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PROLEGOMENA TO THE STUDY OF EGYPT'S ECONOMIC HISTORY DURING THE NEW KINGDOM*
by
Jac.
J.
Janssen
is at
an
version enlarged the conference preventing Although never was in. and
of on
intended Cairo of of in
be
dis was
Problems my to
revised, meant
CONTENTS
I II Preliminary The Basic Remarks Elements 128 a 132
Geography
b Demography c Mentality
III Production a c d IV a Agriculture
135 137
139
b Mining
Crafts Transport Food 164
153
158 and Trade 161
Consumption
b Rations
V Special Subjects a b c d VI The Structure of the Slavery Taxes Money State
166
171 173 and and Prices Temple 183 177 180
Egyptian
Economy
to
express as
English
to his
Prof. valuable
Dieter
Mueller, suggestions
for
128
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
I PRELIMINARY
REMARKS
Economic
the past
history
is as
of
yet
ancient
virtually
Egypt in based of as
understood
What has
as
been
knowledge
presented
of
non-existent.
this and
or
similar theories,
title
the on
consists or
of actually
va
little proper.
with
instead such
economy the
economic the
histo
would the
problems factors,
costs
policy,
cycles,
interregional
division trade,
There
is
indeed the
on nature
the of
subject their
the ancient although never have intention being the concentrated latter about: specific written as weil, type eco point do if
about
economic
matters, and
religion, written documents questions. and this view, information the order right to
particular
nomic of
been
by archaeological provided are put to it. for the have Since more
since
material
present been
of to the more
a
Egypt
periods1,
knowledge extensive
material
economy
that
more
of
pharaonic
specific
extensive attempted with similar general the Greeks fairly different the
1
for to
of pharaonic period facts explain occurring facts from anothei age. It may be, in will the for after field
one
than texts
for
another,
have
practice that
economy
small,
hardly
in be,
system.2
Dorothy J.
suggestion
An
Period, of Lack
Cambridge comparable
Kerkeosiris: Crawford, in which the material so far has prevented changed The between Wilbour the Papyrus
That
XXth II,
Ptolemaic
Gardiner,
Dynasty 167.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
129
it the
has
to
be
proved, agriculture
as
and
that in
as
is itself,
only
pharaonic
written
by help
of
sources,
well
archaeological.
The
only the
sound of one
method period is It
in of
my opinion pharaonic
is
to
start
with
a the
material
preferably to easy
study one
of from that
the
is,
evidence
hand,
Additional though
into
used
agricultural MK text has question reliable The present is economy the studied, near like to and the
same studied.
in
a special type indicating in the function occurring to the NK documents is open shorter the period, the more
the
conclusions. attempts which available; what the Before results paper to show what of been; the material the subject what more subject, a general that in that the the for the study of NK
and
aspects have
have could
future. draw
attention
however, character.
not is the
to
be one
Marxist of the it
convinced forces
the
economic
structure of of his
be
the
economy
Egypt11
problem1*, explain
been
and historical
history one
on
underrated. scholars
he is adduces apparent,
been evidence
several events.
economic
however,
3 I
that
certainly is of
the
do
basic
not suggest
knowledge
that
is
research As noms for des the has in Der this Weg 1962.
too
into an
small
the
for
economic I may funeraires
that.
features point
In describing
of the l'ancien study whether the main economy, periods. in the Old
valueless. altogether Mme Jaquet-Gordon, Les BdE during of 34, Le the Caire NK
example domaines
out sous
important
egyptien, donations
and
a comprehensive However, only Late could demonstrate Period a constant been element in between exist respect des Pharaonenreiches, the
particularly
Period.
130
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
thfe rise
decline of the
of
the
he
refers, of
other
causes, As will
to be the
the
middle available
period.5 shows
that
prices the
restricted has
been
previously Wilson
did any been
been
but
periods
nor never
not
mention
scholar. from what
any
So far sources
economic
as I the am
causes
aware,
of
for
poli
in
liberator
phara
of war
the
XVIIth
Dynasty the
derived
the
economic
which, and
to
"pay" the
for fleet
drove the
In which
We may in such ship pay with What North, South from of be tory 2 The my
onic
were rewarded they forth but this calls density etc. Other of his of the
fields, series
Madjoi?7 mercenaries
the
Upper raised:
questions the owner Egypt, how did Ahmose new the weapon horses?
services
highly
chariotry, he provide
has certain.
products Mediterranean
the are
All
an the
which Hyksos period, even without the still in order to show for
mentioned of the
Egyptian
economy
valley is we
our
second
conviction
economy
quite to have
more
a different be extremely
knowledge
nature. careful
of
Above in
I have
stated phara
times.
explaining
extensive
Graeco-Roman
Study teach to of
5 6 7
of us
the how to
latter
may
well
serve
as
of Nile actual
and
can
do was various
The See
I wanted facts
periods.
274 of in: the f. Pan-Grave (= the ff. and Hofmann, III, cf. zur ff. Aus der
of Burden Egypt, ch. V c. below, the For immigration in grabungen Sayala, Pfannengraber-Leute,
Graz
Bietak, Herkunft
Supplementa
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kindgdom
131
is,
of to
seldom picture
is of
used. the
obvious
category
societies".8
anthropologists
systems of
example states
in before
ancient the
China economic
or
or
in
the
Afri developed higher influences, by Western features distinguishing are equally they which recently zone. to It seems to discover how
their
the
African
that
societies
offers
means
which do not exist in the Western world. problems me that seems to would from egyptologists gain studying or whatever name may be used better peoples "primitive" of aspects historical economies, unsuspected On the other modern cultural of the anthropology.9 Egyptian connections but I do between think in as it that the may be Doubtless civilisation. ancient their possible seem to proves obnoxious the this I do holds not
the the
market-directed may
tends Western
difference
no actual occurs also where type of Raymond Fishermen. Firth, Malay use of the the for the defense of Prestige-Wirtschaft between primitive Primitive 1956; City, Garden im alten and
is
shown London
by 1946.
9 10
Cf>
Munchen
1969,
6 ff.
For Forde by ed. relation modern &n: in: economy Man, Tribal In Douglas, Mary L. Shapiro, Dalton, 23 f. Economies reprinted New York Culture and the example, Daryll and ed. Society, Peasant Economies, edition
Harry by
Oxford
George
1967).
latter
particularly
132
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
II
THE BASIC
ELEMENTS
Geography is no reason climate the to the role historian of usual of about for is the the influence
There of the
repeat or the
sation.11 physical 1
economic
actual
human
the of
soil
and
the
average
production
3 4
the the
exact function
5 These the
system,
of
and
its
agriculture,
of transport
questions which in
and
fundamental turn
constitutes
of taxation
nutrition,
The
most
of he
recent discusses, in in
years
in among
this other
respect subjects,
is
an
various each of
infertile
vegetables, the data for his study Although A.D. 1937 and since 1938, years
11
for
ancient
are
A of
fact as its
forgotten are of
that
such locust
less
free
eruptions, or too high population changes within and 75, ff.) in the
but the
lasting are
important
BSFE
13
hand, Buto An
pharaonic
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
133
impossible broadest
in terms
to terms,
of
establish", (....)
population,
Wilson the
argues of
that
"nevertheless, sections
seems to have
in of
the Egypt
comparison
and
different
area,
productivity
relative
for
of
the
fundamental to perannual
in
the -, in results
and,
evidence
probably,
cannot
system in
very
agricultural
well convince
the
economic
from
further
proof
of that as
their
improbable evidence,
has
that
the
ancient at place
researches to the
together
least
region
development between
times
el-Minya.
particular cooperation of
demonstrates
and
may
expected
geographer
archaeologist.17
The
its
ancient
Egypt
above is
has still
never
been
Admittedly,
scanty,
but
a combined
and philo by archaeologists, geographers approach our knowledge to is restricted At present results. of Dimitri the thesis Meeks19 I may mention Here with
that Universitas the und agricultural der
though
is to be
dealing
expected (see which vor-
the
the
landed
Tubinger 13,
properties
Atlas of the
of
Ancient
the
Edfu
Near East us
temple
at a III. Zeit, heutigen and ed. Geology by present reli Die
15
255 will ff.) 1973, area the Nile along Landschaftswandel Vorgeschichte the chapter und "Die Butzer, Essays in
with
indicated. Sahara
16
17
See 69. 1959, particularly das Alluvium" ff.). (23 Siedlungsraumes: See 66 ff. also In: 46 ff. and MDAIK 17, 1961, to Yesterday. New Roads in Ancient in: Egypt, 210 ff. London 1966, Caldwell, Joseph can the One Austrian also the researches of cite into the of geography of Orientalists the Delta, at Paris, about July Studies from based which 1973. in
ed-Dabca at the
18
Congress in Forbes, The section pertinent on antiquated based is poor, 22-30, evidence with Graeco-Roman Egypt in: which article LdX is I, in col. rahter GM texte 775 old ll, des ff. is (1913) seems 1974 donations
Ancient and
study
hardly quite
19
Le
grand
temple
BdE
59,
1972.
134
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
during
the
Ptolemaic offers in at
Period, least
in some
its
and the
the
terminology a point of is as
little
their settlements three may
yet
the
function.20
towns
and
villages
of
are
ancient
the work which
plan, at represent
el-'Amarna rare
no
peasant
The
degree, deserted. in
not
city uncommon
of
is
We further Abydos21
normal
some
Ahmose
were
and
Egyptian
temple-town
towns.
About and
living Ramsestown of
the
nothing
strative
as of the such quarters capitals our knowledge is insufficient, and as the nome capitals smaller cities such
We may assume that Memphis with
other
centres.
harbour
had
of
and valuable
has
el-'Amarna
in
A of
subject settlement
centres.
in
pattern and
throughout
An interesting
country,
contribution
spread
this
villages
actually
local
question,
its
20 21 22
first
discussion,
is
given
by
O'Connor
in
the
samme
collection
of
Cf. Cf.
