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Dr. Adly Kh. Al-Saafin Engg./Env. Geology Earth Sciences Dept. KFUPM - Dhahran
Evaluation
Environmental Issue
(Monitoring Program)
OUTLINE
I. Basic Concepts I. Basic Concepts II. Hazards Associated with Volcanic Eruption II. Hazards Associated with Volcanic Eruption III. Impacts of Volcanic Eruption III. Impacts of Volcanic Eruption IV. IV. V. V. VI. VI. Evaluation of Volcanic Hazards Evaluation of Volcanic Hazards Mitigating of Volcanic Hazards Mitigating of Volcanic Hazards Case Studies Case Studies
VII. Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia VII. Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia VIII.Relevant WWW VIII.Relevant WWW
I.
Basic Concepts
What Is a Volcano?
1. 2. 3.
The word "volcano" comes from the little island of volcano Vulcano in the Mediterranean Sea of Sicily. The term volcano also refers to the opening or vent through which the molten rock and associated gases are expelled. Volcanoes are mountains driven by buoyancy and gas pressure the molten rock (magma / lava). lava Lava is the term used for molten materials that has reached the ground surface because of a volcanic eruption. Magma is the molten materials that is found below the ground.
Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:
Viscosity
high
Temp
Silica
Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:
Magma has some dissolved gases and water: water More silica rich magma, the greater water and dissolved gases contents. Dissolved water is responsible for causing explosive behavior upon eruption Water remains in solution in the magma as long as the magma is under significant confining pressure beneath the earths surface.
Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:
high
Magmas temperature range from 600 1200 C. Temperature of basaltic magma (dark, low silica) is much higher than in dacitic magma (light, high silica)
Characteristics of Magma
Behavior, extension, temperature of volcanic products, and magnitude of volcanic hazards depend on:
Such lava / pyroclastic flows are capable of knocking down and burning everything in their paths. paths
Types of Volcanoes
Shield volcano
The largest type which characterized with gently sloping, and built almost entirely of low viscosity basaltic lava flows. flows The eruptions are generally non-explosive due to the low silica content. content Example: Hawaiian, and Iceland Volcanoes.
Steep-sided, symmetrical cone shapes. The most deadly volcano types, at least in Holocene time. They are built up by eruptions of intermediate viscosity andesitic lava and explosive tephra. tephra Examples: Mount Shasta in California, Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Washington state, and Mount Fuji in Japan.
Volcanic Domes
Form by highly viscous rhyolitic magma (approximately 70% silica). Typically small. Some are subjected to explosive blowouts during dome building processes. Domes commonly occur adjacent to or within craters of composite volcanoes. Other domes begin as subsurface confinement.
shallow laccolithic intrusions
Examples: Pocatello, Idaho, Big Southern Butte and East Butte on the Snake River Plain.
Basaltic flows
There are parts of the world covered by thousands of square kilometers of thick basalt lava flows called Basaltic flows. Individual flows may be more than 50 meters thick and extend for hundreds of kilometers. The largest flood basalts in Saudi Arabia are grouped in the western parts of Saudi Arabia and called Harrat.
The largest and most explosive volcanic eruptions eject tens to hundreds of cubic kilometers of pyroclastic material onto the Earths surface. When such a large volume of magma is removed from beneath a volcano, the ground collapses, collapses into the emptied space to form a huge depression called a caldera.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Lava flow Lahar Pyroclastic flow Ash fall (Tephra) Volcanic gases Landslides Fumaroles
Volcanic Hazards
The Volcanic Hazards include:
1. Lava flows are streams of molten rock 2. Pyroclastic flows are high speed avalanches of hot
ash, rock fragments, crystals, and gas which move down the sides of a volcano during explosive eruptions.
Impacts of Ash-fall
Ash-fall poses a serious threat to people: people
1. Civilian life damage (Crops, machines, and computers,.. 2. People can have serious respiratory problems due to fine 3. 4. 5. 6.
ash particles. Vegetation covered by layers of volcanic ash is virtually destroyed. Surface water (lakes, streams) can be seriously contaminated. The weight of thick and/or wet layers of ash can cause structural damage (example- collapsing roofs). Windborne ash causes serious problems for airliners, (During the past 15 years, about 80 commercial jets have been damaged by inadvertently flying into ash).
