Abc

Mechanics II
Prepared by Tilahun Tesfaye

African Virtual university
Universit Virtuelle Africaine
Universidade Virtual Africana
Physics Module 2
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I. MechanicsII______________________________________________3
II. PrerequisiteCourseorKnowledge _____________________________3
III. Time ____________________________________________________3
IV. Materials_________________________________________________4
V. ModuleRationale __________________________________________4
VI. Content__________________________________________________4
6.1 Overview____________________________________________4
6.2 Outline _____________________________________________5
6.3 Graphicorganizer_____________________________________6
VII. GeneralObjective(s)________________________________________7
VIII. SpecificLearningObjectives__________________________________7
IX Pre-assessment ___________________________________________9
X. TeachingandLearningActivities_______________________________9
XI. KeyConcepts(Glossary)____________________________________81
XII. CompulsoryReadings______________________________________85
XIII. CompulsoryResources_____________________________________89
XIV. UsefulLinks _____________________________________________91
XV. SynthesisOfTheModule ___________________________________96
XVI. SummativeEvaluation______________________________________97
XVII.References _____________________________________________113
XVIII.MainAuthoroftheModule________________________________114
XIX.FileStructure ___________________________________________115
Table of ConTenTs
I. Mechanics II
By Tilahun Tesfaye Addis Ababa University Ethiopia
Fig. 1 when the wheel of a bike is spinning the axle turns about the suspension point so
that the plane of rotation of the wheel remains vertical.
II. Prerequisite Course or Knowledge
In order to study this module you need to complete Mechanics I of the AVU
Teachers Training Module.
III. Time
This module can be completed in 120hrs.
IV. Materials
The following list identifes and describes the equipment necessary for all of the
activities in this module. The quantities listed are required for each group.
1. Computer: - A personal computer with word processing and spreadsheet
software
2. StringandBall: - Rotational motion experiment
3. MeterStick: -Rotational Motion Experiment.
V. Module Rationale
Physics is a study of Energy and its transformations. One of the ways of energy
transformation happens when objects are set in motion. Description of motion
has been studied in Mechanics I module. The emphasis on mechanics I was on
the kinematic and dynamic description of particles motion.
This module extends the kinematics and dynamics of particle motion to dynamics
of a system of particles; rotational motion rigid bodies and Gravitation. Hence
ability solve problems using the equation of motion of a rotating rigid body when
the motion is about any fxed axis, as well as when the motion is abut a principal
axis will be developed. Furthermore the learner will be able to calculate the kinetic
energy of rotation of a rotating rigid body and use this as an additional form of
kinetic energy in solving problems using the conservation of energy.
VI. Content
6.1 Overwiew
The central concepts of this module (Mechanics II) are dynamics of a system of
particles, rotational motion and Gravitation. The module begins with the study
of impulse of a force and its relation with momentum.
The second activity is the kinematic and dynamic descriptions of rotational
motion. New quantities to describe rotational motion are introduced and used. It
will be show that the equations of motion that describe linear motion possess a
rotational counterpart.
The third activity is on Gravitation Up to now we have described various forces
from an entirely empirical point of view. To gain a more unifed understanding
of such forces and to achieve greater predictive power, we shall now examine
two of the four fundamental forces which are ultimately responsible for all other
forces. Thus in the third activity well discuss the gravitational force which
accounts for the interaction between all astronomical bodies, the motion of the
planets and the moon, the trajectories of space vehicles, the occurrence of the
tides, and the weights of objects.
6.1 Outline
Dynamics of a system of Particle (40 hours)
Linear momentum of particle and of a system of particles,
Conservation of linear momentum.
Impulse and linear momentum,
Conservation of linear momentum in collisions and explosions; elastic
and inelastic collisions;
Collisions in two dimensions.
Centre of mass and motion about centre of mass.
Rotational Motion (35 hours)
Rotational kinematics, angular variables, relationship between linear and
angular kinematics - fxed axis.
Rotational dynamics, torque, angular momentum (of a particle and a
system of particles), rotation inertia, rotational kinetic energy,
Conservation of angular momentum.
Gravitation (25 hours)
The Law of Universal Gravitation,
Planet and satellite motion,
Gravitational feld and potential, inertia and gravitational mass.
Variation in gravitational feld strength due to latitude, altitude.
Motion of planets and satellites- geostationary orbits.
Relativity of Motion (20 hours)
Relative velocity.
Uniform relative translational motion.
The Galilean transformation.
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6.3 Graphic organizer
Mechanics
II
A. Dynami c s of
s ys tems of pa rt i c l es:
B . Rot at i onal Mot i on:
C. Gra vi ta ti on:
D. Re l at i vi t y of Moti on:
Lin ear momentum of part icl e and of a sys tem of part icl es,
c onservati on of li n ear momentum.
I mpul se and li near momentum,
Con servation of li near momentu m i n colli sion s and expl osi ons;
elast ic and i nelasti c colli s ions; colli s ions in t wo dimensi ons.
Cent re of mass and motion about centr e of mass.
Rotati onal kinemati cs, angul ar vari ables,
rel ation ship betwee n li near and an gular kin emati cs - fixed axi s.
Rotati onal d ynamic s, t or que, ang ular momentu m
(of a part ic le and a sys tem of p ar ti cl es ),
rotat ion iner tia, rot ation al ki netic energ y,
c onservati on of ang ular momentu m.
The Law of Universal Gr avi tati on,
planet an d satelli te moti on,
gr avi tati onal fi eld and pot ent ial ,
i nert ia and gravit at ional mass.
Var iati on i n g ravitati onal fiel d st rength
due to lati tud e, alt itu de.
Mot ion of pl anets and satelli t es-
geostati onary or bi ts. Relati ve vel ocit y.
Relat ive Vel ocit y
Unform Rel ative Tr an slati onal Moti on
The Galili an Tr ansformati on
Mechanics
II
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VII. General objective(s)
After completing the module you should be able to
Develop understanding of linear and angular momentum
Understand dynamics of rotational motion
Understand gravitational interaction and its application in artifcial satel-
lite.
Develop skills and habits of solving problems in a well reasoned and neat
manner
VIII. specifc learning objectives
(Instructional objectives)
Content Learning objectives
After Completing this section you
should be able to:
DynamicsofasystemofParticles
(40hours)
Linear momentum of particle and
of a system of particles,
Conservation of linear momen-
tum.
Impulse and linear momentum,
Conservation of linear momentum
in collisions and explosions; elastic
and inelastic collisions;
Collisions in two dimensions.
Centre of mass and motion about
centre of mass.
Relate impulse and linear momen-
tum
Solve problems involving elastic
and inelastic collisions in 1 and 2
dimensions
Describe motion of centre of mass
and motion about centre of mass for
a system of particles
Rotational Motion: (35 hours) tion: (35 hours) (35 hours)
Rotational kinematics, angular va-
riables, relationship between linear
and angular kinematics - fixed
axis.
Rotational dynamics, torque,
angular momentum (of a particle
and a system of particles), rotation
inertia, rotational kinetic energy,
Conservation of angular momen-
tum.
Gravitation: (25 hours)
The Law of Universal Gravita-
tion,
Planet and satellite motion,
Gravitational feld and potential,
inertia and gravitational mass.
Variation in gravitational field
strength due to latitude, altitude.
Motion of planets and satellites-
geostationary orbits.
Relativity of Motion: (20 hours)
Relative velocity.,
Uniform relative translational mo-
tion,
The Galilean transformation
Derive and use equations describing
rotational motion
Relate angular and linear quantities
for rotation around a fxed axis
Use T=Ia to solve problems
Defne angular momentum and its
conservation
Solve problems in rotational dyna-
mics
Use Newtons law of universal
gravitation to solve problems
Describe Gravitational field and
potential
Describe the gravitational poten-
tial
Distinguish between inertial and
gravitational mass(replace with
Distinguish between inactive and
gravitational force)
Calculate escape velocity of satel-
lites
Describe the relativity of mo-
tion
Use Galilean transformation to
solve problems in gravitation
IX. Pre-assessment
Are you ready for Mechanics II?
Dear Learner:
In this section, you will fnd self-evaluation questions that will help you test your
preparedness to complete this module. You should judge yourself sincerely and
do the recommended action after completion of the self-test. We encourage you
to take time and answer the questions.
Dear Instructor:
The Pre-assessment questions placed here guide learners to decide whether they
are prepared to take the content presented in this module. It is strongly suggested
to abide by the recommendations made on the basis of the mark obtained by the
learner. As their instructor you should encourage learners to evaluate themsel-
ves by answering all the questions provided below. Education research shows
that this will help learners be more prepared and help them articulate previous
knowledge.
Self Evaluation Associated With Mechanics II
Evaluate your preparedness to take the module on thermal physics. If you
score greater than or equal to 60 out of 75, you are ready to use this module. If
you score something between 40 and 60 you may need to revise your school
physics on topics of heat. A score less than 40 out of 75 indicates you need to
physics.
Try the following questions and evaluate where you are in topics related to Me-
chanics II
1. A person travels a distance