Posener, Badawi, 68 J.
inaugurale, Lejon 56 f. op.cit., ff. and and 73 ff., Ruth Ucko, Tringham same lake 666. work, of Karnak; A cf. traces is known
1961,
14 f.,
and
Badawi,
Architecture and
55 ed. See of
ff.
in: Settlement Man, Uphill and G.W. London Dimbleby, of similar settlement is type Lauffray, the of about 174 note some 1971, the f. 12), talatat 566 f. 657 ff. extracted in: living CRAIBL quarters of 1971, of
23 2t* 25 26
For
archaeological
cf.
in:
For
Or 42,
a summary
1973, 408.
of in: what MDAIK and dockyard Prw-nfr 16, Urbanism scene in: 1968, (see from
reconstructed Lauffray,
from
the
IXth
Pylon
CRAIBL
1975
Economic
histroy
during
the
New
Kingdom
135
on
settlement papyrus
and he
Wilbour
the
around
a region the of
Hardai", population
goernment of its
collection these
Whether
research.
suggestions
surplus, are
correct
Demograghy a knowledge is essential state dynastic Nubian for of of for the the that of the of of and of its
land,
compo a country.
population this
a the
lot
unsatisfactory. material in
yet scope
been
survey hence
very prehistoric periods of our knowledge would be I will out only point
studies of
investigations. 1972, who 161 ff.) there from has the appeared study in for a of the
Journal
human
excavations indications
expanding,
was
period. of view, as
and
to
it"
of
environment
the country
equilibrium
maintained
the glad
27 28
rate
of
its
inhabitants. confirmed
in Ancient of of the the New
Economic by
Egypt, Ancient
historians It
ff. ed. articles but results note of by the an D.R. in
would is to
be be
conclusions
Settlement
more
material.
681
Geography
Broth
according to of use
(op.cit.,
demographers.
136
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
excavations of study.
at
Tell
ed-Dab'a
will
yield
valuable
evi
one
more
than
south
part
especially
country
significant,
rich
probably
in
agriculture,
more or less
otherwise
representative.
David
O'Connor
has
recently
to number drawn
its of up
and pharaonic predynastic well in this reasonably not presenting although the regards of burials bers or his main not a relatively of knowledge NK cemetery as general in a dense the (near for
in discovered which,
he
may indicate
assumed
trends.
period must of
be the
historian since
period.
Moreover,
evidence
which
O'Connor is
article
rather
and
the
important; of fault
of
complete
systematic
excavation
the The
Khawalid articles
cemetery mentioned
is are
obvious. quoted For not the yet size in order to indicate the type of of in
recently the
Egypt discussion
published. is time
a reliable
historical is
demography
summarized 4
value
1/231
to
This apparent readily ripe. in the Nile of the population valley between oscillate estimates likely Clearly this is too vague to be of
a different to demographic out quite approach point in ancient is no community for which there Egypt Undoubtedly as for as abundant workmen of Deir are that of the necropolis I want to Various scholars in their publications of stelae and other
29
A Regional
in
30 31
Egypt ed.
to by
circa Brian
600
B.C.,
in:
Population Mass,
Spooner,
Cambridge,
by of
l,
1962,
43
f.
This
is
not
the
place
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
137
material men,33
from and
the
site32 in his
have
reconstructed
Cern^ of the
study3** to me possible,
of
the
increased
community, of
typical,
with age
even
mortality the
the
distribution
was not
sex,
etc.
exceptional,
Although
study
would
provide
us
with
a point
of
departure
for
further
research.
Mentality be here nature time. to and I need the Egyptian and the that ancient etc., to mention of
It of
may life
those to
Egyptian conceptions differed fundamentally some key-words well Maat, called by Morenz and multi thought and the general Buck); of Geschichte these civili terms
egyptologist: element of
innermost
approaches individuality
attempts
sation.
(Hornung); to indicate
Each
pharaonic
If from
the it
matters
conceptions becomes
was
of highly
the same
life unlikely
as
and
world that
of
so the
fundamentally Egyptian
times.
differed attitude in
easy to
economic
that
modern
It
is
point
such of that
an the the
the
actual
another emphasis
on
the
community
influenced has to
Apart London Torino See Torino A Cf. also 7,
been mention
from 1970 1972. the
of
the
generally
reports Roccati, di at 71, pittori
theory.
Bruyere e altre
problem, In the
so
that
I am I can
Part 9,
following
and
di
BM Stelae, Deir
33 34 35
Tosi, Torino of
Tebe,
Quaderno Period,
Museo BdE
Egizio 50, Le
Community Sauneron,
workmen in:
Thebes 1972,
Ramesside
205.
138
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
only between It is
to
my opinion, seem to be
possible reflected
known
fact
documents
They figures. carelessness attitude. the stated and one from the Giornale to of have 275 the As
example necropoli
to be explained by simply a typical and seem to reflect to an I may refer of so many vs. A, of were deben 9) ,36 fish, 400 were where one deben* supposed of no deben eighteen fourteen main exact measure, reason a fisher of and to 120 it
en
della
dues + 275
obvious
be
5 deben
deliver
In line 65739.37 pCairo in lines of silver, but 1 kite while be in equal lines to 9 and 1 1/2 to terms of of kite.
copper
impossibility in means
silver
making
Egyptians
appear
of
bothered
reason
for
this This
is
to as
be
in
the it,40
of
the
with to the
the
prices of the
and
features discussed
common that it
making in several
pi. 29.
37
38 39
BottirPeet,
Gardiner,
More
in:
JEA 21,
in
1935,
examples so that
the my Commodity e.g. Prices, frequent 1 3/4 the of corn sack of the is price The Wilbour 64: "The Papyrus II, Egyptians or to if we prefer turn the compliment abstract thinking.11 540 ff. rather force may 'Prestige-Wirtschaft
small of 2
realists they
of
* **1
have
been im
his
Morenz , SBAW
attempts 1969/4,
to Munchen
1969.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
139
Of
course
human by not
and
enjoyed matter
the
attempting robberies industry supply were largely or a coffin, this of the vide very duction
only a
activities, as
possession as the profit of Prices, e.g. higher mostly to the to the of to the
of tomb
riches, in of
commerce,
demand, is
a particular
object,
than the
was the
seldom to
coffin,
manufacturer
ability
moment, since
very
There main
value.
component,
labour
words:
possessed
I do
not
suggest but it
that
seems
That more
which
was entirely making profit to me highly unlikely was rather redistribution.**3 refer
can
to the in
the
ancient
was is
this
pivot connec by
are other
I once
to
the
study
our
of
the
societies
there
ethno-economists,
stimulate
awareness
types
of
mentality
in
economic
matters
than
that
of
the
modern
world.****
III
PRODUCTION
Agriculture of the but the most agree (to find be the New has to
Any
during
purpose we should
of Late
figures)
revealed a fairly
However,
possession
comprehensive
despite the
Ramesside
V c. VI. of the vol. Egyptian II, mentality, Commentary, one by 1953, 201. Edgerton, 118 ff. cf. below Two ch. V b and e. of 299 this ff. reviews 70, 1950,
by
140
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
and later to the studies devoted text46 commentary splendid is as yet far the purpose from clear and many details remain quite obscure. Here we cannot some of the outstanding do more than repeat as well as of others, of Gardiner out and point the conclusions, editor's major With lumns problems. its of enormous text A, (over length 25 of text B) texts surveyors the Faiytim in and we in to four 10 m) the Text and its over 5200 lines (102 the of the from km. co lon
Wilbour
know.
place II months
took
areas adjacent that is over Tihna, 4 of Ramesses year V, III 3ht, that is, from
Egypt, 140 of
late
encounter
one
of
the
major
problems,
since
the
season
seems
to
be
unsuitable
for
as the
it
fell
into by
the
time
of
the
Gardiner ment
earlier
attempted itself
problem this
suggesting though
only
that it
period,
that
was
under
on
measurements.
suggested50
areas
crop the is
of
If
this in
correct,
it
would entries
also of
means
(i.e.
that
normal)
explain normal
why domains
Gardiner's
be quite
translation
correct.52
connected recorded a
are:
with in
another text A of
by
to
be
only
small
portion
Fairman, arouras of
Reiches, terres des 1970. Prices I.V. also **7 48 The Hence Doubted
important vols I et du
and
III,
Important of Land Vinogradov's his articles was survey the by date Baer
Materialien Helck, Wiesbaden 1961, a la attache are also to be in: Egypt', an "autoreferat" 107 into 4 and 110,
Wirtschaftsgeschichte Bernadette Menu, dans le Papyrus in Klaus has Baer's 25 ff. 1962, which
in
1,
juridique regime Lille Wilbour, 'The Low article seen I have not in one the date 1970. See lost.
Le
being falls
before
after able **9 50 51 52 The for word
the
its a
inundation
culmination. in in note loc.cit.
Graefe
Whatever view of the
(in:
CdE 48/95,
correct
1973,
44 ff.)
in the For
argues
that
seems the
it
falls
, however
headings 45).
yearly of the
four
meaning,
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
141
by land were
the a
The
explanation
is
that
text
A, thought53
with
owned
(pBerlin only
scription In this
pValenjay. word "cultivated it bears a more 3ht a cul does its iht so
attention translates
frequently land"54
well the
iht
Donation
expression simply as
times, implies
meaning,
the
solution in
to text
the
recorded first
suggestion
whether
why
only
sought crops
more
correct
alternatively
or
to
be
that, on by the no
for
study.
Obviously
we
have
to
keep
in largely the
being since
do more the
the
temple
same.58
as and their administration properties so that is extremely I cannot papyrus complicated, I will to the main lines. restrict my remarks the for institutions system lay virtually being
53 st* 55
P. P. ly
note 45). (cf. In an unpublished someone". Aniba text, Wilbour suggestion of into II, dating papyrus.
See
also article
Baer, he
loc.cit. once paraphrased not of 240) me accurate quite Ramesses VI, that quite Dynasty may Gardiner's is presented it is
it
as
"land
leased cf.
direct LD
a For 101. pi. from the reign II, seems the such to XVIIIth
is an
III,
36
although IV,
explanation based on
organisation, unimportant
modifications
Helck,
II,
142
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
In to of
with
two
types There
of
several or the
each being ples, the high officials of several charge The troller and has direct
under of
the
official
may institutions.
domains, times
belonging
normal of plots
to is delegated domain separate scribe. When the is a minor temple no controller domain is needed. which sometimes one seem area. to be In in in rather this the far respect
a con one
A domain and
apart the
certainly
not be
constitute
joined that of a curtis identified these though of the record. the the controllers, other type
are
"cultivators"
European text by the seem to persons the Menu being of has "cultiva the ar
consequence acted
Mile
paragraphs
indicates characteristic
the
field-labourer.61 normal its domain personnel, plots. figures, (in arouras), of both. (16 nhb is that as The the it was directly the
by in the
the
appears
from
separate red
of the description in of which first second are a rate three and that in of the 10 the text soil,63 rates (25 rates B,62 of
plot product 7
the There
third
the
assessment:
1/2 and
instances).
