III.

Vector Calculus
III.a Path Integrals
We begin this section by looking at two prototype problems.
Problem 1. Consider a cable C in space whose equation is given in parametric
form by
x = x(t)
y = y(t)
z = z(t)
_

_
a t b
and whose density (mass/length) is f(x, y, z). Find the mass and the rst and
second moments of the cable.
Problem 2. Suppose we move along a path C in space, whose equation is given by
x = x(t)
y = y(t)
z = z(t)
_

_
a t b
against a force eld F = M(x, y, z) i +N(x, y, z) j+P(x, y, z) k. Find the work done
in traversing C.
Problem 2 (and related questions) will occupy most of our remaining time.
So we deal with Problem 1 rst.
Answer to Problem 1. The procedure is really similar to what we did before in
calculating the mass of a plate or of a solid. We consider how much mass there is
in the part of the cable between t and t + dt. Now at t we are at (x(t), y(t), z(t)),
while at t + dt we are at (x(t + dt), y(t + dt), z(t + dt)).
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( x (t) , y (t) , z (t) )
( x (t + d t) , y (t + d t) , z (t + d t) )
x
y
z
d s
The length ds of cable between these two points can be estimated by the straight
line formula:
ds

=
_
[x(t + dt) x(t)]
2
+ [y(t + dt) y(t)]
2
+ [z(t + dt) z(t)]
2
.
As you may imagine, we are eventually going to take the limit as dt 0. Now
x(t + dt) x(t)

= (dx/dt) dt, with similar formulas for y and z. In the limit as
dt 0 we have ds =
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt and so the mass of the piece of cable
between t and t + dt is
densitylength = f(x, y, z) ds = f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt
where x

= dx/dt, y

= dy/dt, z

= dz/dt. So the total mass

M =
_
b
t=a
f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt.
Suppose we wish to calculate M
xy
, the rst moment of C with respect to the xy-
plane. We then have
moment for the piece of cable between t and t + dt = armdensitylength
= z f(x, y, z) ds
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And so
M
xy
=
_
b
t=a
z f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt.
In the same way,
M
yz
=
_
b
t=a
x f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt
M
xz
=
_
b
t=a
y f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt,
and
x =
M
yz
M
, z =
M
xy
M
, y =
M
xz
M
are the center of mass coordinates. The second moments are calculated in the same
way. For example,
I
x
=
_
b
t=a
(y
2
+ z
2
)f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt.
Based on this example, for any function f given in practice, a density or not, we
dene
_
C
f ds by
_
C
f ds =
_
b
t=a
f(x, y, z)
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt.
We observe some notation: Let r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k denote the position
vector. Then
dr
dt
=
dx
dt
i +
dy
dt
j +
dz
dt
k,
and so ds =
_
(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
dt can also be written as ds = |dr/dt|dt.
We now consider examples.
165
Example 1. Evaluate
_
C
f ds if
C =
_

_
x = 3 cos t,
y = 3 sint, 0 t 2
z = t
and f = x + y + z.
Answer. Note that C is part of a spiral, but we need not know this.
x
y
z
We have
_
C
f ds =
_
2
t=0
(x + y + z)
_
9 sin
2
t + 9 cos
2
t + 1 dt
=
_
2
t=0
(3 cos t + 3 sin t + t)

10 dt
=
_
3 sin t + 3 cos t +
t
2
2
_

10

2
t=0
=

10
2
(2)
2
.
Example 2. Find the mass and the z coordinate of the center of mass of a cable
C consisting of a straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 2, 3) followed by a straight line
from (1, 2, 3) to (1, 2, 4), if the density (x, y, z) = 1 + z.
Answer. The rst part of the problem is to nd the parametric equations for C.
This can be dicult.
166
( 1 , 2 , 3 )
( 1 , 2 , 4 )
x
y
z
In the present problem, it seems easiest to decompose C into C
1
plus C
2
where
C
1
= line from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 2, 3) =
_