d meters given by

(5m/s
2
)t
2
where

t is in se-
conds. Which of the following statements are correct?
(a). The distance traveled in 10 seconds is 500m.
(b). The average speed of the person in 10 seconds is 50m/sec.
(c). The average speed of the person in 10 seconds is 100m/sec.
(d). The instantaneous speed of the person at

t = 10 sec is

100m/sec
2. The position of a particle moving along the

x -axis depends on the time as
per the following equation for four seconds

x = 4t
2
2t
3
+
t
4
4
where

x is in meters and

t in seconds. Choose the correct alternatives:
(a) The particle reaches its maximum

x -position. in 2 seconds
(b) The displacement of the particle in 4 seconds is zero.
(c) The distance covered by the particle in 4 seconds is 8 meters
(d) The particles speed after 2 seconds is zero.

3. Choose the correct statements
(a). A projectile fred from the ground follows a circular path
(b). A projectile fred from the ground follows a parabolic path
(c). The speed of the projectile is minimum at the highest point of its path
(d). The speed of the projectile is maximum at the highest point of its path
4. A particle is acted upon by a force of constant magnitude which is always
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. The motion of the particle takes
place in a plane. Then the particle.
(a). Has constant velocity
(b). Has constant acceleration.
(c). Has constant kinetic energy.
(d). Moves in a circular path.
5. A curve track is banked for a certain velocity when a particle goes round the
circular track with a lesser velocity. The forceof friction perpendicular to
direction of motion
(a). is totally absent
(b). acts along the road outwards
(c). acts horizontally outwards
(d). acts along the road inwards
6. If two equal forces have a resultant equal to the magnitude of either of the 2
forces then the angle between the 2 forces is
(a).

0
o
(b).

60
o
(c).

190
o
(d).

120
o
7. A solid body foats in a liquid of specifc gravity 0.8 with 2/5
th
of its volume
exposed to air . Its specifc gravity is is
(a). 0.6
(b). 0.48
(c). 0.4
(d). 0.32
8. In which of the folowing examples is the motion of a car not accelerated?
(a). A car climbs a steep hill with its speed dropping from 60 km/hr at the
top
(b). A car turns a corner at the constant speed of 29km/hr
(c). A car climbs a steep hill at the constant speed of 40km/hr
(d). A car climbs a steep hill and goes over the crest and down on the other
side, all at a speed of 40km/hr.
9. Which law of motion makes swimming possible?
(a). Second
(b). First
(c). Third
(d). None
10. A projectile is fred at an angle of

37
o
with an initial speed of 100/sec. What
is the approximate vertical component fo its velocity after 2 sec?
(a). 80m/sec
(b). 40m/sec
(c). 60m/sec
(d). 100m/sed
11. A projectile is fred at an angle of

37
0
with an initial speed of 100 m/s. the
vertical component of its velocity after 2s?
(a).

80 m/s
(b).

40.4 m/s
(c).

60 m/s
(d).

29.6 m/s
12. In problem 11 the position above the ground after 3s is approximately
(a).

140 m
(b).

200 m
(c).

136 m
(d).

120 m
13. A projectilie is fred horizontally with an initial speed of 20m/s. Its horizontal
speed 3s later is
(a).

20 m/ s
(b).

6.67 m/ s
(c).

60 m/ s
(d).

29.4 m/ s
14. The vertical speed of the above projectile after 3s is approximately
(a).

9.8 m/s
(b).

60 m/s
(c).

29.4 m/s
(d).

20 m/s
15. Which of the following projection angles will result in the greatest range?
(a).

37
0
(b).

20
0
(c).

48
0
(d).