Gardiner
doubtless tnl
him
different
qualities
the note for translation 56) p. 26, prefers rmnyt, "departement" an administrative foremost and for since is first "domaine" pr, rmnyt not that does I follow the main If in Gardiner's any imply renderings, for the sake of it is Menu's clarity. only argumentation; concerning too to keep; seems term awkward domain" Gardiner's "non-apportioning called particularly ff. is here used cf. LdX I, them after 77. as as a an term, term whereas it occurs in text Helck "normal domains".
139 that
agronomical in:
topographical
Vinogradov, f. 779
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
143
though higher The which him yield argued 10 khar will The
he than
was
unable k3yt,
to "normal
why
"tired
land",
was
valued
second
and
of to mean
khar,e* the
figures and
in to
a measure
that per
this
temples cannot
have been
total it
argue second
called in
main the
devoted
rmnyt begin
stress is the the entries paragraphs their each holders, plots entry beginning an indication of his by preceded occupation. one of entries, three' I) in which (or, (Type and
of
these
one in black two in occur, four) (or two) Type figures ink, one always last the the first black 1 2/4. Moreover, red, figure, being or in Type I A the second is in the majority of the instances one, 3 or 5,68 either area indicates the in arouras. which
6* Edgerton is certainly the justified and without corn-measure is in in one the questioning single whether mistake the both that entries would 134) note a scribe basket would sign in be one khar in would It The to able type
tousesoiconsistently of and entry (JAOS dicates disappear, is, 65 66 subject So also 40 In as khar. these 70,
If he 303). 1950, the correspondence oip&, some while the of that further op.cit., the the the of the 30.
other, though in right suggesting between Posh the drawn (p.80, vso 5-8, to or these that the below
the indicating corn-measure the (see be is are below) incorrect. correct. said
conclusions argument
Menu's
yield
appears occur There 67 From the called no word of 68 211 Proved f.).
assigned
in
"herbage" ph occurs by
and in
goats"
Pharaoh"
here belong Menu (107 ff.) In the sub-variety according recorded to after one I A is
headings. as well. after I A Menu, this the as they a that sign, same 5 J consist the
of types paragraphs same to the type, although called "Landing-Place of Gardiner (Additions, , which by J the number of the first of the
in the Even
belong of of local
to
and also
type which
measure
noted
(Menu, 3 or
majority fields
situation
small
portions,
144
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
These or a
are
of the
the
landed
institution
pharaoh officers,
of
a temple
special,
performing soldiers herds are mention women children in to figure), the but
soldiers(w tenures appear which they of of their The the may are
charioteers, hereditary "widow"; some alienable69 holders per its pay aroura area to being
former
at
least
theory, temple only first this The black one was of not
property. 1 2/4
a remuneration (the
fields,
portion
liable
personal II) by is
(Type
separated abbreviated
a dot,
Moreover, cubits no
of 6 to
explaining the plots 200), occur it temples. owners Most other I. the
followed IIA) by (Type reason the land for what of Type that of fields, are II are small being possessors small and priests, than the the kind domains for plots there is scribes holders of people Mile their and 1/100
square
red
figures to the
proof
they
that is, they belonged Ihwtyw, 3 and 5 aroura fields of the controlled has the management that they ,to me into than for two the fiscal
Since
normal in
services, in type
fields yet
payment
that
usually suggested
doubt. 69 70
being that
Why the area proved. a dot), the first parts (separated by is obscure; and Menu75 Gardiner74 second, to but that remains open purposes, this
76;
71
For
a r*ate to use 1 2/4 of khar throughout preferred see the decreased Posh B entries; hence the and in (even below), one same as when was on which the the the result remuneration being paid, a lower on 1 2/4 amount aroura than field. khar entire the to per pay are 3 ar. the second the of 1/2 1/4 (15! (123), instances), plots figures
ff.
1 (36),
(1), 72 73 75 while Gardiner, So Helck, explanation P. 138. P. Pp. 98. 102
or 2 (1);
numbers and 91, Materialien of type
for
Menu, IA
those
105.
of 5 or.:
than 1 are
1/4
rare
(181),
and occur
1/2
(315),
only with
1 (167),
large
or
plots;
1 1/2
cf.
higher
Menu, less
123, likely
without than
Helck's
and
138.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New Kingdom
145
aside I will
most
of
the
minor one
though rather
by
no
means
unimportant
normal
essential of amount
several
entries
by in khar,
that
a certain to"
1/2
receiving
or secular temple (ps* n) another A. The amount of Gardiner by posh that the last red fi % of the net revenues, is, to devoted line. the In paragraph apportioning there the same appears amount a corresponding of grain. Here entry the last (Posh B),
figure as throughout two figures, in these there paragraphs; precede - the one area the total the first of the plot (in black) indicating same figure as appears in the normal in the domain entry paragraph its The product and of this the second (in red) quarter quarter. being mc. means to the amount 1 2/4 1 2/4 is equal of Posh A, at least when recording is 1 2/4, 1 2/4 The paid (Posh khar. explanation 7 1/2 % of B), of the the net in % is Posh-entries revenues return recorded dealt under
amount
what
may of the in
be
that to of its
one another
temple
(Posh
A)
for
apportioning there, of
deduced
institution
domain
paragraph
since the
the
was
heading
to be
the
paying
from its
institution
revenues.
necessary
If
this
is the
correct, temples
it
appears and
that
the -
papyrus the
records
taxes!
institutions
about the
text
A.
Text
B deals
(also?) of
with
land The
of fields
one
as
type,
charge
of
run
cultivated responsibility
the production.77
one
particular officials
In accordance
year; on behalf
with
explanation
the
76 77
total
area
ff.
of
khato-lands
thinks
seems
that 123 f. these
to
have
fields
changed
were leased
continuously.
by one institution
Gardiner
1951,
146
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
of plots, red
text
by black indicating accompanied figures in some instances entries (the only preceded are added assessment. numbers actual indicating but
hard to explain.78
B are
the by
size a
The numbers
themselves
are
have for
to
face
the purpose
main
what or
the
papyrus, recorded.
the
revenues?
too
taxes and for high Mile Menu may have found represent that is,
animals
they normal of
they
the the
used
net
revenues and
ploughing,
the the
seed-corn
for
and
the
The
also revenues the of the may record apportioning paragraphs stitutions. that rent Gardiner indicate the they thought79 paid to the owners the holders in theory, remained the which, temples the legal fields, status and of Menu, the of though holders, revenues In since means record that which temple this they that taxes, the not is of agreeing with the she entries Gardiner same as regards of generally the temples, the no contain the plots are
in by of the However,
opinion.80
connection
calls them throughout II and of Type at all. Gardiner but if the at all?
to think with
why reason
contradicts revenues.
indeed was
from
from
I cannot in his
find the
recorded to
papyrus
the Helck, is
Ramessid on
view.85
Cf. Pp. Pp. Gardiner, 207-8. 129-132.
In my opinion
183 ff. and
problem
120 ff.
still
open,
much
102
and
122.
and
207-8.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
147
that
the
Wilbour The
no here
lands.86 land-owning
relations
proof recorded
for are In
as yet
the the
of
of
temples
between
institutions.
State are
other
unknown.
the
economic
It a
may list
be of
the
Fragments their of
which
also
taxes.87 is recorded of
khar
which
("fresh revenues,
would
then
text
is
damaged these
the are
Wilbour known,
several indeed
more to
too
many
discuss
agricultural Some of
them
briefly
here.88 Ramesses pages VII have been preserved. The recto records
transport in the
on domains from various of grain threshing-floors nomes and Xlth fleet of the Upper Egyptian by the temple. to the Karnak of Amun and its brought temple dependencies. may have been administrative "apportioning while centres, domains" others since probably they were
were
normal
after
The place
Amun.
verso in
records order to
the collect
movements small
of
two
(?)
quantities
to of
86
same
by
Baer depends
(p.
though
he
calls
the
revenues
For "rent"
status of the cultiva legal correct be the it may if amounts of in mentioned grain half the yield of the
about
87 88
So, Most of
by and Baer,
Gardiner
Ramesside
Administrative
Documents
(London,
important
in his
discussed in:
article
Helck, 1,
in JEA 27,
Materialien 31 ff. 1962,
1941,
IV,
19 ff.
541
This
ff. For
group
by JARCE
148
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
Taxation Turin Papyrus = 1895+2006 12 of Ramesses XI yr. (= RAD 35-44) pTurin of the collection Record of large of grain scribe of quantities by the the necropolis two guards. Dhutimose assisted to the first by According came from khato-lands column the grain It was collected in of pharaoh. 2) some the under ly to towns west the the in south bank of of Thebes in of for 14) the and order mayor all among called terms One from income the (or gets in the to be of capital delivered western probably the itself, partly Thebes, intended. receipt in the of and Thebes to shipped to the granary partly The small which is direct verso
and
which
was
(dated quantities
records
others by
delivered
people technical
serious went
temples taxes?)
papyrus. n Pr-C3, n p3 h it sk3) (imw, the general that impression to the necro and cultivators of the yrs. State. 54-55 II The each of from Ramesses II
foreingers Sherden
( 33w),
Wilbour
although
pBrit.Mus. of grain
Record the by
delivered
Ramesses nome).
deliver 4) Gurob
(ihwtyw) khar. 89 L, to
it
domain,
grain of them
Fragments L is dated
AA and the
is
Fragment
From their
years
apparent
II
and
pertain
1 of
Merenptah.
to the ad
provenance
that
of
the
harem
at
Miwer their It
its
occurrence
fragment
but is
since obscure.
the
m ms,
exact
abbreviated
however,
uncertain.90
Fragments
papyrus, 89
AA and
to normal
M deal
domains
with
of
Smw,
small
which
may
refer,
as
in
institutions.
The
quantity the
proves revenues
that of 200
be
an
domain, Hier.
200 Ostraca
khar
probab 82, 2
quantity,
and pBologna
as
1086,
excessive. fixed relatively
25, while
in pTurin A,
2,
of of
3 (- LEM 122,9)
offers tljwtyw could
300 khar
for be by
are
this
amount,
frequent 206,
occurrence suggests
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
149
Remains
(= RAD 68-71) Fragments a register in or near of fields the Xth U.E. nome, belonging to the domains of some smaller in Thebes, (rmnywt) temples dependencies seems to be a rough of the Amun temple. The document and is much copy91 like the pWilbour. the I <md III) However, (cols. larger paragraphs 5) Griffith of end with summaries The 16). recording is said to may which grain, be delivered been Gardiner, may to have the been granary domains. RdE to the 6, of 1951, the his 116 Assessor House of the ff.) taxes of (see Amun (I,
above). 7 and
have
apportioning in:
cf. 6) pValengay (= RAD 72-73; Letter of a mayor of Elephantine, khato( 3-n-it),02 concerning Adoratress The of states Amun, that which are are
Chief
land under of
be
responsibility.
mayor persons they actually private has been to the Treasury. Here (3>iwt n nmfryw) for which "money" paid we may catch a glimpse of a type of fields not in any official occurring and about document mentioned the of which above, importance nothing
is known.
fields
The field 40 7)
also has,
states
that
he only
has
ordered been
the
cultivation
of 4 arouras
another yielded
partly
inundated.
which Leather
delivered
completely.