Volcanic Hazards
4. Volcanic Gases All magmas contain dissolved gases
that are released during and between eruptive episodes. Gases: Gases water vapor CO2, CO H2S HCl HF
Volcanic Hazards
5. Lahars (Debris Flows/Mud Flows) are mixtures
of water + rock + ash + sand + and mud that originate from the slopes of a volcano. Lahars are commonly formed when:
Large landslides of water-saturated debris, Heavy rainfall eroding volcanic deposits, Radiant heat emitted from a volcanic vent suddenly melting snow and ice, Pyroclastic flows on the flanks of a volcano, or Breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes, or from lakes dammed by volcanic eruptions. during eruption and after eruption
Impacts of Lahars
Lahars containing a high percentage of rock debris look
like fast-moving rivers of concrete. Close to a volcano, they have the strength to rip huge boulders, trees, and structures from the ground and carry them for great distances. Farther downstream the coarser debris settles to the bottom of the flow, leaving mud to continue on to cover everything it passes.
Historically, Lahars have been one of the most deadly of the volcanic hazards. hazards The 1985 lahars off Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia killed approximately 23,000 people.
Volcano Hazards
6. 7.
Landsliding Hot springs, and geysers
Cause
Mudflows Ash flows Tsunami Starvation
Volcano collapse,
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 1985 Mont Pelee, Martinique 1902 Krakatau, Indonesia Tambora, Indonesia Unzen, Japan
Tsunami
Starvation
As of February 1996, the current eruption has destroyed 181 homes. Photograph by J.D. Griggs, U.S. Geological Survey, December 19, 1986.
Total losses exceed $61 million, making this eruption the most costly ever in Hawaii. More than 500 acres (200 hectometers) of new land has been added to the island. 1.7 billion cubic yards (1.3 billion m3) of lava has been erupted. Photograph by Steve Mattox, USGS, 1990
Bulldozer removing from volcanic ash Mount St. Helens as part of the massive cleanup effort in eastern Washington.
(Copyrighted photograph by Daryl Gusey).
Distribution of May 18, 1980 ash fallout within the United States
1. 2. 3. 4.
Creating new lands Enrich soil with natural fertilizers Formation of mineral deposits Source of a geothermal energy
View of Mount St. Helens from the north in April 1981, with Spirit Lake in the middle ground.
(Photograph by Lyn Topinka).
View of Mount St. Helens from the north in August 1984. The fireweed was among the first plant-life to reappear after the devastation on May 18, 1980.
(Photograph by Lyn Topinka).
has not erupted in recent memory and show no signs of current activity, but it is not deeply eroded.
Pinatubo volcano, Philippine (1990) after 400 year Mount St. Hellen, us (1980) after 123 years
How??.... Using ..
Monitoring
Analysis
Mapping
MAP MAP
Hazard-Zone Map
The purpose of hazard-zone maps is to give accurate information on the
Hazard-Zone Map
Hazard-Zone Map
Hazard-Zone Map
Hazard-Zone Map
Hazard-Zone Map
Hazard-Zone Map
Identification
Evaluation
V. Mitigation
(Reducing ) of Volcanic Hazards
V. Mitigation of Volcanic
Hazards
Response and Actions
i.
Monitoring of Volcanic eruption (Prediction & forecasting) forecasting ii. Adjustment and Perception of volcanic hazard.
i.
Methods used to monitor active volcanoes: 1. Ground deformation: GPS, Tiltometer, EDM 2. Geophysical measurements: change in Magnetic field, Electric Resistivity, magma movement (S & P waves)
3. Remote sensing: Satellite imagery 4. Seismicity: Seismometer 5. Gas: SO2, Mehan, HCl. 6. Hydrogeology: Change in temp. of crater lakes, water
wells, or hot spring
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/monitor_activities.html
Single precursor indicator is sufficient to predict an eruption. Taken together, several physical, and chemical anomalies may create an overall picture that provide clear indication that an eruption is imminent.
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/monitor_activities.html
Monitoring sites at Mount St. Helens as of March 1982. (Modified from: E. Iwatsubo, 1996, and Brantley and Topinka, 1984)
Seismicity Seismometer
Ground Movements
Tiltmeter
The Tiltmeters used by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory are very sensitive because they must measure changes in slope as small as one part per million. A slope change of one part per million is equivalent to raising the end of a board one kilometer long only one millimeter.
Photograph of a tiltmeter courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey.
