MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

JohanFourie,BCIT
An Introduction to Tensors




Introduction
In physics and engineering, a scalar is generally considered to be simple physical quantity that is
unchanged by coordinate system rotations or translations. A scalar quantity is described by a
denominate number a number with a unit. Temperature can for example be represented by a
scalar and can be specified e.g. by 16C. The total energy of a thermodynamic system is another
example of a physical quantity that can be represented by a scalar. Figure 1 shows a
temperature I as a scalar quantity in a Cartesian coordinate system.












Figure 1. Temperature as a scalar quantity in a Cartesian coordinate system

Unlike a scalar, a vector (sometimes called a Euclidean, geometric or spatial vector) is a
geometric object that has magnitude and direction and is used to represent locations, velocities,
accelerations, force, flux densities, field quantities, etc. A vector is frequently represented
graphically as an arrow with a definite direction. Figure 2 shows a force F as a vector quantity in a
Cartesian coordinate system.
The word "vector" originates from the Latin word vehere meaning "to carry". It was first used
by 18th century astronomers investigating planet rotation around the Sun. Since vectors are
higher order quantities than scalars, the physical realities they correspond to are typically more
complex than those represented by scalars.
I(x, y, z)
y
x
z
MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT










Figure 2. Force as a vector quantity in a Cartesian coordinate system.

A Quick Review of Vectors and Vector Algebra
Quite often, a vector is represented by components and the action of a vector is equal to the sum
of the actions of its components. The force vector F shown in Figure 2 can be considered as
consisting of three components, each aligned with the direction of the Cartesian axes x, y and z,
respectively. Let the component of F that is aligned with the x-axis have F
1
scalar force units,
and the components aligned with the y- and z-axis respectively have F
2
and F
3
scalar force units.
Furthermore, let i be a unit vector aligned with the x-axis, and j and k unit vectors aligned with
the y-axis and the z-axis respectively. (Unit vectors are non-denominate, have a magnitude of
unity, and are used only to specify a direction.) Then the force vector can be written in terms of
its scalar components and the unit vectors, as:
F = F
1
i + F
2
j + F
3
k.
Two vectors, 0 and v, can be added to produce a new vector W:
W = 0 + v.
Two vectors, 0 and v can also be combined via a dot (inner) product to form a new scalar .
For example, the inner product of force and velocity vectors gives the scalar power being
delivered into (or being taken out of) a system. Thus:
0 v = .
Two vectors 0 and v in three-dimensional space can be combined via a cross product to form a
new vector. For example, angular momentum is the cross product of linear momentum and
distance. Thus:
0 v = S .

where S is perpendicular to the plane containing 0 and v has a sense (direction) given by the
right-hand rule.
F(x, y, z)
y
x
z
MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT
Finally, a given vector v can be multiplied by a scalar number to produce a new vector with a
different magnitude but the same direction. Let v = Iu where u is a unit vector. Then
v = Iu = (I)u = u
where is the new magnitude. As an example, force (a vector) equals mass (a scalar) times
acceleration (a vector).

Introducing Tensors
We have just seen that vectors can be multiplied by scalars to produce new vectors with the same
sense or direction. In general, we can specify a unit vector u, at any location, to point in any
direction. In order to construct another vector from the unit vector, we multiply u by a scalar,
for example , to obtain zu, a new vector with magnitude z and the sense or direction of u.
Notice that the effect of multiplying the unit vector by the scalar is to change the magnitude from
unity to something else, but to leave the direction unchanged. Suppose we wished to alter both
the magnitude and the direction of a given vector. Multiplication by a scalar is no longer
sufficient. Forming the cross product with another vector is also not sufficient, unless we wish
to limit the change in direction to right angles. We must find and use another kind of
mathematical entity.
Lets pause to introduce some terminology. We will rename the familiar quantities of the
previous paragraphs in the following way:
Scalar: Tensor of rank 0 (magnitude only with 3
0
= 1 component)
Vector: Tensor of rank 1 (magnitude and one direction with 3
1
= 3 components)
This terminology suggests the introduction of higher ranking tensors:
Dyad: Tensor of rank 2 (magnitude and two directions with 3
2
= 9 components)
Triad: Tensor of rank 3 (magnitude and three directions with 3
3
= 27 components)
and so on
We will now merely state that if we form the inner product of a vector and a tensor of rank 2 , a
dyad, the result will be another vector with both a new magnitude and a new direction.
A tensor of rank 2 is defined as a system that has a magnitude and two directions associated with
it. It has 9 components.
Material Stress
The classical example of the use of tensors in physics has to do with stress in a material object.
Stress has the units of force-per-unit-area. It seems clear, therefore, that stress times area
should equal force; i.e., the stress-area product should be associated with the applied forces that
are producing the stress. We know that force is a vector. We also know that area can be
represented as a vector by associating it with a direction, i.e., the area S is a vector with
magnitude S and direction normal to the area element, pointing outward from the convex side.
Thus, the stress must be either a scalar or a tensor. If stress were a scalar, then a single
denominate number should suffice to represent the stress at any point within a material. But an
immediate problem arises in that there are two different types of stress: tensile stress (normal
MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT
force) and shear stress (tangential force). How can a single denominate number represent both?
Additionally, stresses have directional properties more like vector times vector (or dyad) than
simply vector. We must conclude that stress is a tensor it is, in fact, a tensor of rank 2 and
that the force must be an inner product of the stress tensor and the area vector.
The stress tensor was the first tensor to be described and used by scientists and engineers. The
word tensor derives from the Latin tensus meaning stress or tension.
The force F due to the stress tensor T acting on a surface element S is thus given by
F = T S,
where the stress tensor T components are given by a series as:
T = o
11
ii +o
12
ij +o
1S
ik +o
21
ji +o
22
jj +o
2S
jk +o
S1
ki +o
S2
kj +o
SS
kk
The stress tensor components are shown in a Cartesian coordinate system in Figure 3.