(= RAD 60-63) as recording in the papyrus. the case assessment of the of mostly small domains
apportioning
cultivator,
The grain,
evidently
called
published a rwdw
imw, may
so since
thus
far the
have
records quantities
come
the
grain are
a normal
of 1421
from
It
was
due
to
the Part
granary of it (2,6), is
of
Memphis, to stated
so have
that been is
it
have
been
secular
of seed-corn
the
army" (3,8).
another
quantity
to
headings, down first, that suggest papyrus of rendering existence columns are
the
written entries, document the be a fair may "Chief more published fragments, by the
in
clear in
uncial cursive
hand
and hand,
mentioning being notes correct. 32, pi. note 18; 53. cf. filled of
the the
92 93 94
Taxing-master" Spiegelberg,
loc.cit., Rechnungen,
Gardiner,
in:
JEA 27,
1941,
56 ff.
150
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
Several
more
for of the
the
be
NK above special
namely
over
here.
now, has
I shall
been
only
inadequately
the
texts.
here is studied the most period important donation of Penne from Aniba,96 five different mentioning are described, their boundaries several fields adjoining providing us with study agriculture, I would of the size the present convinced documents may certainly they the a wealth of the of technical texts the single terms. will It further dates special data on from is donation
For
the
a comprehensive the about knowledge later the subject more than study of the the by the
NK.97
comparison
provided for
source
to
be
mentioned. to from if not of early be studied a slightly for only much "abnormal recently stela one of is
I am strongly which
discussion a situation
group the
discussion interested
tasks
of
those
Egyptian
economy.
those documents dis
Of
course
are of
more room
aspects as well
to as
the the
NK
agriculture of written
than
cussed,
absence
are
the
reasons
they
can
only
briefly
be
touched
upon.
95 96
pHarris Miscellanies,
I,
the etc.
Nauri Gardiner on it
Decree,
pBologna
1086,
various
passages
from
97 98 99
231 f. and 295 II, ff.; Menu, to Kitchen BIFAO (in: 73, 1973, According on the stelae. donation et Textes de In: langages l'Egypte pharaonique. Also de called cf. "stele Legrain, l'apanage"; and in: Z&S 35, 19-23. Erman, 1897; Materialien
II in pWilbour and (111 f.) Cf.-also Helck, published. 118 ff. RdE 22, in: 1970, a study 193) Mme Jacquet prepares Hommage in: ZXS a 35, Champollion 1897, 13-16, I, 1972, 32.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
151
Apart may
it,
from have
however,
grain flax,
is
the
most for
important textiles.100
product
of Evidence
the
fields about
been
extremely
scanty.101
Vegetables number as
nomic
an known. but
part have
of
the
daily grown
food, in
are
been with
on
the
quantitative
extremely rare.
data
respect
and
significance
Dates any
texts.
too other
part which
that
in there
the
perhaps mentioned
in
more in
than the
in
Megally
date-palms
gardens,
the times, of in be
inner so
courts that
of their
the
houses
and and
on
the
river was
banks,
as
commerce
at
present
pLouvre
E 3226. Still economic of wine another subject restricted vineyards? the Delta a the is of the its to viticulture, products. the the the temple oases? study, aspects organisation To what extent has and the well-to-do? indeed, It seems to me with of as its and the the
Was and
viticulture
that not
require to also
special economic
attention the
viticulture.105
ioo
of
wool the
for have
of
may n3
be
garments to in 9:
Ahmose-Nofretari Materialien Helck, Letters Hekanakhte do not below, sur second study quite IV le agree a. papyrus of
n Hnw). ifd 810 f. The of is cultivation flax V, and is shown tomb in reliefs frequently with Helck's in Materialien suggestion E 3226 thesis du Louvre is still Paris II, unpublished. in of the somewhat Fernande Paris the 1969, Ancient technical 396
part
the
105
of Lutz, and Viticulture Brewing at is 1922, present antiquated. be the to mention a study place in general also which, though only comprehensive dans survey, l'ancienne namely
Orient, aspects is of
"L1agriculture
fcgypte",
152
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
Although ding of economic origins technical to has its the been own
Egypt cattle,
was
first and
and
foremost and
sheep
goats,
the without
bree
much attention Recently significance. the while tomb of domestication,106 All of breeding.107 this, aspects economic presented rights. fields
These
the many up
add
function by Wilbour
of Helck108
Material never
subject in
The
instance, cattle
and
information white
was not
concerning
"goats".109
intended
fields
temple-herds
to produce
and
if that
seem
meant one
and
for to
the
sustenance that
kept in
of cattle
stables.
the
has
hence
conclude
mainly
with
Another is
is the to in
that main
of
the
of
indicated
the were
Delta
be
asked
Middle and is of
Upper may
certainly large
goats
been
kept
problem
relative
pigs,113 of the
solution
cavators
animals. 106 Cf. Plants H.G. little Africa 107 108 109 See Mile
bones
J.
Ucko
and
G.W. For
London
The ancient
and particularly
Exploitation the
of article is of of thesis of by
value. (2
particularly Hartmann
chapters
Materialien Gardiner, vinced as well, Unless "sacks" possibility of his direction that
(note 105). 473 ff. III, 22 ff. I use inverted nh always the pf means older the
I it
am by will
no
means
con sheep
include
110
111
a completely the and false present picture pWilbour a similar to not to actual but value and oipes their (for products point II to pLouvre E 3226, cf. in relation part by Megally suggested At present I do not 382 know of in this indication f.) p. any thesis, in the Wilbour papyrus. Kees, above, Kulturgeschichte, Ila) suggests which may from from the that be Deir that 18 large correct. ff. O'Connor areas instances of (Man, Middle of Settlement Egypt but were also have and mainly of had cattle, too Urbanism,
112 113
This
numerous
nh, (11,47)
by Herodotus on egyptologists.
impure
may
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
153
The
last
I will
mention to be
is
the studied
apiculture114 in connection
and
its
with
population. this little Egypt. kind we may know be raised, the but the above aspects will of
about
economic
Mining one has been gold varieties Several either a natural of are or the most of among gold ancient them sil d m,
mentioned an
products texts, of
artificial
and
The
aspects
of
and
been
studied the to
be
"gold Egyptian some gold of Kush". and "gold Although as tribute or as booty, the XVIIIth either Asia Dynasty, during came from metal the mining districts. of the precious certainly The technical but obscure. all mines the labour processes the econojnic We would together fluctuations required of the gold,
cf. LdX Leclant, 786 I,
indications
desert
of
and of
known,118 largely of
put
production out the yearly for know, instance, of each district and each mine production way it was is,
de treated words
gold
are
fairly are
well still
the
through enlisted
the and
ages;
the
destination
For a survey, and in: section exhaustive Studies 7,
the
percentages
de a unity. gold Berlin the 139 cf. 1961, ancient ff. for l'abeille
biologie as
indicating
1959,
Lexico 129.
p.
Op.cit., of the
Ancient
224 ff.,
Vercouttter,
organisation
154
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
royal among
treasury, the
the
of
the the
those to
these
evidence study of
implications society
few remarks
has
and
the
undertaken,
I cannot
on
The
annals
of of
III
contain
administrative by Kush
regarding Wawat
the and
amounts four
delivered The
different
years,
of Kush in that average yearly production 15 kilogrammes, that of Wawat c. 248 kilogrammes. appears period the output of the mines in the is virtually Unfortunately, region Coptos are reasons to believe there it was much higher that unknown, although to Urk. to than that of Nubia. Tuthmosis III IV, 630, gave According - in total in the course of Karnak the of his temple probably reign or c. to which over 13840 kg., be added 152107 613 deben should deben, years.120 to be c.
of "gold of cAmu"121 mentioned separately for an unknown reason; to
152720 said to
deben have
or
c.
14000 in the
kg.
Moreover, of
besides
this
enormous
shapes
is and rings, there lumps which to the the king donated least come kg. 15000 from kg.123 Nubia That for in 1784 the alone most if of is while kg. can
the
at not 265 of
is
quantity
that is deben
yearly.
it
Retenu,
55 deben been
have
year or deben of
it
a total
if we god. is Kanais, Since (cf. stated
donation
assume that
15000
was
attained, that
so the
over
gold temple
Mia,
to
be
Abydos; Materialien property to the of the ff. figure of king cAmu" Third
at
NAWG mineral
VI, the
1961, wealth
175 to
to the
the of
total
output
121
is,
Cataract,
see
mining Orts
Wiesbaden occurs
122 123
Urk. A
of
Puyemre
IV,
may
doubted,
the
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
155
Whether
Here we
the
may
figures
compare
are
them
reliable
with
is
another
a point
record
requiring
mentioned
careful
in a
study.
dedication
is
of
in
the
at of
in
which kg.)
2865
25182
etc.
of
the
(=
2292
besides
less
precious
importance
Montu-temple
that
of For
Amun the
it
may
be
that
figures
above
are
roughly
XXth
Dynasty of 1/8 of
donations yearly 569 deben and 6 by may total deben.126 the subjects III of 92,7 All also
said be
quantity of it in to
delivered which
indicate
a decline donated
production
Coptos Karnak
Ramesses
deben,
while
to
received according
2464,6 papyrus
the temples together a value or of 2557,3 deben mentioned gold usual which above one The production. of the production picture shows the unable which to
actually useless. Since
portion the
these kg. Comparing figures a sharp to assume is forced of decline a far Ramesses III kept that assumption in agreement for is not other purposes development of the power for reliable not we
Comparison
of the
the
political
during
the
XXth
although are we
this
production, donated
recorded is quite
quantities
amounts gold
the
temples,
mean. the
the total figures concerning have been far than the higher are also uncertain what the
with seems the to modern have value been of relatively
production
abundant value
On Cerny the
during of gold
other has
the may
NK,
or been
at
least low in
during comparison
the
XVIIIth with
and was
have
silver
that
Dynasty, of other
expensive. 1:2,
the goods.
hand, demonstrated
relatively ratio
scarce, gold:silver
hence usually
during
between*gold the
copper of
was
1:200
during
the to 120
Dynasty
Dynasty. price
el-Medina,
I, pis.
copper127
Karnak
127
and 12 f. See also Urk. 1668. p. IV, und 211. Nubien, Xgypten 953 and 416. The recorded total VI, III, a scribal is as Breasted error, clearly note c). 173. Prices,
in has
pHarris suggested
I,
156
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
state
that during
of
to price that
buy of
an
litres)
was of
60 to
or
Ramesses' yearly.
