Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2011 • II – ENVIRONMENT
Air pollution and climate change
Air pollution andAir
climate change
pollution and climate change
Data sources: International Energy Agency (IEA); Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Indicators
database; United Nations Environment Programme, Emission Database for Global
Atmospheric Research (EDGAR); World Bank, World Development Indicators; and
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, formerly GTZ), GTZ
International Fuel Prices
Data tables: Page 193 to 197
Technical notes: Page 261 to 262
Rapid economic growth over the past 20 years,
particularly in the larger economies, has been
accompanied by increasing emissions of
greenhouse gases and degradation of natural
capital.
Economic growth in Asia and the Pacific depends
on a growing use of energy resources, most of
which being fossil fuels, that in turn has led to
increasing emissions of greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gas emissions fuel global climate
change that translates into devastating impacts in
the region, particularly for the poorest. The
increased risk of climatic disasters such as floods,
drought, and typhoons or cyclones, together with
the possibility of reduced access to water and
other natural resources, could undo decades of
effort to eradicate poverty.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
The rate of greenhouse gas emissions from the
region has been growing since 1990, particularly
in East and North-East Asia, where carbon
emissions from China more than doubled
between 2000 and 2008. Overall, between 2000
and 2008, emissions in Asia and the Pacific have
been increasing almost twice as fast as the global
average (5.4% change per annum as compared
to 2.8%). The total emissions from the region in
2008 equalled almost half the world total as
compared to 38% of the world total in 1990. On
a per capita basis, the region-wide rate is still
below the global average, although carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions per unit of GDP are
higher.
In 2008, China was the single largest emitter of
greenhouse gases worldwide – emitting 6.5
billion tons of CO2 (0.4 billion tons more than
1
ESCAP, Preview Green Growth, Resources and Resilience, Environmental Sustainability in Asia and the Pacific, 2010. Available at: http://www.unescap.org/
esd/environment/flagpubs/GGRAP/
Environment
all of North America). However, on a per-capita
basis, North America emits 3.7 times more than
China (China emits 4.9 tons per capita). Within
the region, Brunei Darussalam is the highest
emitter of greenhouse gases at 20 tons per capita
of CO2, followed closely by Australia at 19 tons.
Fortunately, the carbon intensity, or amount of
greenhouse gases emitted per unit of GDP, has
been steadily falling in the Asia-Pacific region
since 1990. Recently, a number of large carbon-
emitting economies in the region have instigated
policies and reforms to reduce their CO 2
intensity by improving energy efficiency in
various sectors and increasing the use of
renewable energy. China, India, Indonesia,
Marshall Islands, Maldives, Mongolia, Papua
New Guinea, the Republic of Korea and
Singapore have introduced voluntary targets to
reduce CO2 emissions or reduce the consumption
of fossil fuels.1 In addition, fuelled by volatile and
high oil prices, domestic energy prices are
changing which may reinforce policies to reduce
carbon emission.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2) emissions
Nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas produced
by agriculture, motor vehicles and other
combustive sources, emissions have been rising
steadily in Asia and the Pacific and globally as
well. Asia and the Pacific contribute 43% of the
global N2O emissions; on a per capita basis, the
regional average is still lower than the global
average.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions, which lead to
acid rain and can harm human health, have
increased in Asia and the Pacific in the last two
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 II – ENVIRONMENT • Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2011
Air pollution and climate change
Environment

Air pollution and climate change

Figure II.1 – CO2 emissions, Asia-Pacific In a recent study 2 on concentrations of air
subregions and the rest of the world, 1990-2008 pollutants in Asian cities, 40% of the 213
Million tons of CO2 surveyed cities showed annual average SO 2
30 000 concentrations lower than half the WHO
25 000
standard (20 µg per cubic metre as a 24-hour
The rest of mean) and signs of a marked decrease in SO2
the world
20 000 between 1993 and 2000. The study also found
15 000
that for 24% of the cities, the annual average SO2
ENEA
concentrations exceeded the WHO 24-hour
10 000
standard. Unfortunately, since 2001, emissions
5 000 SSWA have begun to rise.
NCA
SEA
0 Pacific
90