60
0
16. A 10kg block is lifted 20m above the ground in a gravitational feld. The
work done by the feld is
(a). Negative
(b). Equal to the fnal potential energy
(c). Positive
(d). A vector quantity
17. A body in equilibrium may not have
(a). Momentum
(b). Velocity
(c). Acceleration
(d). Kinetic energy
18. Watt-sec is a unit of
(a). Momentum
(b). Force
(c). Energy
(d). Power
19. The 2.5kg head of an ax exerts a force of 80kN as it penetrates 18mm into
the trunk of a tree. The velocity of the axe head when it strikes the tree is
(a). 1.2m/s
(b). 34m/s
(c). 3.4m/s
(d). 107m/s
20. A 50 kg mass has a PE of 4.9kJ relative to the ground. The height of the mass
above the ground is
(a). 10m
(b). 98m
(c). 960m
(d). 245m
Answer Key
1. A, C, D
2. A, B, C, D
3. B, C
4. C, D
5. B
6. D
7. B
8. C
9. C
10. B
11. B
12. C
13. A
14. C
15. C
16. A
17. C
18. C
19. C
20. A
Pedagogical Comment For The Learner:
Many students have a sad impression that mechanics is diffcult to grasp. The
single most resposible factor for this impression is not the lack of information or
theoretical concepts but rather the absence of clear and correct ideas about the
relations between the concepts of physics. Learners often cannot say what forms
the basis of a defnition, what is the result of an experiment, and what should be
treated as a theoretical generalizsation of experimental knowledge.
It is important to distinguish whether a presented fact is a self evident corollary
of previousely stated fact or not. It is also important not to regard different for-
mulations of the same problem as different laws. Here comes the importance of
solving as many problems as possible. Most importantly do exercises and self
assessments on schedule; dont put it off until the last minute (or later).
Extensive research in recent years has shown that the students who do best in
physics (and other subjects) are those who involve themselves actively in the
learning process. This involvement can take many forms: writing lots of questions
in the margins of the module; asking questions by email; discussing physics in
the AVU discussion forums etc.
A Final Word..
Physics is not so much a collection of facts as a way of looking at the world. The
author of this module hopes that this course will not only teach you mechanics,
but will also improve your skills in careful thinking, problem solving, and precise
communication. In this course you will gain lots of experience with qualitative
explanations, rough numerical estimates, and careful quantitative problem solving.
When you understand a phenomenon on all of these levels, and can describe it
clearly to others, you are thinking like a physicist (as we like to say). Even if
you eventually forget every fact learned in this course, these skills will serve you
well for the rest of your life.
X. Teaching and learning activities
Activity 1: Dynamics of A system of Particles
You will require 40 hours to complete this activity. In this activity you are guided
with a series of readings, Multimedia clips, worked examples and self assessment
questions and problems. You are strongly advised to go through the activities
and consult all the compulsory materials and as many as possible among useful
links and references.
Specific Teaching and Learning Objectives
Relate impulse and linear momentum
Solve problems involving elastic and inelastic collisions in 1 and 2 di-
mensions
Describe motion of center of mass and motion about center of mass for
a system of particles.
Summary of the Learning Activity
Questions related to collisions of bodies are diffcult to answer directly by applying
Newtons second law

r
F
= m
r
a , because the forces acting between the colliding
objects are not fully known. In this activity well that we dont have to know the
forces and the time of their action to analyze motion of a system of interacting
particles. For this purpose the concept of impulse

J = p is defned and used.
To further our comprehension of mechanics we must begin to examine the interac-
tions of many particles at once. To begin this study, we defne and examine a new
concept, the centre of mass, which will allow us to make mechanical calculations
for a system of particles.
List of Required Readings
Copyright free readings should also be given in electronic form (to be provided
on a CD with the module)
Reading 1: Momentum in One Dimension.
Completereference: ConservationofMomentum
From html version of SimpleNature, by Benjamin Crowell.
URL: http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch03/ch03.
html#Section3.1
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
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Abstract:
This is part of a book by Benjamin Crowell. It is freely available at www.ligh-
tandmatter.com the part given here the relevant section for this activity.
Rationale:
This section has a well illustrated content on linear momentum. The motion of
center of mass is treated at the end. It provides another way of looking at the
theories of collision and momentum conservation. The examples drawn from
nature, like comet, are interesting and educational reading materials.
Reading 2: Momentum Conservation and Transfer.
Completereference: MomentumConservationandTransfer
from Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
URL: http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m15.pdf
Abstract:
In this article, momentum is defned for a single and a system of particles. Using
Newtons laws and the defnition of momentum it is shown that the momentum
of an isolated system of particles remain unchanged with time (i.e. conserved)
Rationale:
This article covers the contents of this activity. It gives another way of looking
at the theories of collision and momentum conservation. Further the sample tests
and exercises given at the end provide good opportunity to use the theories and
principles exercised from different perspectives.
List of Relevant MM Resources (for the Learning Activity)
Software, Interactive online exercises Videos, animations etc
Resource#1
Title: Motion of Centre of Mass
URL: http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/Dynamics/CM/CMApplet.
html
ScreenCapture:
Description: Applet shows the motion of the centre of mass of a dumbbell sha-
ped object. The red and blue dots represent two masses and they are connected
by a mass less rod. The dumbbells projection velocity can be varied by using
the velocity and angle sliders. The mass ratio slider allows shifting of centre of
mass. Here m1 is the mass of the blue object and m2 is the mass of red object.
Check boxes for path1 and path2 can be used to display or turn off the paths of
the two masses.
Rationale: This applet depicts the motion of centre of mass of two balls (shown in
red and blue colour). The applets speed and angle of projection can be varied...
List of Relevant Useful Links (for the Learning Activity)
List of links, providing an alternative perspective on the curriculum material,
each with screen capture
UsefulLink#1ClassicalMechanics
Title:AllThermodynamics
URL:http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/lectures/
ScreenCapture:
Description:Advanced description of the topics discussed in mechanics I and
II of the AVU Physics module.
Rationale: This site has comprehensive coverage of most of physics, in the
mechanics courses. The learner can consult chapters 7, 8 and 9 of the book. The
PDF version is also available.
Detailed Description of the Activity (Main Theoretical Elements)
Introduction
In Mechanics I module you have studied forces acting on bodies and particles and
there effects. These forces act on their points of application for a time suffciently
enough to measure. There are phenomena in which interaction between bodies
is so fast that it is diffcult to measure the forces that are produced between them
or the time that the interaction lasts. For example, how long does the collision
between two billiard balls last for? What force does one ball apply on the other?
These questions are, no doubt, diffcult to answer. Should we give up trying
to calculate the result of collisions? Should we leave everything to the billiard
players experience and intuition? No, physics doesnt give up on trying to explain
phenomena that look diffcult that easily.
In these cases, the notion of linear momentum and impulse, in addition to the
conditions under which linear momentum is conserved, will allow us to make
predictions of the speed and direction of the movement after the interaction.
The scalar quattities work and energy have no directions associated with them.
When two or more bodies interact with one another, or a single body breaks up
into two or more other bodies, the various directions of motion cannot be related
by energy consideerations alone. The vector quatities called linear momentum
and impulse are important in anlyzing such events.
Linear Momentum and Impulse
In the mechanics I, the concepts of work and energy were developed from New-
tons laws of motion. We shall see next how the concepts of linear momemtum
and impulse also arize from these law.
Consider a particle of mass

m moving with a velocity
v
r
. Suppose a const
force

r
F acts along the line of motion, then

v
r
= v
r
0 + a
r
t
mv
r
= mv
r
0 + F
ur
t
mv
r
mv
r
0 = F
ur
t
Vv
r
= F
ur
t
The linear momentum of a particle is defned as the product of its mass and its
linear velocity

r
P = m
r
v valid only for
r
v << the speed of light c
p
x
= mv
x
; p
y
= mv
y
; p
2
= mv
2
The impulse of a force is defned as the product of a force and the time during
which it acts i.e.