1 deben
gold may
temples is at
gold
there
present Modern
material would be
Lucas-Harris, revived
costs.128
instance, century
factor
early
The
was
discontinued
respect was
industry on account
the
Per
certainly
in
times
the
mines
were
worked to the
by
the
local
popu war
production Coptos
and possibly
pharaoh.129 prisoners
also used
miners
convicts,130
may costs
slaves,
were
of
in
same
Nubia. although
far out
That it
in
would was
the
mean of course
that
the relatively
production to expensive
of
were supply
rather the
low,
miners
desert.
The
above
remarks
may
suffice
to
show
the
importance
of
special
of
gold list
mining of data
in
which up
the by
economic Helck131
aspects may
are
taken a
drawn
provide
point.
The So Sinai
the eastern output
other far as
in
was
copper. in the by
the total the
copper exploited
was again The discussing
during
local desert is,
mines
producing various
been
Lucas-Harris,
question, suggest
128 129 130 131 132 133 Lucas
the
of
copper
together
Save-Soderbergh, op.cit., Vercoutter 188. Op.cit., were men. educated miners Materialien Cf. Inscr. VI, Sinai 947-967. II, 205. 7.
142)
argues
that
the
overseers
of
the
Lucas-Harris,
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New Kingdom
157
ot
Sinai
may for
have
been from in
sufficient. and
There
is, the
the
an
far
important
as I am
Cyprus, though Araba that (Timna)134 suggest source the mineral to for has
the excavator has not yet
however, amount
However,
aware
any Timna of
of
the
total
of
the
area.
concerning excavator
of aspects
the
but
obscure
influence
this
mining
district
It
was
is
used
clear
as
that
a
copper
was
by
of
no
means
as
rare
the
during
ostraca
the
NK.
demonstrate,
That
it
common
measure
value,
may also in
be
silver, purpose,
was
was But
until
contracts
of and the workmen exchanged, tools. of copper numbers large were property to expensive
were
necropolis other a
hand, tools
shows
most blade
of was
of be
the the
pharach, subject
registered,
of
single The
also
handed
their
to
the
workmen
carefully
In for as
is industry total
seems
that
Egypt
the
amount to Here of
of
(and quantities he
army),
unable
offer
required.
Wilson of the
Dynasty
decisive
NK, Sea
particularly Peoples
exchange certainly
question role of to
deprived their products further requires and just and after may
Egyptians (grain,
etc.)
iron
exactly
consider as I see
problem written
documents
silent
134 135
Cf. P.
B. 274.
Rothenberg,
Timna,
London
1972.
158
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
stones, to assess
building their
stone, econo
quantity
been
electrum, decline
with the
in
the
of it may actually have been imported, part although was a natural of the country.137 The sharp product value of silver as compared the XlXth during Dynasty
of copper from 1:100 to 1:60138 constitutes an eco
value
nomic or
problem. whether it
as
Whether is
is
in to the
fact
it
means of
what
a rise large
extent
in
the
value of
of silver,
may
copper, is
have
due
the
influx
to
quantities
the government
uncertain,
question
influenced In and
and
the it are
of that data
silver.139 for The the subject economic will aspects require of much mining study
summary, minerals
more
scarce.
unknown.
material
Crafts
our
the the
NK is craftsmen,
work
organisation.
as carpentry,
The
aspects
weaving,
various
may be
metal
etc.,
fairly
obscure.
well
known,11*0
in the such
from
the
actual
but existence
products
the of economic a
as
well
aspects of free
as
from
are
the
still
representations Problems
tombs,1*1 as the
body
craftsmen
the
of
the
workers
materials the
the were
way
in
which
studied.
por tfie
There
sources, Prices also chapter Petrie,
indeed,
Helck, Wages
material
VI. Cahiers 106 ff. d'histoire
Materialien in
Lucas-Harris, Cf. Cerny, 905 See Cf., more It is material Neuen f. See below, e.g., up-to-date,
Egypt,
mondiale
l,
1954,
1910, of
and,
Materials.
Heidelberg
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
159
the
a few
reader
can
therefore
remarks.
not
expect
to
find
in
this
section
more
than
disconnected
The
during not, on
question of free
seems craftsmen
to
be
whether for
there a free
temples of
or those article
on
working were craftsmen institutions, to members that those of silent of out142 by existence to be
closely
the he
surrounded of the
saw the
free in
written
documents
seem
was a free whether there market dominated problem by the the governing and demand besides of redistribution system supply - for which are state indications indeed abundant (see chapter as yet never been
working
studied.
on their
Still
own
it
may
be
but
possible
that no
that
free
were
craftsmen
account,
The
question V c).
will
be
dealt
with
below
in
connection
of
in of
the
most
peasants royal or
of
themselves. temple
the
Luxury
made by
the
specialized
craftsmen
come into
workshops
lower classes
only
From
exception
ostraca
possession
were that it appears few craftsmen connected with only - of course were its this members themselves in community specialized - the most the tombs the metal workers. decorating important group being were Woodwork and basketry made by the consumers themselves. Probably Deir el-Medina the Apart times
to me
same
holds metal
true
for
the it
peasant may be
from
objects by
pottery
that pottery,
made centres,
were it
most seems
or
produced
an important there
specialized
question
workmen.
whether all or even
regards
it was
locally, at
whether
have
been
regional
national
least
for kind
142 143
particular of
types
of
pots;
that
is, An
whether answer
particularly seen in
we may to this
673
speak
of can
some
concentrated
and for 88.6). its
industry.143
Urbanism, existence 668 may
question
ff. X1&3d3iw of
ff., be
the
phrase
Coptos"
160
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
be
found
through pottery in is
and the
technical excavations.
analysis 1<*i# in
of
the
workshops.145
temple its
other
testimony they
temple
production
that
weaving In
independent
weavers
household
refer
documents
of
importance 100561*7
for and
the
eco
period, namely pBrit.Mus. former contains records of of of other of Tuthmosis the yard. text, made joinery, mentioned is III Its from and sheds
the
objects
materials which
intended
shop
obscure. is
mostly we All
conclusion. surprising to draw will allow much of this kind can and of the
conclusions expected.
we
existed
royal its
about position
and Chronology,
and may
Absolute
145
146
possibilities in an archaeological cf. 1974, Two Fairservis, 147 ff. Ancient are (in fairly fact,
in:
JARCE
1971-1972,
CF. Bogoslovski,
pTurin attached cit., Published de 2008t20l6; to the 100 ff.) by
in:
c
BECTHMKl (103),
. my
1968,
Egyptian
87 ff.
Ship's Logs, mentioned temple whether in products the the NK is merchants (cf. op. uncertain. 1116 B
147
148
frequently bartering)
Published
by Glanville,
Golenishchev, imperial cf. Helck, also mention Rechnungen, a
in:
ZAS 66,
Les papyrus
1931,
105 ff.
and 68,
no.
1932,
1116 For of 895
7 ff.
A et translation Sethos ff.
149
V, account and
9,
I;
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New Kingdom
161
There necropolis
is
one
clear
to
this
rule, For
workmen life
el-Medfna. structure
the
of
sation, daily us with the area provide the agriculture, besides are an pose, what oe well informed150. community, the
ostraca that
about it
It
construction to parts
conclusions to other
drawn the
documents of
economic
open
question.
and
Trade
That very of
mainly How
by economy
ship
Nile, the it
important documents
Egyptian for
appears
important to to and
uncertain. was
know, local
instance,
population
dependent shows 2008+2016 that other pTurin garments, regions. at Thebes since them in workshops the made transporting ship probably one of the dependencies to the August of Amun, Staff of the belonged were oil for bartered the neighbourhood Karnak of Memphis. in temple, a long-range was an exceptional trade within the such Whether country from occurrence commodities compared Another existed of
150 151
production
upon
common,
whether
it
mainly
concerned as is its
luxury relative
goods
or
also
unknown,
significance
the the
subject and
been the by
is
the
question economy,152
whether e.g.
transport the or
from
mainly there
redistribution temple
studied
transport
grain
Various Period.
granaries
in my Commodity of first
(pAmiens),
Prices
whether
the Ramesside
geographic in O'Connor
base the
152
An and David O'Connor, Kemp at the in: 'Birket Habu', Nautical and Underwater Archaeology Exploration See VI. chapter
Nile
International 3, 1974,
University of Journal
162
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
of
any far it
If the
the
how of
temple by
and
of
trade
mention
latter the the relatively may be - besides connected officials with high -153 of temples can not but the possibility be not the officials who were but personally trading controlled.
may be
private seen in
institutions
A possible
Clear
pCairo
evidence
65739,154
for
private
although
trade
the
is
example
merchan
dise
there
slave we are
situation.
the state merchant, or
Moreover,
so temple that trade.155
which
could about
may
an
exceptional of
of
position
an example
this
actually
The Xi156
existence recording
of
in
of and
food cakes
is to
by seem the
pBoulaq to be
meat,
wholesale in the
dealers. temples,157 so
and consumed the bought as we know wine and meat far class. The possibility hence to
products has suggested.158 food may have did not that to be at their present
came
people the
offerings who
been
the to
intended
institutions, document
our
is
excluded.159
once more
seems
demonstrating
aspects of
defective
knowledge
concerning
Egyptian
153 15Z* 155 156 See my Published Helck1s
economic
life
still
is.
Ancient by
JEA
suggestion
ff., 21 , merchant
100
and 1935 ,
Helck, 140
f., a
n.
7.