Figure 3. Stress as a tensor quantity in a three special Cartesian dimensions.

(Note that many text books differentiate between tensile stress and shear stress by using the
symbol to represent shear stress. In this text, for the purpose of uniformity in the presentation of
the stress tensor components, the o symbol will be used for both tensile stress and shear stress.)
More descriptively, the equation can be given in matrix form as:
_
F
1
F
2
F
3
_ = _
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
o
33
_ _
S
1
S
2
S
3
_
or by using Einstein summation notation
F

= o
]
S
]

y
x
z
F
1
F
2

F
3
o
33

o
22
T(x, y, z)
S
MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT
In Einstein summation notation, an index that appears once can substitute any coordinate
dimension. Repeated indices are implicitly summed over all the coordinate dimension. It is
generally assumed that the subscript cycles through the values 1, 2, 3 unless otherwise stated.
Since the index i appears only once on the right hand side, it can substitute the coordinates x, y
or z and can therefore take on the values 1, 2 or 3. The index ] on the other hand appears twice
on the right hand side and is therefore implicitly summed over all the coordinate dimension. For
example, the F
2
component becomes
F
2
= o
2]
S
]
=
3
]=1
o
21
S
1
+o
22
S
2
+ o
23
S
3

When using Einstein summation notation, the symbol "" is often used instead of the phrase
has the scalar component matrix, e.g., v I
I
refer to the scalar component matrix form of
the series I
1
i + I
2
j + I
3
k. In its reverse form, the symbol"" means is the scalar component
matrix form of

Basic Tensor Algebra
The relationship with the physical world of a dyad as a vector times vector product is
somewhat intuitive because it directly build from more traditional vector concepts understood by
physicists and engineers.
In constructing a dyad product from two vectors, we form the term-by-term product of each of
their individual components and add. If 0 and v are the two vectors under consideration, their
dyad product is simply 0v. The dyad product 0v is neither a dot nor a cross product. It is a
distinct entity unto itself. If 0 u
I
and v I
I
then
0v = u
1
I
1
ii + u
1
I
2
ij + u
1
I
3
ik + u
2
I
1
ji +
or 0v u

I
]
, where i, j, and k are unit vectors in the usual sense and ii, ij, ik, etc. are unit dyads.
Notice that, by setting u
1
I
1
= p
11
, u
1
I
2
= p
12
, etc, this dyad can be rewritten as
0v = p
11
ii + p
12
ij + p
13
ik + p
21
ji +
or 0v p
]
. It follows directly that 0v = v0, i.e., the dyad product is not commutative.
We know that a matrix can be multiplied by another matrix or by a vector. We also know that,
given a matrix, the results of pre- and post-multiplication are usually different; i.e., matrix
multiplication does not, in general, commute.
The product of a tensor M and a scalar o is commutative. Let M H
ij
, then for any scalar o,
we find
oM oH
ij
= H
ij
o Mo.
Similarly, the product of a dyad 0v and a scalar o is defined as
o(0v) = (o0)v = (0o)v = 0(ov) = 0(vo) = (0v)o.
In this case, the results of pre- and post-multiplication are equal.
MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT
The inner product of a tensor and a vector, however, is not commutative. Let v I
I
and
M H
ij
as before. Then, when we pre-multiply,
v M I
i
H
ij

where the summation is over the index i.
When we post-multiply with v I
I
,
M v H
ij
I
j

where the summation is over the second index j. It is clear that I
i
H
ij
= H
ij
I
j
.
Similarly, the inner product of the dyad 0v with another vector S is defined to be S (0v) when
we pre-multiply, and (0v) S when we post-multiply. The dot is associated as follows:
S 0v = (S 0)v = v
where = S 0. The result is a vector with magnitude and sense (direction) determined by
v. But
0v S = 0(v S) = 0 = 0
is a vector with magnitude and sense determined by 0. It should be clear that, in general,
S 0v = 0v S .