r
J =
r
p
Interms of these two newly defned quantities
Note that the above equation holds independently for components. i.e

p
x
= J
x
= F
x
.t
p
4
= J
4
= F
4
.t
p
2
= J
2
= F
2
.t
Linear momentum of a particle can also be related to the net force acting on the
particle as follows

multiply both sides of this equation by m we obtain

r
F = m
r
a = m
d
r
v
dt
=
d
dt
(m
r
v) =
d
r
p
dt
d
r
p =
r
Fdt
Integrating the last expression, the change in momentum of a particle is

p
ur
= p
ur
f
p
ur
i
= F
ur
t
i
t
f
.dt
The quantity

F
ur
t
i
t
f
.dt is called the impulse of the force

F
ur
for

t =
f
t
i

I = F
ur
t
i
t
f
.dt = p Impulse momentum Theorem.

Since the force can generally vary in tire, it is convenient to defne a time ave-
raged force

F
ur
=
1
t
F
ur
t
i
t
f
.dt
I =
r
p = F
ur
t
Conservation of Linear Momentum
Consider two particles that can interact each other but are isolated from the
surrounding
These forces could be of any origing (i.e. gravitational, electromagnetic etc.)
Since the two are action reaction pairs

F
12
+ F
21
= 0
dp
1
dt
+
dp
2
dt
=
d
dt
( p
1
ur u
+ p
2
ur u
) = 0
total momentum (
r
p) =
r
p
1
+
r
p
2
= constant.
p
i x
= p
fx
p
i y
= p
fy
p
i z
= p
fz
The statement the total momentum of the system remains constant is referred to
as the law of conservation of momentum.
Example1: Linear momentum and impulse
A child bounces a super ball on a side walk. The linear impulse delivered by
the side walk to the super ball is 2 N.s during 1/800 sec of contact. What is the
magnitude of the average force exerted on the super ball?
Solution

Given: I = 2Ns and t =
1
800
sec.
By definiton:
I = F
av
t
Therefore the average force exerted on the superball is, F
av
=
2
1
800
= 1600N.
Example2: A 3kg steel ball strikes a massive wall with a speed of 10m/s at an
angle of

60
0
with the angle as shown. If the ball is in contact with the wall for
0.2 sec what is the average force exerted on the ball by the wall.
Solution:

p
t
= F
av
=
p
f
2
+ p
i
2
+ p
i
p
f
t
=
30
2
+ 30
2
+ 2 30 30cos
0.02
= 260N. in the horizontal direction.
A System of Particles
The simplifcation by treating interactions as point particle interactions has its
limitations for two reasons:
Mostly objects are extended
Systems in which mass fow exist can not be treated (rocket propulsion,
explosion etc)
In this part of the activity we shall generalize the laws of motion to over-
come these difficulties. We begin by restating Newtons second law

F
ur
= ma
r
=
d
dt
(mv
r
) m is constant
=
dP
ur
dt
This form of

2
nd
law is preferred to

F
ur
= ma
r
because it is generalized to com-
plex systems, and because momentum turns out to be more fundamental than m
or v separately.
Here we defne some of the terms used in this module
Asystem:- is a set of objects or substances which are interdependent and governed
by physical laws, forming a whole. eg. Solar system is governed by Gravitational
law, mass-spring system
ClosedSystem: - is a system that does not interact with its surrounding.
Externalforce: - is a force exerted on or a part of a system by some body or
agency outside the system
Consider a system of N interacting particles with masses

m
1
, m
2
, m
3
... m
N
.
The position of the

j
th
particle is

r
j
ur
, the force on the

j
th
particle is

f
ur
j
and
its momentum is

r
p
j
= m
j
r
&
r
j
The equation of motion for the

j
th
particle is thus

f
ur
j
=
dp
ur
dt
=
r
f
j
internal
+
r
f
j
external

the force on particle j can be split between two terms (internal and external)
Adding all the equations of motion of all the particles in the system, we obtain

r
f
1
int
+
r
f
1
ext
=
dp
1
ur u
dt
M
r
f
j
int
+
r
f
j
ext
=
dp
j
ur u
dt
M
r
f
N
int
+
r
f
N
=
dp
N
u r u
dt
r
f
j
int
+
r
f
j
ext
=
dp
j
ur u
dt
, j = 1, 2, 3, Ln

f
j
ext
= is the sum of all external forces acting on all particles.

= total external force acting on the system
=
r
F
ext
f
j
int
= is the sum of all internal forces acting on all the particles

= 0 This follows from newtons third law.

By Newtons

3
r d
law, the forces between any two paricles are equal and
opposite. The internal forces in the system of particles cancel in pair.

Therefore f
j
ext
= F
ur
ext =
dp
ur
dt

=
d
dt
p
ur
j
Q derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.

Denoting

p
j
= p
ur
the total momentum of the system the last equation be-

comes

F
ur
ext =
dp
ur
dt

The total external force acting on a system of particles is equal to the time rate
of change of the total momentum. This is true irrespective of the details of inte-
raction