(called Melanges in the for date in dated of a to ff.]. preceding fasc. the is has of the the
Syrian To in this which is 30) only unknown of those whether of Some now ox on papyrus and
(Beziehungen,
58070, pCairo some may belong to me from known some of the remote instances). III. same 12 days in both Tuthmosis
numbered 3ht
21367
Worterbuch, fragment XI (the year the 53, same (II year clearly
mentioned is a to be text
is
document contribute
slightly to be our
are fragments also Megally, One fragment to belonging Op.cit., Another whether T have 194.
mentions
offerings (htp-ntr). also REA in: l, Weill', 21367 of mentions pCairo or as buyer of food
Divine the
Adoratress, transcription
but
uncertain
19 75
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
163
Quite
Megally.160
a different
It
document
records barter
is
pLouvre
of grain
E 3226,
against
recently
dates by
published
traders
by
be
longing
state
to
commerce.
a department
Moreover,
of
it
the
Royal it many
Granary,
that the
being
government
an
example
was not
of
limited
proves
to its
seems
taxation servants.
to me
to
The
clear.
acquire text
the
goods
needed minor
for
presents
problems
to
one
further
the
what has
unless at other
of
economy
cannot loose as agree sense virtually
been
monopoly.
use the word
I am afraid
'state' that formally in
least
Moreover, was
trading,
every
economic
one
would
be is may
to
say
to
be life.
a royal The
so
small.162
that
granted in fact
At present
to of
no
temples the
to
private field
to
became
prove
there
material
available
that
the
this
contrary,
is
what
namely
happened,
that
although
trade was in
there
practice
is
also
no
document
to
proving
state
restricted
organisations.
It
is
with
regard their
suggested.163 bringing
"theological"
to,
a royal this is
rules
monopoly
foreigners clearly
the
world.
explanation of foreign
of tribute
the
role is
of
high
officials
in
whose in
the study as
occur in
sur
presented namely
E 3226 du with vol.
by Merrillees that
Louvre, the II
Cypriote
Mounir Vols. published constitutes I Megally, (the by is ff. thesis at
pottery
Etudes transcription) the IFAO a mine present of
Egypt,164
le papyrus III and 53), to
the
officials
(dealing while
3 vols., hieratic
writing) and
now
161 162
economy, concerning me in typescript. the text evidence 24. absence thesis under will has a of
accoun
163 164*
out I pointed 103) (p. the government. Megally1s are in this mentioned although they more the documents by understanding to E.g., R.S. 173 Morenz, f.; Merrillees, also Prestige-Wirtschaft, The Cypriote p. 194. See also Bronze his
Age article
Egypt, 281
Lund ff.
1968,
164
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
middlemen,
deed correct.
although
it
is
not
yet
certain
that
this
suggestion
is
in
fertile these
for
the
of
our
speculations a method which concerning to attempts these his not seem about results be quite
of knowledge of Merrillees later pottery and date, are with by further which articles.165 found
economic to his
in to
and
commercial
formulated detail
the
when
some measure since allow for particularly they be of importance for the economic history as well as local imitations objects thereof, were facts studied concerning with similar foreign methods trade. in hard
discovered order
countries, with
provide
IV CONSUMPTION
Food
food
of were
Egypt paid in
consisted these
of
and many
beer.
food,
bread
Helck,167
Max aspects, economic W&hren.168
former
slightly
them contains several in
older
a remarks are e.g.
technical
on them. the
by study one by
an con-^
Neither Helck is
though historian
interested
average
of
the
of
among receive
proportion
and beer bread offering and lay personnel of the of daily consumed in food
Merrillees Bronze
and
J.
Winters, between l,
in:
Wilbouriana
l,
Agypten, im Leben
der
alten
Bern
1963.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
165
the as and
form
of
beer
as etc.;
with
other if
kinds
of
food
such bread a
connected answers by
as
Helck169,
never
properly
studied. Helck loaves is, life or an the of suchlike, other method loaves, as has listed various in wants words for different Valuable types words merely into shape, in as actually fact offering
In his types the list occurred indicate bread. which bread, To be the added
Materialien170 of bread certainly in daily as "cakes" Also, of them is, that two as and
mentioned
indicate a quality.
a particular
articles I know, of
of
food,
bread
and fruit,
beer, oil,
four and of
more fish.
can
evidence several
of
namely vegetables, a long series their is still Egyptian obscure. constituted used The line in the of
of
various as yet
types
fruit,171
names Best an
known
have also
essential
vegetables of kinds
clear, always As regards oil, seems to (nhh) Fish main except the
been to
tion;176 have
of
proteins and,
personnel.
Materialien Op.cit., Materialien Megally, Palmen, Helck, Helck, Commodity Helck, Wiesbaden the diet. 666
IV, ff.
64l
ff.
(bread)
and
680
ff.
(beer).
papyrus
3226
du
Louvre
II,
330'.
Cf.
also
Wallert,
793 ff.
only
Xgypten, for
166
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
It food each
is
of that of
importance been within still consumed. the little From data, of his the diet
economically The of
to
all
this
attempted fact
at have
a cer received
that
monthly, references
average similar in of
it
they is never
of the
measured kind
uncertain.
quantity "bundles"
an
unknown the
the
vegetables
In order
meant,
estimate
of that
the the
from
the
it
may
be
useful well
to off
workmen workmen
keep - as to that
in
information
collected of
field-labourers. requires our material, - domestic discover their the data.180 most neglec
study.179
only
attempting is general
Egyptology.
Rations
Of
course
consumption
in
the
economic
sense
is
more
than
question
of too, for
food
In
a complete
survey, and -
other in
subjects Egypt
have
to
the
would
available
require
space
particularly a number
here.
of
and
mere
together
Moreover,
description
177 178 179 Commodity Op.cit., a For Ancient 180 brief
is
not
sufficient
48l. cf. to the Saffirio's
to
indicate
the
role
of
each
article
in: ff.
the
Kush
internationales
report d'Etudes
Ecology
meroitiques,
Empire
of
unpublished),
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
167
the the
framework study of of
of
the
A more
commodity of
of
a discussion
approach of
importance prices,
the measures example, on the will material subject I would of like the to raise another economy Egyptians in kind,
the of This
means between
Here nomy.
we Far
come more
across than
the in
most modern
fundamental western
aspect countries,
of or
the in
eco
that was
it
was of
not the
the
but
VI). of
largely state
organs economy,
their that
people.
direct
themselves, economy
of the
hardly to the
in
economic
eventually
products in this
and
them
among between
its the
(their) unskilled
servants. labourer
all receive their in kind from the "wages" a typical feature of the Egyptian civilisation - that of its nature proof complicated every highly stage was recorded of collecting and distributing by goods official;
written
It
follows data
that
some the
of
these rations
documents (wages)
royal
relate of the
to
handwork, while
together
and
hence others,
contain
for
about;
relate
labourers,
are all
instance,
to
the
harem.They
too
numerous
to
order
be
discussed
to indicate
here;
various
it
may
main
suffice
points.
to
refer
to
a few
instances
in
From Miwer by
the in
papyri the
belonging
to the
the
administration
the have of
royal been
harem
at
Gardiner
published the
Some to
apparently
made
harem
On the
garments other
hand,
168
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
was of in mats
with of
to 15,7) its
have and
been Miwer in
the
(17,14;
delivered, shops.
may
have
economy constitute
teach
of
the
various
goods
essential
signifi contribution
knowledge.181
to
be of beer of
is
the to
1116 of the of
A,182 harem,
and
distributed
various
them of
a number
Djahy. in which
which
been was
deliveries to me that of
are the
also
institutions. since history in particular. of texts aus and has der are
mention
may in
prove general
be and
a mine the
information of the
problems
group
been Zeit
by the
Some daily
connected
fowl,
leather,
As the
181
stated main
above source
(ch. of
IVa)
the
settlement life
Deir during
is several
information
They
are
to
be
with Hofes an
known 13.
pBoulaq
XVIII
182
des nungsbuch and l^5'-24*55') Published bourg, 620 ff. by pis. What
Ein
Rech
51-68 1922, late MK. a Peters IV, (cf. IV, they of 633 of ff. 508 dates. ff. the
Helck, actually
183
by wider.
brewed of
Translation group
"Muhle", although according notes Helck himself (p. some while record entries comments is by the Barns, by Helck, from JEA 34, Materialien the
Northumberland,
published
papyrus in:
1948,
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
169
texts
documents
bearing
are
upon
ostraca
the
provisions
as well as
delivered
papyri.185
to
As
its
regards
inhabitants.
to the
The
latter,
I refer the
to
the
verso della
of
the
Turin
strike and
Giornale
ostraca of the
some From
columns all
of texts,
to
reliable
deliveries, irregular It seems the "wages". where; First, portant the two the part for the less points size of only the
while
also to
mentioned. to the of workmen. 4 khar (it) more.190 firewood was and also for of The emmer most (bdt), the were are im
delivered ration of
barley
beer, Other
while rations
and
the
vegetables continuously
meat Extra e.g. (mkw), pottery. provisions on festive were while delivered may have occasions, garments a year. once the government distributed Moreover, only provided as lamps these and oil for as well but all for the work, these,
to have remained state property.
It The
is
difficult
to
the that It
must
pointed All
in grain. those for at least in normal - as mentioned above of their the its texts subsistence
or rather,
themselves
their
furniture,
tomb
equip on
for
basketry. completely
this
reflect
administration.
In
how
far
how
of though
the it
the
same that
holds other
true, workmen
is
were
of
which of
as
Workmen documents. II
yet at
Cf.,
the
notes refers
in to
J.
cerny, several
A of these
188
189 190 191
Peet,
giornale
necropoli
di
Tebe,
Torino
1928.
In:
See For For
JEA 52,
my details, fish
1966,
81 ff.
Prices, op.cit.,
vegetables,
IV
a.
170
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
texts
of stelae
the
population of Sethos
to
Ramses
II193
by
Wadi also
the
would is
as of
I am aware the
pertinent
rations.19**
NK reliable
impossible evidence
the
The the
second provisions
point of
I would which
like
to
raise
is were
the
question
can
workers. It
from
exclusively encounter here chapter refer to what that temples Hence source of
mortuary
temples,196 on temples
typical
Egyptian
cooperation
temple
(see I may
V d). still another with to the aspect the of the present sub
the
temple-offerings.197 and, the the the a study perhaps, extent temple and the
priests
sanctuaries, of
this
unknown. a of of the
diet of
other they
material
I do
calculating know.
34504,
from
along to pReisner I, material important in: Or 36, still largely of their in scribe it the by 1-63.
East cf. Ram. Inscr. Silsile; Kitchen, I, and of the cf. year 8; Heliopolis Hermann, LXS 53 ff. II. and 10, Gluckstadt 1938, pi. can these lines be done for the In this MK. II and III, recently published the of the workmen no Unfortunately scholar has as
59 Die
connection
article
concerning 351 ff.). so that obscure, 1967, meaning. ff. Turin the taxation
which by W.K. Simpson, MK (cf. Dieter Mueller's content the of these yet attempted to
195 196
a survey present Cf. Commodity Prices, The the grain collected workmen. recorded by the Whether of
457, the of
was
necropolis collected
was ch. cf. (RAD 35 ff.; Ilia) and intended for evidently own revenues not is clear temple's Morenz, Thebes Prestige-Wirtschaft, OIC 1931-33, 36 18, f.