_
x = t
y = 2t
z = 3t
0 t 1,
and
C
2
= line from (1, 2, 3) to (1, 2, 4) =
_

_
x = 1
y = 2
z = 3 + t
0 t 1
and work out the problem for each piece. Now
Mass of C
1
=
_
1
t=0
(1 + 3t)

1 + 4 + 9 dt =

14
_
1 +
3
2
_
Mass of C
2
=
_
1
t=0
(1 + 3 + t)

0 + 0 + 1 dt = 4 1 +
1
2
= 4
1
2
.
So
Mass of C = 4
1
2
+

14
_
5
2
_
.
Now we calculate M
xy
=
_
C
z (x, y, z) ds, and again break this up:
M
xy
for C
1
=
_
1
t=0
(3t)(1 + 3t)

14 dt =

14
_
3
2
+
9
3
_
M
xy
for C
2
=
_
1
t=0
(3 + t)(4 + t)

1 dt =
_
12 +
7
2
+
1
3
_
.
167
So, M
xy
= (12 +
7
2
+
1
3
) +

14(
3
2
+ 3) and
z =
M
xy
M
=
_
95
6
+

14
_
9
2
__
1
[4
1
2
+

14(
5
2
)]
.
Important Remarks. (1) Parametrizing C can be complicated. Note that if C
can be written as C
1
+ C
2
with C
1
, C
2
simpler, then we can parametrize C
1
, C
2
separately (and add the answer).
(2) Parametrizing curves of type y = f(x), z = g(x) is easy. Just put
_

_
x = t
y = f(t)
z = g(t) .
We now pass to the second prototype problem. We recall that the work in
moving against a constant force F from A to B in a straight line is |F| cos |

AB| =
F

AB.
A
B
AB
F

Now we repeat the previous process used for the rst prototype problem: Let
the path C be given by
x = x(t)
y = y(t)
z = z(t)
_

_
a t b.
168
r(t)
r(t + d t)
r d
x
y
z
C
Let F = M(x, y, z) i + N(x, y, z) j + P(x, y, z) k be the force eld and r = x(t) i +
y(t) j +z(t) k be the position vector. Then as t varies from t to t +dt we travel from
r(t) to r(t + dt) and the work done is
F (r(t + dt) r(t)) = F dr =
_
F
dr
dt
_
dt.
So the total work done is
_
b
t=a
F
dr
dt
dt =
_
b
t=a
_
M
dx
dt
+ N
dy
dt
+ P
dz
dt
_
dt.
Motivated by this example, for any vector F we dene
_
C
F dr
_
also written
_
C
M dx + N dy + P dz
_
to be
_
b
t=a
_
M
dx
dt
+ N
dy
dt
+ P
dz
dt
_
dt.
For general vector elds, nothing more can be done. We now consider some exam-
ples.
Notation. We write C for C traversed the wrong way. Note that the direction of
travel is critical here (or get the negative of the answer).
Example 3. Calculate
_
C
F dr if F = x i + y j + z k and C is the semicircle in
169
the (x, y) plane of radius 4 in the third and fourth quadrants traversed clockwise.
Answer. Once again, a diculty in these problems is to nd the parametric equa-
tions for C.
4
x
y
There are often many practical ways to do this, and each yields the same answer.
In this problem there seem to be two (simplest) ways. First, we use the angle as a
parameter, traverse C the wrong way and then take minus the answer. Specically,
C =
_

_
x = 4 cos
y = 4 sin
z = 0

2

3
2
.
Since z (and dz) = 0, it is usual to omit reference to z. Then
_
C
F dr =
_ 3
2

2
_
x
dx
d
+ y
dy
d
_
d
=
_ 3
2

2
[(4 cos )(4 sin) + 4 sin(4 cos )] d
= 16 2
_ 3
2

2
(cos )(sin) d = 16(sin
2
)

3
2

2
= 16 0 = 0
and so
_
C
F dr =
_
C
F dr = 0 = 0.
170
For another way, we could choose
C =
_