F
ur
ext could be a single force acting on a single particle, or it could be the
resultant of many ting interactions
The Center of Mass of Particles
The concept of the center of mass allows us to describe the movement of a system
of particles by the movement of a single point. We will use the center of mass to
calculate the kinematics and dynamics of the system as a whole, regardless of
the motion of the individual particles.
The center of mass for the simplest possible system of particles, one containing
only two particles, will be difned frst and we will generalize for systems contai-
ning many particles.
CenterofMassforTwoParticlesinOneDimension
If a particle with mass

m
1
has a position of

x
1
and a particle with mass

m
2
has a
position of

x
2
, then the position of the center of mass of the two particles is given by:

x
cm
=
m
1
x
1
+ m
2
x
2
m
1
+ m
2

Thus the position of the center of mass is a point in space that is not necessarily
part of either particle. This phenomenon makes intuitive sense: connect the two
objects with a light but rigid pole. If you hold the pole at the position of the cen-
ter of mass of the objects, they will balance. That balancing point will often not
exist within either object.
Center of Mass for Two Particles beyond One Dimension
The concept of the center of mass can be extended to velocity and acceleration:
taking a simple time derivative of our expression for

x
cm
we see that:

v
cm
=
m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
m
1
+ m
2

Differentiating again, we can generate an expression for acceleration:

a
cm
=
m
1
a
1
+ m
2
a
2
m
1
+ m
2

With this set of three equations we have generated the necessary elements of the
kinematics of a system of particles.
From our last equation, however, we can also extend to the dynamics of the center
of mass. Consider two mutually interacting particles in a system with no external
forces. Let the force exerted on

m
2
by

m
1
be

F
21
, and the force exerted on

m
1
by

m
2
by

F
12
. By applying Newtons Second Law we can state that

F
12
= m
1
a
1
and

F
21
= m
2
a
2
. We can now substitute this into our expression for the acceleration
of the center of mass:

a
cm
=
F
12
+ F
21
m
1
+ m
2
However, by Newtons Third Law

F
12
and

F
21
are reactive forces, and

F
12
= F
21

Thus

a
cm
= 0 Thus, if a system of particles experiences no net external force,
the center of mass of the system will move at a constant velocity.
But what if there is a net force? Can we predict how the system will move? Consider
again our example of a two body system, with

m
1
experiencing an external force
of

F
1
and

m
2
experiencing a force of

F
2
We also must continue to take into ac-
count the forces between the two particles,

F
21
and

F
12
. By Newtons Second Law:

F
1
+ F
12
= m
1
a
1
F
2
+ F
21
= m
2
a
2

Substituting this experession into our center of mass acceleration equation we obtain

F
1
+ F
2
+ F
12
+ F
21
= m
1
a
1
+ m
2
a
2
F
1
+ F
2
= m
1
a
1
+ m
2
a
2
= m
1
+ m
2
( )
a
cm
F
external
= m
1
+ m
2
( )
a
cm
= Ma
cm
This equation bears a striking resemblance to Newtons Second Law.
The overall acceleration of a system of particles, no matter how the in-
dividual particles move, can be calculated by this equation. Consider
now a single particle of mass

M placed at the center of mass of the sys-
tem. Exposed to the same forces, the single particle will accelerate in the
same way as the system would. This leads us to an important statement:
The overall motion of a system of particles can be found by applying Newtons
Laws as if the total mass of the system were concentrated at the center of mass,
and the external force were applied at this point.
SystemsofMorethanTwoParticles
A simple extension of our two particle equations to an

n particle system will
show the total mass of the system

M is

M = m
1
+ m
2
+ m
3
+ L + m
n
With this definition we can simply state the equations for the position,
velocity, and acceleration of the center of mass of a many particle sys-
tem, similar to the two-particle case. Thus for a system of n particles:

x
cm
=
1
M
m
n
x
n
v
cm
=
1
M
m
n
v
n
a
cm
=
1
M
m
n
a
n
F
ext
= Ma
cm

These equations require little explanation, as they are identical in form to our two
particle equations. All these equations for center of mass dynamics may seem
confusing, however, so we will discuss a short example to clarify.
Consider a missile composed of four parts, traveling in a parabolic path through
the air. At a certain point, an explosive mechanism on the missile breaks it into
its four parts, all of which shoot off in various directions, as shown below.
Figure: A missile breaking into pieces
What can be said about the motion of the system of the four parts? We know that
all forces applied to the missile parts upon the explosion were internal forces,
and were thus cancelled out by some other reactive force: Newtons Third Law.
The only external force that acts upon the system is gravity, and it acts in the
same way it did before the explosion. Thus, though the missile pieces fy off in
unpredictable directions, we can confdently predict that the center of mass of
the four pieces will continue in the same parabolic path it had traveled in before
the collision.
Such an example displays the power of the notion of a center of mass. With
this concept we can predict emergent behavior of a set of particles traveling in
unpredictable ways. We have now shown a way to calculate the motion of the
system of particles as a whole. But to truly explain the motion we must generate
a law for how each of the individual particles react. We do so by introducing the
concept of linear momentum in the next section.
Conservation of Momentum (System of Particles)
We have seen that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the resultant force acting on the body and is in the direction of the force:

r
f =
d
r
p
dt

For a system of n particles.

p
ur
= p
ur
1
+ p
ur
2
+Lp
ur
n
= m
1
v
r
1 + m
2
v
r
2 +Lm
n
v
r
n = MV
cm
i.e.
Total momentum of
a system of particles
=
total mass of
the system

The velocity of the center
of mass of the system
d
r
P
dt
= M
d
r
v
cm
dt
= M
r
a
cm
r
F
ext
=
d
r
P
dt
= 0, when no external force acts on the system
When the resusltan external force acting on a system is zero, the total vector
momentum of the system remains constan. This is the principleof conservation
of momentum.
System of variable Mass:
v
M
y
x
y
x
v+v
M-m
m
Fig: mass m moving with velocity v.
The above fgure shows mass m moving with velocity v. After some time a mass

m is ejected out with a velocity

u in opposite direction to that of

v. For this sys-
tem of variable mass we can write

F
ext
=
dp
ur
dt
as an approximate result for

F
ext
;
p
ur
t
=
p
ur
f
p
ur
i
t
; [( M M)(v + v) + Mu] [ Mv]
= M
v
t
+[u (v + v)]
M
t
as t 0
F
ext
= M
dM
dt
+ v
dM
dt
u
dM
dt
Note:- this equation is reduced to the familiar law of conservation of momen-
tum.
Example3: A grenade fying horizontally with a velocity of 12 m/s is explodes
in to two fragments with masses of 10 kg and 5kg. The velocity of the larger
fragment is 25m/sec and forms an angle of

330
o
with the horizontal. Find the
magnitude and direction of the velocity of the smaller fragment.
Solution:The given situation looks like the fgure below

Total momentum
before explosion
=
Total Momentum
after explosion

(P
tot
)
before
=(P
tot
)
after

(15 12)
r
i=(250 cos 30 + 5 v cos )i
r
+ (250sin30 + 5vsin) j
r
0 5v sin =125
vsin =25
180 =216.5 + 5v cos vcos =-7.3L(2)
(1) (2) tan =25/-7.3 = -3.4247 =-73.72
0
=
tan is - ve in the 4
th
or 2
nd
quadrant for the prblem we take the angle in the 2
nd
using the value of in (1)
v=
25
sin 6
=
25
sin106.28
= 26m/ s
Example4:A 4N weight rests on a smooth horizontal plane it is struck with a
2N blow that lasts 0.02 sec. Three seconds after the start of the frst blos a second
blos of -2N is delivered. This lasts for 0.01 sec. What will be the speed of the
body after 4 sec?
Solution
The forces in this problem are
For any t>3.01 sec is the sum of the two areas

i.e J
r
= (2 0.02) + (0.01 (2)) = 0.02N sec

0.02N.sec =
4
9.8
(v 0) v = 0.049m/ s

Example5
A stream of water with cross-sectional area 2000

mm
2
and moving 10m/s
horizontally, strikes a fxed blade curve as show. Assuming the speed of the
water relative to the blade is constant (no friction is considered), determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the force of the blade on the stream of
water.

