. 11. AC and DC copper losses for individual conductors in stator slot.
C. Optimal Strand Thickness for Minimum AC Copper Losses For a given frequency, the conductor thickness is preferablely to be of small value. However, small value of conductor cross section area results in a high strand DC resistance. The strand DC copper losses are consequently increased. There must be an optimal conductor thickness in which case the AC copper losses are minimized. In this section, the study of AC copper loss for different conductor thicknesses is presented. The slot dimensions are kept the same as in the example machine. The RMS value of the current fed in the stator windnigs and slip value in all cases are kept the same so that the DC copper losses are in the same level. The number of ampere turns are maintained as the same value in order to keep the induced EMF the same. In the example machine, there are 4 parallel strands wound together into the stator coil in 5 turns. In the study performed here, the number of parallel strands varies from 2, 4, 6 to 8. Considering the insulation thickness in the windings, the single strand thickness allowed in stator slot is corresponding to 4.9 mm, 2.3 mm,1.43 mm and 1 mm. It is worth to mention that an imaginary point 0.025mm strand thickness is added to Figure-12, so that the copper losses variation between 0 to 1mm can be predicted in certain accuracy range. Strand thickness 0.025mm is so small that the skin and proximity effects in strands are negligible. AC copper losses equal to DC losses value.
Fig. 12. the Ratio between AC and DC resistance as function of single strand thickness at 4 different frequencies with the constant total slot area.
The frequency dependency on AC copper losses is investigated. Frequency is selected to be 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 400 Hz and 800 Hz. The voltage of the windings are proportional to the supplied frequency. The ratio between AC and DC copper resistance of the stator windings is plotted as function of single strand thickness in Fig. 12. Only the active part of the winding is considered. It is observed that at 2.3 mm strand thickness, the ratio of AC and DC copper losses at 400 Hz is 3 times of the ratio at 100 Hz. For a given frequency, high AC copper losses are produced in the thick strand. With the same strand thickness, the AC copper losses increase drasticly when the operating frequency is increased. The total AC copper losses of the active part of the stator windings in Fig. 13 are presented in percentage of the machine input power. Having the same phase current, the DC copper losses of all the cases are in the same level. However, different operating frequencies cause different level of input power. The total AC copper losses in percentage of the input power are used for benchmarking all the cases.
Fig. 13. AC copper losses in percentage of input power as function of strand thickness and frequency with the constant total slot area.
At 200 Hz, the optimal strand thickness is 1.5mm. If the strand thickness becomes thinner than the optimal thickness, the AC copper losses become higher due to poor filling factor. Huge number of strands requires more insulation area, decreases effective copper area and causes high DC resistance. If strand become thicker than the optimum value, DC resistance keeps almost the same for the constant slot area. The AC resistance increases due to skin and proximity effects. For a given requirement of AC copper losses (for example, not higher than 1% of machine input power at 200 Hz), the applicable strand thickness is between 0.35 to 4 mm. This range is reduced to 0.05 and 3 mm for 800 Hz operation. The applicable strand thickness larger than the optimal value is preferable as the winding insulation work is reduced. Comparing all the cases with the same slot area, it is obvious that the machine with the highest operating frequency has the best efficiency from the stator AC copper losses point of view. 479
IV. COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALYTICAL AND FEM RESULTS In the analytical approach, a parameter called reduced strand thickness [10] is defined as 0 0 (5) c b h f b t o = where b is the slot width. The ratio between the AC and DC resistances of the th k conductor (counting from stator back to slot opening) in a stator slot can be defined as [10] , , sinh 2 sin 2 sinh sin ( 1)2 . (6) cosh 2 cos 2 cosh cos ac k dc k R k k R
+ = + +
Equation (5) and (6) are applied for the studied machine. The AC and DC resistance ratio for every single conductor is calculated, and compared with the results calculated from FEM in Fig. 14.
Fig. 14. The analytical, FEM calculated AC and DC copper loss ratio in comparison with the corrected value.