92

94

96

00

02

06

08
98

04

Figure II.3 – Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions,

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20
19

20

Asia-Pacific region and the rest of the world,

1990-2005
Figure II.2 – CO2 emissions per unit of GDP,
Thousand tons
Asia-Pacific subregions, 1990-2008 160 000
140 000
Grams per 1,000 GDP in 2005 PPP dollars
1 600 120 000
100 000 The rest of
the world
1 400 80 000
60 000
40 000
1 200 Asia-Pacific
20 000
0
1 000
98
90

95

00

02

03

04
96

99

01

05
97
19
19

19

20

20

20

20
19

19

20

20
19

800 NCA

Asia-Pacific Concentrations of particulate matter

600
400
200
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
decades. In the rest of the world, however, SO2
emissions have been decreasing on average, driven
mainly by pollution-control measures in many
developed countries. SO2 emissions are generally
produced from the combustion of fossil fuels,
particularly coal, and from some industrial
processes such as petroleum and metal refining,
metal smelting, and pulp and paper production.
Therefore the most significant emissions from the
region come from coal-burning developing
countries; in particular China contributes 53%
of the emissions in the region.
2
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center (2010). Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends, 2010 Edition. Pasig City, Philippines.
ENEA
Pacific
(PM10)
World
SSWA Concentrations of particulate matter (PM10) in
SEA
Asian and Pacific cities remain one of the most
problematic of local air-pollution issues and are
higher than the global average, although from
1990 to 2006 PM10 concentrations declined by
38%. As PM10 refers to particulate matter that
is less than 10 microns in size, the small size of
the particles increases the risk of their becoming
embedded in the lungs and throat when inhaled,
leading to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
The annual average of PM10 concentrations in
230 cities between 1993 and 2008 was 3 times
the recommended WHO standard (20 µg per
cubic metre, annual mean). 2 Moreover, the
annual average PM10 concentration in the 230
cities monitored in 2008 was 4.5 times the
WHO standard, at 89.5 micrograms per cubic
metre.

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 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2011 • II – ENVIRONMENT

Air pollution and climate change

Environment
Air pollution and climate change
Figure II.4 – Concentration of particulate but ozone depleting substances such as
matter (PM10) in urban areas, Asia and the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have had significant
Pacific and the world, 1990-2006 impacts on depleting the stratospheric ozone
Micrograms per m3
layer for a number of years. Fortunately, global
120 environmental agreements have led to significant
reductions in the use of ozone-depleting
100
substances, from a regional average of 70 grams
80 per capita in 1995 to just 7.8 in 2008. The
consumption of ozone-depleting substances per
60
unit of GDP has been even more dramatic,
40 dropping across the region from 41 grams per
20
PPP$1,000 (2005 prices) in 1990 to just 1.4 in
2008.
0
1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Ground-level ozone is a local pollutant formed
Asia-Pacific World
primarily from a complex series of chemical
reactions in cities among air pollutants produced
by motor vehicles and industry, in particular
Ozone hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. The impact
Ozone is a concern for two reasons: the depletion of ozone smog on human health includes
of ozone in the stratosphere and ground level respiratory problems. Unfortunately, this
ozone as a pollutant. In the stratosphere, ozone substance is not sufficiently monitored in many
protects living organisms from the sun’s radiation, countries and data is lacking in this regard.

Fuel prices, subsidies and taxes

Subsidizing fossil fuels obstructs efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emission and improve efficiency of energy use.
For effective action against climate change, environmental cost would be incorporated into the market price of the
natural resources used, such as fossil fuels. Climate change concerns and rising fuel prices have lead Governments
to reduce subsidies and even increase taxes on fuels. The impacts of these measures are difficult to determine as
projections on emissions, had subsidies remained, are difficult to develop.

Subsidies are considered by many to be important social protection means, but they often benefit the more affluent
instead of the poorest as the poor only benefit from a fraction of the public expenditure on the subsidy. For example,
in Indonesia 70% of the fuel subsidies benefited 40% of high-income families, while 40% of the lowest-income
families utilized only 15% of the subsidy.3

The GIZ publication International Fuel Prices,4 show how subsidies were removed in many countries between 2004
and 2006, but were reintroduced in some by 2008 even with the oil price peak of that year. In Indonesia, 4% of
the GDP or almost 20% of the central governmental budget was being spent on fuel subsidies after a 27.7%
fuel-price rise in 2008.5 At the same time, the Indonesian Government introduced a series of social protection policies
that included direct cash assistance for 19 million families along with a food subsidy programme, an extension of
a low-income rice distribution programme, funding support for children’s education and a subsidized increase for
low-scale credit facilities.