Solution
o

v'
ur
= v''
ur u
, but directions are different
The mass m of all particles of water in time interval

t is

m= Avgt A = area , v speed, p-density of water
= (2000 10
6
m
2
)(10m/s)(10
3
kg/m
3
)=20(t)
using J
r
= p
ur
in the x and y directions
F
x
t = m(v
x
11
v
x
1
) = (20t)(10cos4510) = (20t)(17.07)
F
y
t = m(v
y
11
v
y
1
) = (20t)(10 sin 45 0) = (20t)(7.07)
F
x
= 341.4N; F
y
= 141.4N
Example6
Consider the motion from o to A.

v
11
= vog gt
ob

t
ob
=
v
0
sin45
g
L(1)
x
1
= v
ox
.t
ob
= (v
0
cos45)(
v
0
sin45
3
)L(3)
When the projectile explde at A, the velocity is entirely along x. i.e

v
0
cos45m(v
0
cos45) =
m
2
v
f
by cons of mom and where

v
f
is the v of the fying frag.

v
f
= 240cos45
x
2
= (240cos45)t
ob
since the fine of fall is
= (240 cos 45)
v
0
sin45
g
=
v
2
0
sin45cos45
g
x
tot
= x
1
+ x
2
=
v
2
0
sin45cos45
g
+
2v
2
0
sin45cos45
g
=
v
2
0
sin45cos45
g
[1+ 2]
=
3v
2
0
sin45cos45
g
= 1.05510
5
ft
Solve the following problems
Task 1.1. Distance moved by a fragment from an explosion
A projectile fned from a gun at an angle of

45
o
with the horizontal and with
muzzle speed of 1500 ft/sec. At the highest point in its fight the projectile explo-
des into two fragments of equal mass- one fragment whose initial speed is zero,
falls vertically. How far from the gun does the other fragment land, assuming a
level terrain.
Answer:

= 1.05510
5
ft
Task 1.2.Mass of a recoiling boat
Four 50kg-girls imultaneously dive horizontally at 2.5m/sec from the same side
of a boat, whose recoil velocity is 0.1m/sec. what is the mass of the boat? ?
Answer:

5000kg
Task 1.3.Question for discussion
Discuss the following questions with your colleagues or on the discussion forum
of AVU
1. Why does a gun recoil?
2. Suppose you catch a baseball, and then someone invites you to catch a
bullet with the same momentum or with the same kinetic energy. Which
would you choose?
3. It is not the fall that hurts you; it is the sudden stop at the bottom. Dis-
cuss?
Task 1.4 Experiment with Billiard balls
Have you ever played a billiard ball? If no try it for experimentation purpose.
A ball (b1) thrown collides with a ball that was at rest (b2). Immediately after
collision, b2 moves with the same velocity as b1 and b1 stops.
Try this with balls of different mass and determine the relation ship between the
masses of the two balls. Use conservation of linear momentum to mathematically
support your answer.
FormativeEvaluation1
1. Blocks A and B have a mass of 10 kg and 20 kg, respectively. If
they are travelling with the speeds shown, determine their com-
mon vel oci t y i f t hey col l i de and become coupl ed t oget her