_
x = 4 sin
y = 4 cos
z = 0
0 .
To see that C is also given this way, note that x
2
+ y
2
= 16 (so we move on the
circle), at = 0 we are at (0, 4), at = we are at (0, 4). So
_
C
F dr =
_

0
[(4 sin)(4 cos ) + (4 cos )(sin)] d = 0,
just like before.
Example 4. Find
_
C
F dr if we move on the path: z = 2, y = x
2
from x = 0 to
x = 1 and F = x
2
i + y
2
z j + z
3
k.
Answer. To parametrize this is easy. Choose rst x = t, then y = t
2
and, of course,
z = 2.
C
x
y
z
So
C =
_

_
x = t
y = t
2
z = 2
0 t 1
and
_
C
F dr =
_
1
t=0
[(t
2
) + (t
4
)(2)(2t) + 2
3
0

dz
dt
] dt
171
=
_
1
0
[t
2
+ 4t
5
] dt =
1
3
+
4
6
.
Example 5. Calculate
_
C
F dr, if C is the path from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) and from
(1, 1, 1) to (1, 2, 3) along straight lines and F = e
z
i + (sin y) j + (cos z) k.
Answer. Again we break C into two paths C
1
, C
2
and parametrize each.
( 1 , 1 , 1 )
( 1 , 2 , 3 )
x
y
z
We then calculate
_
C
1
F dr and
_
C
2
F dr and add the answers. Now
C
1
=
_

_
x = t
y = t
z = t
0 t 1,
C
2
=
_

_
x = 1 + 0t
y = 1 + t
z = 1 + 2t
0 t 1.
So
_
C
1
F dr =
_
1
0
[e
t
1 + sin t 1 + cos t 1] dt
= e
t
cos t + sin t

1
t=0
= [e
1
cos 1 + sin 1] [1 1] = e
1
cos 1 + sin1
_
C
2
F dr =
_
1
t=0
_
e
1+2t
0 + sin(1 + t) 1 + cos(1 + 2t) 2

dt
172
=
_
1
t=0
[sin(1 + t) + 2 cos(1 + 2t)] dt
= cos(1 + t) + sin(1 + 2t)

1
0
= [cos 2 + sin 2] [cos 1 + sin 1].
So
_
C
F dr = [e
1
cos 1 + sin 1] + [cos 2 + sin 2 + cos 1 sin 1]
= e
1
cos 2 + sin 2.
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Further Exercises:
1) A cable is in the form of the curve y = x
2
/2 for 0 x 1. Find the mass
and the center of mass of the cable if the density is a constant.
2) Find the x-coordinate of the radius of gyration of the cable of exercise 1.
3) Find the mass of a cable in the form of the 1/4 of the ellipse x
2
+
y
2
4
= 1 in
the rst quadrant if the density is (x, y) = xy.
4) Evaluate
_
C
y ds if C is the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1) traversed
counterclockwise.
5) Evaluate
_
C
F dr if F = yi xj + zk and C is the straight line from (0, 0, 0)
to (1, 2, 3).
6) Evaluate
_
C
F dr if F = yi +xj +xk and C is the ellipse x
2
+
y
2
4
= 1 in the
plane z = 2, traversed clockwise.
7) Evaluate
_
C
F dr if F = xi + zj yk and C is the path: y = x, z = 2x
2
for
0 x 1, followed by the straight line from (1, 1, 2) to (0, 0, 0).
8) Evaluate
_
C
F dr if F = yi +e
x
2
j +xk and C is the circle x
2
+z
2
= 4 (in the
plane y = 16), traversed clockwise.
9) Evaluate
_
C
F dr if F = xi + yj + xyk and C is the curve given by the
intersection of z = x
2
+ y
2
and y = x
2
from the point (0, 0, 0) to the point
(1, 1, 2).
10) Evaluate
_
C
F dr if F = xj + yk and C is the path given by the part of
the intersection of x =
_
y
2
+ z
2
and x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 1 from (
1

2
, 0,
1

2
) to
(
1

2
, 0,
1

2
) which contains the point (
1

2
,
1

2
, 0).
174