The gradient of the AC and DC resistance in analytical is higher than the FEM calculations. This difference can be related to the parallel strands in the example machine. In the analytical model [10], all the strands are connected in series. Number of turns equals to the number of conductors. The number of turns in the example machine is lower than the number of conductors in the slot. The resulting back EMF is lower which leads to lower eddy current in the cross section of each conductor. Due to the radial flux leakage from the air gap, the increase in AC and DC resistance ratio is higher in FEM than analytical value. Because in the analytical method, the radial flux leakage from the air gap is disregarded. V. CONCLUSION A 2D time-stepping FE model is built to study the eddy current losses in the form-wound stator windings of high speed induction machine. The AC copper losses are studied as function of strand thickness and frequency. For the same slot area, the optimal strand thickness decreases for higher frequency. The induced back EMF in the strands is lagging the tangential flux leakage by 90 degrees approximately. The AC copper losses in a conductor consist of DC copper losses, eddy copper losses from the tangential and radial flux leakages. The tangential flux leakage induced by the currents of the strands in the slots decreases linearly from the slot opening to the slot bottom. As the radial flux leakage is from main flux in the air gap, it decreases exponentially from a given value at the slot opening to almost zero towards the strands close in the slot bottom. VI. REFERENCES [1] A. B. Field, Eddy Current in Large Slot Wound Conductors, the 22nd annual convention of the A.I.E.E., 1905 [2] R. E. Gilman, Eddy Current Losses in Armature Conductors, the 39th annual convention of the A.I.E.E., White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., pp. 997-1056, June, 1920. [3] A. S. Thomas, Z. Q. Zhu, G. W. Jewell, Proximity losses study in high speed flux-switching permanent magnet machine, IEEE transactions on magnetics, Vol. 45, NO. 10, October 2009. [4] Thomas Spooner, No-Load Copper Eddy-Current Losses, Midwinter Convention of AIEE, New York, Feb 8-11, 1926. [5] Henry M. Hminen, Juha J. Pyhnen, Jussi Puranen, Minimizing Skin Effect in Random Wound High Speed Machine Stator, EUROCON, St. Petersburg, May 18-23 2009. [6] Iwasaki S, Rajesh P. Feodhar, Yong Liu, Adam Pride, Z. Q. Zhu, Jonathan James Bremner, Influence of PWM on the Proximity Loss in Permanent-Magnet Brushless AC Machnes, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications , pp. 1359-1367, 2009. [7] Patel B. Reddy, Z. Q. Zhu, Seok.Hee Han, T. M. Jahns, Strand-level proximity losses in PM machines designed for high-speed operation. International Conference on Electrical Machines, pp. 1170-1175, Villamoura, 2008. [8] Islam M. J, Arkkio A, Time-stepping finite-element analysis of eddy currents in the form-wound stator winding of a cage induction motor supplied from a sinusoidal voltage source, IET Electric Power Applications, Volume 2, Issue 4, pp. 256265, July 2008. [9] Islam, M.J.; Khang, H.V; Repo, A-K; Arkkio, A. 2010: Eddy- current loss and temperature rise in the form-wound stator winding of an inverter-fed cage induction motor, IEEE Transaction on Magnetics, Volume 46, Issue 8, August 2010, pp. 34133416. [10] Juha J. Pyhnen, Tapani Jokinen, Valeria Hrabovcova, Design of Rotating Electrical Machines, Lappeenranta University of Technology, pp. 256-266, Lappeenranta, 2008. VII. BIOGRAPHIES Wenliang Chen was born in 1986 (Shaanxi, China). She graduated from the Royal Institute of Technology and received her M. Sc. degree in Electrical Power Engineering in 2010. Since 2010 she is with ABB Corporate Research (Sweden) as an Electrical Engineer. Her technical interest includes electromagnetic field analysis and high speed machines. Yujing Liu received B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, in 1982, 1985, and 1988, respectively. He has worked as associate professor in the area of electromagnetic computations, PM machine design, and other micro- and special machines. Since 1996, he has worked in ABB Corporate Research, Vsters, Sweden. In addition to develop computational tools for machine analysis and design, he has made many investigations and studies on complex electromagnetic and thermal problems. His current interests include analysis, computations and simulations of electrical machines and drive systems. He works as a Senior Principal Scientist of ABB group since 2008. Jahirul Islam was born in Faridpur, Bangladesh, in 1978. He received the B.Sc. (Tech) degree from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh in 2002. He received the M.Sc. (Tech) and D.Sc. (Tech) degrees from Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), Finland in 2005 and 2010, respectively. He has been working in ABB Corporate Research, Vsters, Sweden since 2009. His research interest involves different machine topologies and numerical modeling, analysis and understands the phenomena of electrical machines. Dmitry Svechkarenko was born in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan in 1980. He received his M.Sc. and D.Sc. (Tech) degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Royal Institute of Technology in 2004 and 2010 respectively. Since 2010, he is with ABB Corporate Research, Vsters. His research aims at the development a cost-effective direct-driven generator in the multi megawatt class for future offshore wind farms.