3
Indonesia, Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs, “Government explanation on the reduction of fuel subsidy and other related policies”, Oleh
Administrator (Jakarta, 23 May 2008). Available from www.esdm.go.id/news/53-pressrelease/1757-government-explanation-on-the-reduction-of-fuel-
subsidy-and-other-related-policies-.pdf.
4
Available from www.gtz.de/en/themen/29957.htm.
5
Tim Bulman, Wolfgang Fengler and Mohamad Ikhsan, “Indonesia’s oil subsidy opportunity”, Far Eastern Economic Review, vol. 171, No. 5 (7 June
2008).

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 II – ENVIRONMENT • Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2011
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Environment

Air pollution and climate change

Fuel prices
Retail fuel prices
Diesel Super gasoline
US cents per litre US cents per litre
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
East and North-East Asia
China 25 45 37 43 61 101 28 40 42 48 69 99
DPR Korea 41 35 41 61 79 95 73 55 55 78 71 76
Hong Kong, China 85 80 77 100 106 116 136 146 147 154 169 195
Japan 69 76 66 95 90 130 102 106 91 126 109 142
Macao, China 51 50 102 74 73 117
Mongolia 22 38 37 67 87 142 23 38 38 61 88 138
Republic of Korea 41 66 64 95 133 140 93 92 109 135 165 151
South-East Asia
Brunei Darussalam 18 18 18 19 21 21 34 31 30 32 34 38
Cambodia 28 44 44 61 78 89 47 61 63 79 101 94
Indonesia 7 6 19 18 44 42 16 17 27 27 57 50
Lao PDR 24 32 30 48 73 76 31 41 36 54 86 92
Malaysia 17 16 19 22 40 53 28 28 35 37 53 53
Myanmar 12 12 28 10 75 52 13 33 36 12 66 43
Philippines 22 28 27 34 67 81 34 37 35 52 76 91
Singapore 36 38 38 55 63 90 72 84 85 89 92 107
Thailand 27 35 32 37 65 64 30 39 36 54 70 87
Timor-Leste 65 88 135 65 98 122
Viet Nam 26 27 27 32 53 77 35 38 34 48 67 80
South and South-West Asia
Afghanistan 27 58 65 96 34 53 68 105
Bangladesh 26 29 29 34 45 70 47 46 52 59 79 117
Bhutan 26 38 59 59 58 78 91
India 21 39 41 62 75 70 56 60 66 87 101 109
Iran (Islamic Rep. of) 1 2 2 2 3 3 8 5 7 9 9 10
Maldives
Nepal 24 37 34 49 73 82 59 63 66 72 94 113
Pakistan 19 27 35 41 64 77 46 53 52 62 101 84
Sri Lanka 30 27 31 41 55 75 84 66 54 72 88 143
Turkey 47 66 78 112 162 163 78 88 102 144 188 187
North and Central Asia
Armenia 25 31 29 56 77 111 49 55 42 68 96 108
Azerbaijan 22 20 16 18 41 56 46 39 37 41 46 74
Georgia 25 41 67 89 116 46 48 73 86 109
Kazakhstan 24 29 29 38 45 72 30 36 35 52 70 83
Kyrgyzstan 27 33 25 43 54 88 47 44 39 48 64 80
Russian Federation 18 29 25 45 66 86 28 33 35 55 77 89
Tajikistan 13 55 24 59 74 100 26 45 36 67 80 103
Turkmenistan 5 2 1 1 1 20 9 2 2 2 2 22
Uzbekistan 9 9 26 30 54 75 11 14 38 35 85 135
Pacific
American Samoa
Australia 45 57 48 83 94 94 46 57 50 85 93 74
Cook Islands
Fiji 37 73 94 104 50 91 107 115
French Polynesia 119 139 149 158
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia (F.S.)
Nauru
New Caledonia
New Zealand 39 34 33 41 70 85 64 48 55 77 98 109
Niue
Northern Mariana Islands
Palau
Papua New Guinea 28 34 64 90 41 53 94 94
Samoa 82 81
Solomon Islands
Tonga 109 103
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Asia and the Pacific
LLDC
LDC
ASEAN
ECO
SAARC
Central Asia
Pacific island developing econ.
Low income countries
Lower middle income countries
Upper middle income countries
High income countries
Africa
Europe
Latin America and Carib.
North America
Other countries/areas
World