EXAMPLE 1
For A = A
1
i + A
2
j +A
3
k, and C = C
11
ii +, complete the series of components of C,
determine A C and then give the series in Einstein summation notation.

Solution
The first component C indicates that it is a tensor of rank 2. Therefore
C = C
11
ii +C
12
ij +C
1S
ik +
C
21
ji + C
22
jj + C
23
jk +
C
31
ki +C
32
kj + C
33
kk
(Note the convenience of writing the components in a block format as shown.)
A C = A
1
i C + A
2
j C + A
3
k C
= A
1
(C
11
i +C
12
j + C
13
k) +
A
2
(C
21
i + C
22
j + C
23
k) +
A
3
(C
31
i + C
32
j + C
33
k)
MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT
= (A
1
C
11
+ A
2
C
21
+ A
3
C
31
)i +
(A
1
C
12
+ A
2
C
22
+ A
3
C
32
)j +
(A
1
C
13
+ A
2
C
23
+ A
3
C
33
)k
In Einstein summation notation: A C A

C
]


EXAMPLE 2
For A = A
1
i + A
2
j +A
3
k and B = B
1
i + B
2
j + B
3
k, determine (V A)B and (V A)BA

Solution
(V A)B = _(A
1
i + A
2
j + A
3
k) _

ox
i +

oy
j +

oz
k]_ B
= _
A
1
ox
+
A
2
oy
+
A
3
oz
] (B
1
i + B
2
j + B
3
k)

(V A)BA = _
A
1
ox
+
A
2
oy
+
A
3
oz
] (B
1
i + B
2
j + B
3
k)(A
1
i + A
2
j + A
3
k)
= _
A
1
ox
+
A
2
oy
+
A
3
oz
] (B
1
A
1
ii + B
1
A
2
ij + B
1
A
3
ik +
B
2
A
1
ji + B
2
A
2
jj +B
2
A
3
jk +
B
3
A
1
ki + B
3
A
2
kj + B
3
A
3
kk)

Material Stress Revisited
It is now clear that the stress in a material object must be a tensor of rank 2. The tensor in the
equation
F = T S
can therefore be represented by a dyad product T = 0v without concern for the specific natures
of the vectors 0 and v. Even though the exact physical natures of 0 and v cannot be specified, a
second rank tensor and a dyad are equivalent provided the vectors 0 and v are appropriately



MECH 7240 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
JohanFourie,BCIT
chosen. From the physicist/engineer perspective, it is only significant that:
the dyad 0v represents a stress physical quantity, and;
the rules developed in the previous section can be applied to the dyad representation in a
strictly formalistic way to advance the argument at hand.
With these ideas in mind, the inner product T uS can be written as
F = T S = (0v) S = 0(v S) = 0.
where is the scalar resulting from the inner product v S. The term 0 is a vector. In fact, it
is the force vector F acting on the element S.

Tensors of Rank >2
Tensors of rank 2 result from dyad products of vectors. In an entirely analogous way, tensors of
rank 3 arise from triad products, 0vW, and tensors of rank n arise from n-ad products of
vectors, 0vW...AB. In three-dimensional space, the number of components in each of these
systems is 3
n
. The rules governing these higher rank objects are defined in the same way as the
rules developed above.

Important Points
The progression from single number to scalar to vector to tensor, etc., information is being added
at every step. The complexity of the physical situation being modeled determines the rank of
the tensor representation we must choose. A tensor of rank 0 is sufficient to represent a single
temperature or a temperature field across a surface, for example, an aircraft compressor blade.
A tensor of rank 1 is required to represent the gravitational field of a massive object. A tensor
of rank 2 is necessary to represent the stresses in a material object or in a field, and so on...
We have examined in some detail properties and operating rules for scalars, vectors and we now
extend these rules to tensors. We assert that:
1. Tensors can be multiplied by other tensors to form new tensors.
2. The product of a tensor and a scalar (tensor of rank 0) is commutative.
3. The pre-multiplication of a given tensor by another tensor produces a different result from
post-multiplication; i.e., tensor multiplication in general is not commutative.
4. The rank of a new tensor formed by the product of two other tensors is the sum of their
individual ranks.
5. The inner product of a tensor and a vector or of two tensors is not commutative.
6. The rank of a new tensor formed by the inner product of two other tensors is the sum of their
individual ranks minus 2.
7. A tensor of rank n in three-dimensional space has 3n components.