197 198
(Umlauf), Work in
cf. Western
Chicago
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
171
V SPECIAL
SUBJECTS
Slavery of on note the social economic of is slavery. not clear nor legal in this even would be without to the the NK
history
have
legal instance of
in
status his
in
work
Egyptian
eventual that
mention
changes slavery
of slaves
So much
but ful each
developments a particular
in the texts
type
still
possible
requires
study.201
Three their
as a
problems ownership,
whole.
slaves importance
may
be of
briefly slavery
their Egyptian
prices, economy
for assess,
the
of we
slave do
of)
the NK is rare during not know what is always exactly Clear labour.202 his/her prices prices pBrit.Mus. 4 1/10 for slave 10052.203 and for
though into their
In
the of of
4 deben 2 deben
comparison meaning.
in
too few provide
the
to at
third
allow least
a male
conclusion,
These
other
data prices
are may
some
insight
As
the
ofslaves among
of a
Bakir204 the
stable
demonstrated middle
an
that We know
a
it of
was
lower
class.
attendant,
the
master,
singer
199
Cf.
Burden in
of
Posener
Egypt, et in
187. al.,
For
survey de
of la
Dictionnaire
in slavery civilisation
Egypt
the
by
CASAE 18, Le Caire Egypt, at Thebes, 180 f. for the and of evidence 9874+75 pBerlin 27 ff. in: Z'AS 43, 1906, Pharaonic of Workmen
pGurob
Commodity (note
172
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
and
even
sandal-maker. of is
common
A particular aspect a community, slaves by evidence about workmen slaves The would
of if the the
the
is of
the
correct; of necropolis
female support
may for
occurrence of is these
of
community
explain the
the
sale
"days" slavery Attempting society, necessary that there words: but no were slaves is,
people.207
importance
economic
obvious. to it assess to the me, for function as it, I have at least are of slavery once tried for within to the Egyptian
seems conditions
as
an were
absent.
slavery It
that the argue,208 on a large scale, seems that unlikely NK; in other
tilled
were
required to unable
order that
bound was be
to
legal
slavery
required. that in of of of Egypt luxury the slavery goods, slaves.210 of Most areas, of to the have war of was a only situation suggestion into brought them seem as Others and hardly
the numbers
conclusion
with re
by the
the by wars
This
prisoners Dynasty.
country and
the
to
to or for
the as the
either
used temple
them as
workshops,
peasants
building but
or field
there
205
206 207
1968,
92 ff.
175 in an the e.g., h^m to note ff. 202 and Gardiner-Cerny, The a who Linage, of slave Hier.Ostraca, 54,1.
208
209 210
1964,
141 ff.
Slavery that as Industrial social the his the remain. useful to remind not us and character do not provide categories. position royal niece economic System, of barber (de Hague did in: 21910. not his 38, is differ slave 1939, almost much as
owner; cf., and married such circumstances aspects IV, such 1649,
nominated BIFAO
meaning
slavery
nil;
211
It may be and I, pHarris passim. are a traditional statements of general are Even in accordance where with they reality. they the numbers information about of slaves of the various that
juridical Urk.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
173
Perhaps they
their
most soldiers
was
that
of
were slaves
at
least
meaning
languages. economic importance of slavery of result new during one should of is the NK seems may also the alter take entire supposed a decline obligations of all into to
summary, rather
present consideration
publication although For a more reliable such of as special and the legal terms
documents
usually that
(fc/O,21** a particular
also
the
imposed fields.
government
in
special cultivation
Taxes
There
is
as
yet
one
study und
of
taxation in Helck.
in the
namely Egypt,215 of the "Lexikon onwards for it deals b3kw, outside domains, soldiers by
lemma
Steuern" by
written period
Helck that
notes b3kw
four indicates
fcaxes:
deliveries of the
individuals; deliveries
stating deliveries Smw the fish); (e.g,. grain of a portion of the harvest grain of settlers; de fixed S3yt categories rare term lit.: the (or tp-drt, tp-dt with
upon
tp-dt,
connected
comments
special
the system
functions.
of taxation,
In
the
referring
columns
Helck
to
large
of "the
of the The as
texts, body
Sherden Syrian
while of
dealing
at
the
end
with
bh,
"corv6e
labour",
212 213 Cf.
taxpayers".
in slave the the in Turin and the "foreigners" a field-labourer. 1086 was certainly pBologna was 22. the different Whether situation seems to certain is not (cf. suggest, quite pWilbour in
the
Hayes,
For the
A Papyrus
of
Kingdom,
22, NK, on
New York
266 ff.
1955).
of (review Simpson, as yet unproved. Presented World as it is, certainly various aspects
cf. MK hsbw, Berlev, whose remarks I), of be Redford in: F.V. Winnett, a called subject. cols. 3-12.
1965,
1972, study
although
describes
216
Wiesbaden
1972,
174
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
The
first
essentially the
problem correct.
is
whether Is it
of
the
is in
Land-rent, but
are
it
is
contributions
by
fill state,
its as
obligations as well or by
to to
its
own
foreign
countries.
head
of
the by com
either
individuals
may
not are
misunderstanding,217 meaning
donkeys,
second
used
point
in
to
many
mentioned
of
b3kw,
for
a word
instance,
senses.
of used
on the
ostraca animal.
from
Deir
el-Medina,
the
letter to him
on the 58057,9,218 a donkey which for has this arrived instance one it In
before year
from
means
"taxes". it Produkten appears that his des 9 he whereas definition landwirt quotes according
references von
aufierhalb
I,
12b,
system
The
explanation
for
the
problem
is
of
course
the
extreme
vagueness
one ness
as
from use
the
a modern of
Egyptians
point technical
used
of terms.
view, In
words
to the
call field
to
it
sloveli of taxation,
common
indicate
217
s*mw, apart seems indeed note Just 43). ambiguous Hier. our Lesestucke 86.
that
meant Saite
as
"lessor's I, been
218 219
vague Cf. Moller, Papyri, One may as such expression Testament juridal
Ostraka
Tafelteil,
as one out of several quote example a quadrangle area for of 3ht square of concepts Bleeker, religious to M.A. (Studies Beek), presented terminology cf. Theodorides, Textes
names
triangle. in Travels
Amsterdam, et langages
for
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
175
specific occur
way to
concepts, in their
while general
even all-day
a
in
the
same It
texts seems
in
these to me
words that
may the
with
also only
taxa
meaning.
particular
define
what
meaning
word
connection
tion be
the
could expected
office
have to
of
is use
the
to it
state
start in a
with specific of
which Such
Now
by would
there
their be
happens
very
nature
may from
pre
a document
to be
tax-collectors.
at
least
one canon
kind,
namely to suggest of
the
verso that
of this its
important the
history
the
NK as
chronology
of
that hardly damaged be the reason why it do more red ink than one of offering may taxes:
Unfortunately entirely to its legible, studied. contents. words to have, and lower offi in
adequately
to of
conclude b3kw
particular Ill, That may which 1-3, the follow seems from type of
Helck) of
entries
derived
a distinct
one should occurrences all collect of the from this papyrus Starting occur to be used in terms of taxes for different which types likely seem to be: texts. in this the Bilgai-stela,223 other respect Important some passage from the of the high-priest the Amenhotep,22** inscription
Miscellanies In each instance and from the administrative specific character documents,225 of the text the has pHarris to be I, taken etc.
into their to
220
the
and the
in
be
Miscellanies226
RCT, 17; pis. for 5-9. a
too
For
have
correction with
the
cf.
221 222
translation
Helck,
Materialien,
I5l. (note 215), op.cit. not does the contain publication the but bears 85+64 them, 2, while fragment only on fragment red col. The word (in ink) ding tp-dpt on this the second col. of plate begin. IV. Cf. in: Z&S 50, 1912, Gardiner, pi. I6l MIO 4, ff. Cf. in: 1956, Helck, pi. For E.g., imw, cf., e.g., III, pLouvre 6,ll E 7,1; 3226. V, 17,2-3; pChester pAnastasi
4 end
cols., of 34
as the
indicates
Beatty V, 7,8
8,6.
176
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
correctly
since
they
were
meant
for
the
instruction
of
young
scribes,
the as seal
less
figures that of
here the
are
fictitious.
an or the
Sennofre227
certain.
It
may htr
be the
of
value
to
refer their
here
to
a detail
which Helck is
shows states228
the
way that
in the
which word
used
written and
correct,
htri
connection
that may
taxes
other
used
in
Although
several ostraca
generally
and from the outset el-Medtna, who were all their workmen, receiving were to pay still taxes. pharaoh), obliged from the Deir sake though tion, of equal and obligations rights their from wages would be become exactly by be the that unlikely convinced the opposite inhabitants. htri was thus civil the in
it
is
wages It
servants are
In
workmen's namely
community deliveries
taxes,
explanation "dues"
used workmen.
it
"his" with
the received
Egyptian by
of
htri The to
It
then when
that
the it
goods
actually
would
his
than
salary
ours.