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 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2011 • II – ENVIRONMENT

Air pollution and climate change

Environment
Air pollution and climate change
Fuel prices, subsidies and taxes, selected Asian and Pacific countries and areas, 2004 and 2008

2004 Fuel prices, subsidies and taxes 2008 Fuel prices, subsidies and taxes
10 Iran (Islamic Rep. of) 3
2 Turkmenistan 1
22 Turkmenistan 20
9 Iran (Islamic Rep. of) 2
38 Brunei Darussaram 21
12 Myanmar 10
91 Bhutan
27 Indonesia 18
50 Indonesia 42
32 Brunei Darussaram 19
43 Myanmar 52
41 Azerbaijan 18
53 Malaysia 53
37 Malaysia 22
74 Azerbaijan 56
35 Uzbekistan 30
87 Thailand 64
48 Viet Nam 32
83 Kazakhstan 72
52 Philippines 34
80 Viet Nam 77
52 Kazakhstan 38
84 Pakistan 77
54 Thailand 37
92 Lao PDR 76
48 Kyrgyzstan 43
80 Kyrgyzstan 88
48 China 43
74 Australia 94
59 Bangladesh 34
76 DPR Korea 95
55 Russian Federation 45
91 Philippines 81
54 Lao PDR 48
89 Russian Federation 86
62 Pakistan 41
109 India 70
53 Afghanistan 58
94 Cambodia 89
72 Sri Lanka 41
94 Papua New Guinea 90
77 New Zealand 41
117 Bangladesh 70
72 Nepal 49
109 New Zealand 85
68 Armenia 56
113 Nepal 82
67 Tajikistan 59
107 Singapore 90
61 Mongolia 67
99 China 101
65 Timor-Leste 65 105 Afghanistan 96
78 Bhutan 59 103 Tajikistan 100
78 DPR Korea 61 135 Uzbekistan 75
79 Cambodia 61 143 Sri Lanka 75
73 Georgia 67 115 Fiji 104
89 Singapore 55 108 Armenia 111
87 India 62 109 Georgia 116
94 Papua New Guinea 64 122 Timor-Leste 135
91 Fiji 73 142 Japan 130
85 Australia 83 138 Mongolia 142
126 Japan 95 151 Republic of Korea 140
135 Republic of Korea 95 158 French Polynesia 139
154 Hong Kong, China 100 195 Hong Kong, China 116
144 Turkey 112 187 Turkey 163

US cents per litre US cents per litre

Gasoline Diesel Gasoline Diesel

Category 1 Very High Fuel Subsidies Category 2 Fuel subsidies Category 1 Very high fuel subsidies Category 2 Fuel subsidies
Category 3 Fuel taxes Category 4 Very High Fuel Taxation Category 3 Fuel taxes Category 4 Very high fuel taxation

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Air pollution and climate change

Fuel Taxation Category 1: Very High Fuel Subsidies
The retail price of fuel (average of Diesel and Super Gasoline) is below the price for crude oil on world market.

Fuel Taxation Category 2: Fuel Subsidies

The retail price of fuel is above the price for crude oil on world market and below the price level of the United States.
Note: The fuel prices of the United States are average cost-covering retail prices incl. Industry margin, VAT and incl. approx.
US 10 cents for the 2 road funds (federal and state). This fuel price may be considered as the international minimum
benchmark for a non-subsidised road transport policy.

Fuel Taxation Category 3: Fuel Taxation

The retail price of fuel is above the price level of the United States and below the price level of Spain.
Note: In November 2008, fuel prices in Spain were the lowest in EU-15. Prices in EU countries are subject to VAT, fuel taxes
as well as other country-specific duties and taxes.

Fuel Taxation Category 4: Very High Fuel Taxation

The retail price of fuel is above the price level of Spain.

84