.
A
10kg
2m/sec
4m/sec
a. 2m/s to right
b. 2m/s to left
c. 3.33m.s to left
d. 4m/sec to left
2. Suppose the entire population of the world gathers in one spot and, at the
sound of a prearranged signal, everyone jumps up. While all the people are
in the air, does the Earth gain momentum in the opposite direction?
a. No; the mass of the Earth is so large that the planets change in motion is
imperceptible.
b. Yes; however, because of the much larger mass of the Earth the change in
the planets momentum is much less than that of all the jumping people.
c. Yes; the Earth recoils with a change in momentum equal to and opposite
that of the people.
d. It depends
3. Suppose rain falls vertically into an open cart rolling along a straight horizontal
track with negligible friction. As a result of the accumulating water, the speed
of the cart:
a. Increases
b. Does not change
c. decreases
4. A person stands under an umbrella during a rain shower. A few minutes later
the raindrops turn to hail though the number of drops hitting the umbrella
per time and their speed remains the same. Is the force required to hold the
umbrella in the hail
a. the same as
b. more than
c. less than the force
d. Required in the rain?
5. A 4 N force acts on a 3 kg object moving at 8 m/s for 10 sec. What is the
objects change in momentum? What impulse acts on the object? What is the
objects fnal speed?
6. A 1000 kg car traveling at 9 m/s, east, strikes a stationary 2000 kg truck. They
interlock as a result of the collision and move off as one. What is their speed?
What is their velocity?
7. A 15,000 kg rocket launcher holds a 5000 kg rocket. The rocket exits the
launcher at +450 m/s. What is the recoil velocity of the launcher?
8. A 100 g ball traveling to the right at 2 m/s strikes a 200 g ball traveling to the
left at 4 m/s. After the collision, the 100 g ball has a velocity of 8 m/s, left.
What is the velocity of the 200 g ball?
9. A 1200 kg car moving at 8m/s, north, strikes a 2000 kg truck moving at 4
m/s, south. The velocity of the car is 6 m/s, south. What is the velocity of the
truck?
10. A 1325 kg car traveling north at 27 m/s collides with a 2165 kg car moving
east at 17 m/s. As a result of the collision, they stick together. What is their
velocity after the collision?
11. A sticky ball with a mass of 200 g is moving to the west at 6 m/s. It collides
with another sticky ball with a mass of 300 g moving north at 5 m/s. The sticky
balls stick together as a result of the collision and move off as one. What is
their velocity?
12. A 6 kg object A moving at 3 m/s, right, collides with a 6 kg object B at rest.
After the collision, A moves at 1.6 m/s, 30. What is the velocity of B after
the collision?
13. A stationary 0.14 kg ball is struck by a 0.23 kg ball moving east at 2 m/s.
After the collision, the 0.14 kg ball has a velocity of 0.9 m/s, 30. What is the
velocity of the 0.23 kg ball?
14. A 0.50 kg ball at rest is struck by a 0.30 kg ball moving west at 5 m/s. After
the collision, the 0.30 kg ball has a velocity of 3 m/s, 200. What is the velocity
of the 0.50 kg ball?
15. A 2 kg object moves at 4 m/s, south. It strikes a 3 kg object at rest. After the
collision, the 2 kg object has a velocity of 2.5 m/s, 300. What is the velocity
of the 3 kg object?
16. Hockey puck A moves to the right at 50 m/s. It strikes an identical hockey
puck B that is stationary on the ice. After the collision, the velocity of A is
35 m/s, 27.6. What is the velocity of B? Ans: 24.97 m/s, 40.52 below the
horizontal
17. A 600 g billiard ball moving to the right at 2 m/s collides with an 800 g ball
at rest. After the collision, the 600 g ball is defected at an angle of 37 above
its original direction at a rate of 0.5 m/s. What is the magnitude and direction
of the 800 g balls velocity? Ans: 1.22 m/s, 10.85 below the horizontal
18. A 6000 kg truck traveling north at 5 m/s collides with a 4000 kg car traveling
west at 15 m/s. The two remain locked together after the collision. What is
their velocity after the collision? Ans: 6.71 m/s, 26.6 north of west
19. A 1200 kg car traveling east at 60 km/h collides with a 3000 kg truck trave-
ling north at 40 km/h. After the collision, they remain joined. What is their
velocity? Answer in km/h. Ans: 33.3 km/h, 59
20. A 10 kg ball travels west at 4 m/s. It strikes a 12 kg ball at rest. After the
collision, the velocity of the 10 kg ball is 2.5 m/s, 40 below the horizontal.
What is the 12 kg balls velocity? Ans: 2.20 m/s, 142.4
Teaching the Content in Secondary School 1
What interest students about collision and momentum conservation? This ques-
tion is a good starting point to prepare a lesson on conservation of momentum. .
Students may be allowed to list their ideas about momentum, how it describes the
quantity of motion and how it provides another view of Newtons laws This
activity will give the teacher some information about learners current knowledge
and understanding of motion in general. It will also tell something about what
students do not know and how well they are able to pose interesting questions
that can be answered mathematically.
With this inventory, it is possible to prepare a series of activities that will guide
learners toward momentum and its conservation principle
Activity: Rotational Motion
questions and problems. You are strongly advised to go through the activities and
consult all the compulsory materials and use as many as possible useful links
and references.
Derive and use equations describing rotational motion
Relate angular and linear quantities for rotation around a fxed axis
Use

= I to solve problems
Defne angular momentum and its conservation.
Solve problems in rotational Dynamics.
Rotational motion is very common in nature as compared to linear motion. Bodies
ranging from celestial objects to subatomic particles, like electrons, are in a state
of rotational motion. The kinematic and dynamic descriptions of rotary motion are
the contents of this activity. You will need to defne new quantities like angular
displacement
( )
, angular velocity
( )
, angular acceleration
( )
, moment of
inertia

I
( )
, torque
( )
, and angular momentum

L
( )
, for the description of rotary
motion. The interesting thing here is there is strong parallelism between linear
and angular quantities. Hence the equations of motion for rotational quantities
are similar in form to that of equations describing angular quantities.
Reading 3: Angular Acceleration.
Completereference: AngularAccelerationincircularmotion
From Project PHYSNET PDF Modules
Abstract:
In this article, the two agents of change, angular and linear acceleration, producing
angular acceleration and constant torque case rotational kinematics are treated.
Rationale:
This article covers the contents of this activity. It gives another way of looking
at the theories of collision and momentum conservation. Further the sample tests
and exercises given at the end provide good opportunity to use the theories and
principles exercised from different perspectives.
Completereference: ConservationofMomentum
From html version of Simple Nature, by Benjamin Crowell.
URL: http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch04/ch04.html
Abstract:
Rationale:
This section has a well illustrated content on angular momentum. Theories of
angular momentum in two dimensions and in three dimensions are well developed.
Further there is a good deal of theory on rigid body rotation.
Reading 5: Torque and Angular Momentum.
Completereference:TorqueandAngularMomentumincircularmotion
Abstract:
In this article, the two agents of change, angular and linear acceleration, producing
angular acceleration and constant torque case rotational kinematics are treated.
Rationale:
This article covers topics on torque and angular momentum, system of particles,
conservation of angular momentum, non planar rigid bodies. The problem sup-
plement and the model exam at the end make this site popular.

Software, Interactive online exercises Videos, animations etc
Resource #2: Rotating Stool
URL:- http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/rstoo.html#sm
Complete Reference:- Good animation graphics and applet to visualize the
dependence of moment of inertia on distribution of matter on an object..
Rationale: Strengthens what is already discussed in Activity 2.
List of Relevant Useful Links (for the Learning Activity).
Useful Link #2 Tutorial on torque from university of Guelph
Title:Torque
URL:http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/torque/index.html
ScreenCapture:

Description: The site gives detailed description of torque
Rationale: Here you will fnd a good collection of tutorial problems on tor-
que...
Detailed Description of the Activity (Main Theoretical Elements)
Introduction
In your school physics, you have done a little on rotation, discussing objects
moving in a circle at constant speed, and learning about centripetal force. Not
surprisingly, life can be more complicated. Objects moving in a circle dont have
to move at constant speed. They can have what is called tangential acceleration.
This means that the angular speed (measured for example in revolutions per
second) is changing. For example, a CD player tangentially decelerates as the
laser moves to the outside, in order to preserve the same speed in m/s.
To study real problems of the sort mentioned above, it is very useful to introduce
a new way of describing angular distance and speed. Degrees are fairly inconve-
nient: the fact that the circle is divided into 360 degrees is completely arbitrary
and not very intuitive. What is natural is the fact that the circumference of a
circle is

2 times the radius. This suggests that instead of dividing a circle into
360 parts, we divide it into

2 parts. These parts are called radians. Thus

90
o

corresponds to

2
radians,

45
o
corresponds to

4
radians etc. Therefore we

defne and use the radian measure to handle real rotation problems.
2.1: Rotational Kinematics:
Angular Variables:
Angular displacement
( )
:
r
S
o
Angular velocity
( )
The angular speed is defned just like ordinary speed: an object which moves
from an angle

i
to an angle

f
has average angular speed :
o

=

t
=

f

i
t
Instantaneous angular speed is obtained by taking

t small. An object moving
45 revolutions per minute (rpm) has

= 90 radians/sec . As it is seen from
the defnition of the radian measure of an angle an object moving in a circle at
constant speed travels a distance