"taxes",
but
Egyptian
thinking
followed
other
patterns
taxation, of
for
instance
of
various or,
exempt taxation,230 smw indicates taxes former and system, in which which is
and
IV, 5.
taxation
Commodity chapter
ff.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
177
supposed cordings
ages or
to of
not.231
have the
existed Palermo
In order
to in
we
the later
re
should
have and
to
know
more persons
about during
the
private structure to
ours.
status as well as is
of
institutions the
of
the in
have
and
keep
So much between
however,
differences
Egyptian
mentality
and
Prices
Coins as in
unknown the
in
ancient
Egypt,
but
there
forms All of
of
money,
study Egypt
"primitive" form of
commodities
in quantities expressed was none involved of these and and is known from
of in
poses
a number
problems.
measures rather of value, of account,or units three perhaps - is a weight in deben, measured of c. 91 grammes copper always occurs the NK. Silver until the first most usual years only during was mainly, not used while Ramesses III, exclusively, grain though indicate in they even to it This the the case the value of of cheap grain in in baskets containers that of example the place
the of to
were
as baskets.233 such It may be that objects as measure was preferred since of value are was carried, the grain and there which instances contain. way detail point
the of relation value -
some it the
the
grain of to
could
of
a basket be of
equal
would
"concrete" in only
Egyptians. of the
discuss I can
that a measure
aspects interesting
copper grain
Egyptian
mena. when 231 232 It the Cf. It dities copper, 233
monetary
seems, latter in: Schott, does happen for is
system.
instance, used Fs that as
pheno
and = grain
commo or occurs the of scrap among copper grain was valued in deben of the former In those instances usually exchanged. the total its value. the its latter However, never, equalling weight a transaction or copper never of consisted of only. grain Prices, Part II, chapter I (101 ff.) and Part III, chapter III,
178
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK 3
of
copper of of
the
is
not
influenced Also,
by it
the is the
moment kind
transaction.
price never of
of
the indicated
grain
quantities (it) corn is was of was that in is equally made, barley used
is meant. Elsewhere, grain are written of emmer (bdt) and as since the of figures value that simply always it in a measure
in in are red
actual of black
those in
black,
always barley
was no
meant.
difference
probably is reflected
grain
value.234
phenomena in vagueness
clearly while in of
the to the
power into
of account
tra
economic of
relation
relation of the
few
for
tools
instance,
or vessels,
fact
value
exceptions
of
copper
expressed
in
of be
copper. no costs of
Since
the
deben the
is
a weight, weight in of
there the ob
seems jects,
instances.
difference their
between manufacture
neglected
several
of was
the
power The
of
the in
it
is
still
more
depreciated
exact
somewhere
that
but II
between II.
of
the
reign
at
uncertain
or
course
some
moment.
In point
the
latter at
case
it
was
due
to
a decision
of the
the
government is as
and yet
would even
policy. of an
without That
certain.
question
the
state
For a
indirectly
price expressed
influenced
in
monetary
grain,
system
the exact
is, khar
however,
content of
this
23i* 235
measure
Op.cit., Cf. above,
is
chapter
decisive.
II, III 9. b.
Once
more,
like
the
deben,
the
is
not
chapter
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
179
an also turn
unit. an
It
was
divided grain
4 oipS, of know to of a
and 19.22
the litres.
word
oip& The
actual into 40
oipe
divided
hin,
lawsuit 38 was
which evidence
appeared that
measure measure
the
guaranteed this
responsible
case, since
it
authorities, that
indeed
measured
deliveries
government
with the
measure monetary
the
oipS
(and
the
khar), the
this conscious
and frauds
means
that by
in or
so the
far
as
we
know in
throughout theory
of
country.237
was policy, uniform,
Whatever
and whether
officials,
the
the
a
practice not.
existence
For
study to
of be a
prices starting
the
material
from c. some
el-Medlna prices of prices obvious I have price-list,238 occurring one that but the
The point. to draw up comparison and periods.239 in ostraca a reliable the and base for
documents to reckon
other possible of
single It is
changes
of
from the
workmen's of this
constitutes
of texts of
el-Medtna and
some
the
date from a period between the mostly a time end of the XXth Dynasty, sufficiently
as to the movement of the prices.
allow
conclusions
It
is
here
that
we also
encounter of oil
a and
Whereas
of
fluctuation
other
during
commodities
half
cattle,
of
the
furniture,
garments
236 237
the
Hier. Ostraca, administrative the here 523 of prices has already during the from variations one too ff. slaves been
34, texts in
4.
Cf.
also
D of
57).
to region an "official"
Twentieth
180
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
and For
tomb an
equipment
of of
material,
the this
same
years
show
an
equally
clear once
explanation
offer
unexpected
since there
phenomenon242
the same situation
economies
occurs. societies. of as
Prices Since
appear time, of
to by it
be far
less most
than among
in
modern costs
the
manufactures was
ancient the
recognized products
value, since
which
they yearly by fluctuating or coffins, as furniture of the fields. Manufactured such yield goods on the harvest, on the not level. traditional dependent stayed price the changing costs It has not been that of living would recognized seems This of all to me to be the explanation require adaptation prices. for the stability of the commodity prices in general.
prices dominated
agricultural
State
and
above of
temples:
sold, the
contribute the of
decree,243
Elephantine texts, e.g.
which decrees, exemption examples For the NK I mention the Redesieh preserved. and the decree,244 preserved) (fragmentarily been
Remarks on Decree the of subject Haremhab. are to How be far found spread in other was and the
decree.245 pHarris I
the
241 242 243 244 245
phenomenon?
Commodity It may be of the XXth Kitchen, NAWG 1961, Kitchen, Edgerton, Griffith,
Do
Prices, obvious
the
530 that and I, I, 6, 13,
decrees
ff. it the 65 45 1947, 1927, has
reflect
a fairly
normal
situation
or
Dynasty Ram. Inscr. Nr. Ram. in: in: 6. Inscr. JNES JEA
usual
picture Sethos
of I
the
history Mia,
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
181
exceptional? and enactment, they belong of actual part group side as of of for to
an
were
sphere
they second no so
other abundant
nature. our
that of
may
dis
large
a
material
even
the
us
subject
to draw
comparison
conclusions
to
the
development to
suggested,
of
the
Egyptian raise
to conceive
through
the
ages. indeed, as
economi
Returning
usually
the
NK I would
we have
whether
and temple
state
as
distinct of church
entities.
Is with
not its
this
dualistic
too the
much two It
the
pro
history European from and state, are sufficient to that and as the
the
Middle
times? at
there
indications tQ reconsider
the
least
suggest state
was
no it
real may
difference be in
realised.
functions of practi
but
that every
pharaoh
cal
high-priest
usually
sanctuary
consequences
In seem of
order to
to
adduce
some the
material mutual
list
number of both
of
which field
demonstrate
penetration
agriculture,
The was
of hands
the
of
the
main
temples of
Some high
"normal"
temples
were
in
charge
officials;250
inventory by Fifth of the 679 papyri in Kaplony-Heckel, de Cenival: London and of Urbanism, Agyptische Hieratic 1968. 659): administration". Le regime 244 ff. "at times the 100. temples Papyri Handschriften in the British I
An
1971). Mme Posener-Krieger The Abusir Series. by Kemp as just Wilbour 53 ff.; (Man, one Papyrus Helck, Settlement branch
and Papyri,
39 II, Materialien
juridique,
182
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
The
new
domains, and
normal
as
well
as
by hence
mortuary
allotting in recorded
his
pWilbour if not
The
in several, though a temple, were on tilled or other causes of labour of Deir partly scrap amounts indeed of el-Medina,
were
paid evidence
the
paid (yet?)
may seems be
taxes. known
due obvious to
similar
facts
transport, preserved.
are
from
the that
other
deficient relations
fields
of
state between
economy,
of the
and
state for
the in
result general.
of
which There
may is,
be for
of in of its
wealth
that the
Karnak in to
decisive
but
no seem
convincing to be far
state to would explain
complicated
as complex
schemes
251
The of a
on III
4; this be of
in
5,3
nature temple
belonged of the entire text, to granaries the of 221 On the other f. a fairly 458 was the long ff.
exactly concluded by
grain
foundations
for
possibly Burden
Gardiner, 272 f.
Pharaohs, though
Agypten. he
"dafi
"geistlicher"
"weltlicher"
Trennung
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
183
What as
do, with
namely
to
deal as
with a whole,
the is like
impossible, particularly Far more ancient Egypt. there constituted of life the economy without cannot useful be in
the
various
account into taking a transitional more than any that it enables us the to
pose results
methods; of is
of
ultimately the to
the
words:
economy
The is It
extant small to me
of in this
economy describes
as it
a facet as a
of
the
civilisation economy".
"prestige
various and
the
relations on
between the
revealing to
are
government,
personality
economic
not
the
successful
religion detect
in
structure.257
those
which
strive
he
explains
prestige,
the
funeral
so that
cult
what
as
may
a manifestation
seem to us a
of
waste
the
of
general
wealth
after
to
be
in
fact
happiness
a people
so
logical as well
and as
even
to
every has
sections,
of prestige,
however,
that
Morenz
it
concept
actually
no
than
of
economic of
best
of
view in
be
more of
our
productive It studies.
economic
for looks
the
ad
likely
as a
approach
conceive
of
the
structure
system the
256 257
of
which found
7. almost of as a
is
one
of more
the
three
possibilities, peoples,
others
Cf. It
with
"primitive"
Morenz, also is is
that the material every page course not Morenz but the state 14.
available of our
was egyptological
dominant
factor;
op.cit.,
184
Jac.J.
Janssen
SAK
and
market
exchange,
the
system
of
modern
societies.259
Of
course,
in
developed
society
all
systems differ.
are
which importance dominant factor in a relatively state by the among this the
present, as Just so
but market
it
is
their
Egypt,
large
through a fairly large most that sphere of goods the temples point role easily.
order of
categories come, to
servants.
documents
either or their
transport It population.261 is best understood of of view the problems circulation the kingship
recording central magazines, seems to me that the as a as the of section special the taxation offerings redistribution than the con
this
economic most
solution central
Moreover, of divine
position
even in the
economy.262
How was is
far the
the
range for
By
of
the
redistribution it there
very recording
system subsistence to
written
extended, economy
that of material
mostly
is,
what
relation
between which
their
and
the
the
a problem
the
appears
nature the
be
hardly
documents of rent
any
peasants, in our
belong
documentation. to administration,
dues
and/or
taxes,
trans
port etc.263
of
decrees show
family,
making him is
daily the grain eating most of his himself derived by the from views
special life he
rights of himself
of
use.
were
a
mainly influenced
of the
tomb-owner
-264 and
though himself
type of
member
administrative
259
Prices, though
558,
the
there. constitute
The
studies stimulating
of
overstressing
260
in is
the
form an
of important
indeed
the the royal harem, including necropolis the and the (scribes), army temple personnel. that are views but that of Morenz' my way wrong, to the major solve problems. as the Hekanakhte demonstrates. correspondence und Rufe Bonn Lieder 214 and Reden, etc., 1973, passim.
1975
Economic
history
during
the
New
Kingdom
185
document
figures.265
reflects
In how
an
far
ideal
the
situation,
picture from
never
these
providing
representations
us
with
reliable
can be
wrong
and the
may not
be
seen
on
from
ostraca
subject
and account
such
as
papyri
dress.
Both
the
actual
that the
objects
work
texts
demonstrate
always he
in
loincloth
believe;
be
as
the
pictures to
would Similar
ever
be
able
functioned
study possibility.
of
265 266
The
same
holds Prices,
true 249
for ff.
literary
documents
such
as
the
"Satire
des
Metiers".
Commodity