VORTEX FLOW

Radial Equilibrium

Tornado

UF6 Axial Compressor

A tornado is natures efficient vortex flow. Characteristic of air / gas at higher velocities (200+ mph ~ 300 ft/s ~ 100 m/s) It pumps air from the higher pressure ground to lo-P overhead cloud. We can capture that flow characteristic in the design of axial compressor (and turbine) blade design that encourage free vortex flow.

Velocity Distribution
in a Tornado

Free Vortex (irrotational) r>R Vu = R2/r Vur = constant

R = eye of tornado

Forced Vortex (rotational) r<R Vu = r Vurn = constant

Pressure Distribution in a tornado

Patm

R -P

Minimum pressure is in center of eye. The entire field pressure is sub-atmospheric pressure (AKA Under-pressure)

Irrotational Free-Vortex Flow

Fluid element

Fluid element remains at ~ constant radius. Not packed to outer edges which would lead to increased friction and tip losses. Centrifugal force on element must be balanced by pressure force.

Fc

Uniform Circular Motion

Fc = mac = mv2/r
Fc = centripetal force (in +) ac = centripetal acceleration v = tangential speed = vu

F = ma

= angular position (rad) = angular velocity (rad/s) ac = centripetal acceleration (m/s2) 2 radians = d/dt = time for one revolution 2 = 2r/v = v/r

ac = d2/dt2 = v2/r

Radial Pressure Forces on Fluid Element (F=PA) P + dP

P + dP P d r

P + dP dr

Fc

For Radial Equilibrium: The radial components of the pressure forces (F=PA) must be balanced by the centrifugal force on the fluid mass.

For Radial Equilibrium Fradial = Fc + FP =0

Free-Vortex Flow:

Vur = constant

TIP

HUB

TIP

Vu1

HUB

Constant axial velocity Axial V2 = maximum utilization Cur = const rVu = const

Dont want hub to fall below 0% rxn

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TIP (RXN)

HUB (IMP)

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Station A is entry to nozzle / stator Station B is entry to blade / rotor Station C is exit from blade Nozzle blade is twisted to give overall free vortex flow. The Blade is straight. Nozzle sets up flow in radial decreasing velocity profile.upon passage over uniform rotor blade, reestablishes uniform vel profile. Illustrates other losses: Wall friction losses (skin friction) and tipclearance leakage (PsB > PsC)
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Euler Turbine Equation(s)

Torque

T = m ( Vu1 r1 - Vu2 r2) / gc

Power

W = m ( Vu1U1 - Vu2U2) / gc
Energy per unit mass

W / m = ( Vu1U1 - Vu2U2 ) / gc

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TURBINE

V2

V1 W2 W1

U S R

W ~ Vu1U1 - Vu2U2

V2

V1

W2

W1

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FORCE & STRESS ON BLADES

frozen isochromatic fringes on three-dimensional photoelastic model of gas turbine blade hub.

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Forces acting on turbine & compressor blades

Fluid forces: Lift & Drag & others

(previously covered)

Centrifugal forces Thermal forces / stresses

Fluid forces: Lift & Drag & Bending Of special interest are the tangential components of the lift and drag forces since these forces directly affect the power and efficiency. Produce bending forces / stresses due to changes in fluid pressure and momentum. Total Drag force = pressure drag (form drag, shape drag) + Viscous Drag (viscous drag) Due to complex flows, losses occur. Excitation and vibrations may result from fluctuating pressure gradients. Centrifugal forces Produces radial & bending stresses (bending when centroids of all cross sections do not lie along a radial line) Limits the design length and rpm Easiest force to model Centrifugal forces on the blade causes the blade to stiffen, centrifugal stiffening and increase the natural vibration frequency with rotor rpm Thermal forces / stresses When its not at a uniform temperature, thermal stresses arise.

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Lift and Drag Forces

RADIAL

LIFT

AXIAL

DRAG V1

Vm

V2

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Lift and Drag Forces

FL = CL

(AV2) / 2gc

FD = CD

(AV2) / 2gc

Comments on LIFT and DRAG forces: Lift and drag forces are difficult to model exactly due to complex flow phenomena including: viscous effects, boundary layer separation, etc. Hence, empirically determined correction coefficient is typically used. CL and CD are lift and drag coefficients, usually determined empirically. CD typically accounts for both pressure and skin friction drag. A is some characteristic area. V is some representative velocity: free stream, average or mean velocity, etc.

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Isolated Flat Plate CL = 2sin

Cascade of Blades
CLcas=K(CL)
S C K=cascade coefficient = f(beta, s/c) S= pitch or spacing C = chord

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CENTRIFUGAL STRESS ON ROTATING BLADE

CASING BLADES

h R

HUB HUB

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Centrifugal Force on Uniform Blade

F = ma Fc = m(2r) = Ah(2N/60)2[(R + r)/2]

(In-class derivation)

Centrifugal Stress ( = F/A) on Uniform Blade

max = h (2N/60)2 (r + R) / 2gc

Maximum Stress at Hub of Blade

max, hub = (Utip)2 [1-(Rhub/Rtip)2]

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EXAMPLE: Centrifugal Stress Given: ~ 8,000 kg/m3 ~ 650 lbm / ft3

Uniform density and cross-section

h= length of blade = 20 inches = 1.67 ft N= rate of rotation = 1800 rpm r= hub radius = 1.5 ft

max = h (2N/60)2 (r + R) / 2gc max = 19,400 psi

Yield stress for iron ~ 20,000 psi at STP for quality steels ~ 60,000 psi PSI * (6.89) = kPa

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CENTRIFUGAL FORCE: Liberated Blade If a blade broke loose - liberated, how high could it go? N = 1800 rpm

K.E

P.E.

m V2 = mgH
V = centroid velocity

=2(r+h/2)N/60 = 440 ft/sec = 645 mph H = V2 /g = 3,006 ft

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Thermal Stresses

=E L/L= T

Stagnation temperature (max T) on leading edge of blade. E = Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus) ~ 30E06 psi for good steel

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EXAMPLE Consider a steel turbine blade with a 500oC temperature gradient. What would be the thermal stress? (steel = 11E-06 / oC, E = 60,000 psi)

= L/L= T = (11E-06)(500) = 5.5E-03 =E =

(60,000)(5.5E-03) =

330 psi

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BLADE COATINGS
thermal & corrosion protection

Materials: NiCrAlY alloy (nickel, chromium, aluminum, yttrium) Zirconia (ceramic, ZrO2) Alumina (Al2O3) Silicon carbide (Si-C)

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HOW COATINGS ARE APPLIED

Electroplating Plasma spray Vapor-phase deposition Electron beam deposition

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BLADE COATINGS
FOR THERMAL AND CORRESION CONTROL SUBSTRATE BOND COAT TOP COAT HOT COMBUSTION GASES OPERATING TEMPERATURE SUBSTRATE MELTING TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE

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HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS

MATERIAL
Nickel Nickel-Chromium Alloy Cobalt Chromium Alloy Titanium Titanium-6Al-4V Alloy

~MELTING TEMPERATURE o o F C
2650 2100 2300 2400 2550 3035 3000 1450 1150 1260 1315 1400 1668 1650

For most metals used in blades, creep becomes significant at about one-half the melting point.

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QUESTIONS.?
Parnelli Jones and his turbine car at Indy-500 in 1967

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