Standard leveling surveys are also used to determine changes in horizontal and vertical distances. (Geologists use permanent markers, called benchmarks, as reference points). As magma intrudes beneath an area, the benchmarks move upward and outward.
(after U.S. Geological Survey)
B. M.
The position of the satellites are known to within a few meters. They send signals which include the time the signal left the satellite. The receivers note the time that the signal arrived. The time it takes for the signal to travel from satellite to receiver can then be determined. Knowing the travel time and the velocity of the signal (the speed of light) the distance between the satellite and receiver can be determined.
Seismometers, the instruments that detect the earthquakes, are set up at numerous locations on the volcano. The information about the earthquakes is sent by radio waves to the Volcano Observatory.
(after U.S. Geological Survey)
Seismograph Records
Four major types of seismograms, or "seismic signatures," are recognized from seismometers in the vicinity of Mount St. Helens. Seismologists review and classify the seismic records daily.
Gas Geochemistry
Gas samples are collected from fumaroles, like those near Sulfur Bank, and from active vents. The composition of the gas or a change in the rate of gas emission provides additional information on what is happening inside the volcano. For example, an increase in the ratio of Carbon to Sulfur can be used to indicate the arrival of a new batch of magma at the summit reservoir. Shortly before the onset of the Puu Oo eruption, the amount of hydrogen gas at the summit of Kilauea Volcano increased significantly. (This photo shows gas geochemists collecting a sample, U.S. Geological Survey, 1990).
The amount of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released by the volcano can be measured indirectly by a correlation spectrometer. The flux of sulfur dioxide (SO2) nearly doubled after the 1983 eruption began (Greenland and others, 1985).. Photo shows volcanologist measuring sulfur dioxide plume at Puu Oo vent, U.S. Geological Survey.
Geophysical parameters
Changes in magnetic field, electric conductivity indicate to the magma movement and volcanic eruption
.
TM & AVHRR
Satellite image showing the location of the September 16-17 eruption cloud about 48 hours after the eruption started. This image shows the result of using the difference between two thermal bands of the AVHRR sensor. AVHRR The eruption cloud is clearly visible extending in an arc from northern Quebec, southwest above Ontario, Michigan and Wisconsin.
ii.
i. ii. iii. i. ii. iii. iv. i. ii. iii.
1. Physical Structures:
During a longer eruption, with the sheer volume of lava and the number of flows
involved, diverting operation may be impossible.
For
such efforts require favorable conditions of topography and property ownership that
can rarely be met in a populated area.
example, during the 1955 eruption of Hawaiis eruption, barriers temporarily diverted flows from two different plantations, but in both cases, flows on subsequent days took different routes and ultimately destroyed the property. A few attempts at lava diversion have been partially successful elsewhere in the world.
Artificial diversion of lava onto property that otherwise would have been spared could
lead to complex legal problems. Lava diversion, is a reasonable option in unpopulated areas where isolated, high-value property is at risk.
In Summary: Methods of prediction Summary 1.Field Studies 2.Topographic changes 3.Seismicity 4.Change in heat flow 5.Volcanic gases
No single indicator can be used alone. No single indicator can be used alone. Exact timing is not an easy job to determine volcanic eruption. Exact timing is not an easy job to determine volcanic eruption. Cost & Reliability of prediction. Cost & Reliability of prediction. Socio-economic aspects should be considered. Socio-economic aspects should be considered. Warning system should be implemented. Warning system should be implemented.
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=03
The town of Tabah is in a tuff ring. Basaltic cinder cones and flows are on the
south rim of the tuff ring. Jabal Salma forms the horizon. Jabal Salma is made of 570-585 million year old granitic plutons that are part of the Arabian-Nubian Shield. View is to the northwest. Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey.
Looking northwest to Hutaymah, a tuff cone and namesake of the volcanic province. Tabah tuff cone is in the distance (upper left margin). Jabal Salma is on the horizon. Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey.
View of west-northwest wall of Hutaymah tuff ring. Photo by Carl Thornber, Geological Survey
Looking northwest to the nested cinder and spatter cones of Harrat ad Dakhana in the north-central part of the Harrat Hutaymah volcanic field.. Cinder cones are made of varying amounts of unconsolidated to poorly consolidated basaltic cinder, bombs, and spatter. The slopes of the cinder cones tend to be greater than 30.
Photo by Carl Thornber, U.S. Geological Survey