2 radian per revolution. Moreover, one re-
volution corresponds to

2 radians. Thus the speed

v is related to the angular
speed by the simple formula:
o

v = r
This formula is only valid if is expressed in radians. Notice that radians really
arent a unit, in the sense that

v is still measured in m/s or mph or whatever: we
dont need to put a radian. Now we can write centripetal acceleration as:
o

a
c
=
v
2
r
=

2
r
2
r
=
2
r
Notice that centripetal acceleration is directed perpendicular to the velocity at
evry point of the path and is responsible for the change of direction of the velo-
city. Not the magnitude!
Angular acceleration
( )
:
The direction of centripetal acceleration and force is inward (radial). If theres an
acceleration tangential to the circle, then the angular speed must change. Angular
acceleration is defned asthe time rate of change of angular velocity:

=

t
For constant angular speed,

= 0 and hence

= 0 . For constant angular
acceleration the tangential acceleration is given by:

a
T
= r
(again must be measured in radians). The direction of tangential accelera-
tion is tangential to the circle and so is always perpendicular to the centripetal
acceleration.
Kinematic Relations
Once we defne the angular quantities, we can easily do the kinematics of angular
motion, just like we did the kinematics of linear motion in Mechanics I. From the
defnition of angular speed, we see that for constant angular acceleration,

=
o
+t
All the linear formulas have angular versions. You can easily notice the similarity
of the above equation with

v = v
o
+ at For example, to fnd the angular position
of a particle undergoing a constant angular acceleration, you can use:

=
o
t +
1
2
t
2

The other equations also apply if you replace

x with , v with and a with
Example1: The angular speed of a helicopter blade increases from 1 rad/s to 64
rad/s in 3 seconds with constant angular acceleration. What angle has the blade
turned through in this time? What is the angular acceleration?
Solution:
The average angular acceleration is given by:

=

t
=
64rad/s -1rad/s
3s
= 21rad/s

To get the angular displacement, use

=
o
t +
1
2
t
2
= 98rad ;15revolutions.
Example2: On a bicycle, the gears next to the petal are a radius

r
1
, and on the
back wheel, they are a radius

r
2
. The wheel is a radius

r
w
Relate the linear speed

v of the bicycle to the angular speed at which you pedal.
Solution:
A bike is built so that the front gears go at the same angular speed as the petals,
while the back gears go at the same angular speed as the wheel when you are
pedaling. (If you stop pedaling, the gears disengage from the wheel.) The chain
connects the front gears to the back gears, so the chain must have the same linear
velocity at both the front and the back gears. Call this linear velocity

v
chai n
then
we have

v
chai n
=
petal
r
1
For the front gear, and

v
chai n
=
wheel
r
2
Combining the two means that

petal
r
1
=
wheel
r
2
now we need to get the speed
of the bike. The linear speed of the bike is related to the angular speed of the
wheels by:

v =
wheel
r
w
Thus

v =
petal
r
w
r
1
r
2
Changing the gears on the bike changes the ratio

r
1
r
2
changing to a smaller
gear in the front, or a larger one in back, (i.e. decreasing

r
1
r
2
) makes it easier
to petal. The reason is for a fxed angular speed

petal
it makes

v smaller. The
lower

v, the less work youre doing.
Example3: Linear momentum and impulse
A ceiling fan is rotating at 0.90 rev/s. When turned off, it slows uniformly to a
stop in 2.2 min. (a) How many revolutions does the fan make in this time? (b)
Using the result from part (a), fnd the number of revolutions the fan must make
for its speed to decrease from 0.90 rev/s to 0.45 rev/s.
Solution
The ceiling fan rotates about its axis, slowing down with constant angular acce-
leration before coming to rest.
Use the kinematic equations for rotation to fnd the number of revolutions through
which the fan rotates during the specifed intervals. Because the fan slows down
at a constant rate of acceleration, it takes exactly half the time for it to slow from
0.90 rev/s to 0.45 rev/s as it does to come to a complete stop.
(a)

=
1
2
+
o
( )
t =
1
2
0 + 0.90rev/s
( )
2.2min 60sec/ min = 59rev

(b)

=
1
2
+
o
( )
t =
1
2
0.45+ 0.90rev/s
( )
1.1min 60sec/ min = 45rev
Rotational Dynamics
The description of rotational motion is anlogous to the description of linear motion as we
have seen it in the previous section. The analogy can be extended to dynamics of rotation.

Displacement (x) Angular accelaration ()
Speeed (v) Angular velocity ()
Acceleration (a) Angular acceleration ()
Force (F) Torque ( )
Mass (m) Moment of Inertia (I )
Momentum (p) Angular Momentum (L)

Moment of Inertia
Moment of inertia (I) is the rotational analogue of mass. The greater the mo-
ment of inertia of a body the greater is its resistance to a change in its angular
velocity. The value of the moment of inertia I of a body about a particular axis
of rotation depends not only upon the bodys mass but also upon how the mass
is distributed about the axis.
Torque
You might have noticed that its hard to open a door if you push close to the hin-
ges. The farther you are from the hinges, the easier it is. i.e. it requires more force
to give the door the same angular speed if youre pushing near the hinges than if
youre at the other end. Similarly, if youre using a wrench, it takes less force to
loosen the bolt if youre pushing the wrench farther away from the bolt.
F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude. Which Force produces a better turning effect? F1 or
F2?
Therefore we need to introduce something beyond force, to understand rotation
fully and to take into account the effect of different radii.
The idea behind a torque is that applying forces can cause rotation. In other words,
just like applying a force causes linear acceleration, applying a torque causes an
angular acceleration. To defne torque, consider applying a force a distance r from
the center of rotation. The magnitude of torque is then

= F
T
r

F
T
is the component of the force perpendicular to the radius (also referred to as
tangential force). The reason we need to only include the tangential component
of the force is fairly obvious. Torque is a vector and has direction. You need to
be aware that the direction of a torque is taken care by assigning a positive or
negative sign to it. Just like for linear motion the sign of the velocity meant the
direction of the motion, for rotation, the sign of the torque indicates the direction
of rotation. By convention, we choose a counter-clockwise rotation to be positive
torque, and clockwise rotation to be negative torque.
Notice that the torque depends on the tangential force. Thus the torque is com-
pletely unrelated to the centripetal force. The centripetal force is what keeps the
object moving in a circle. The torque is related to whether the angular speed is
increasing or decreasing. Another thing to notice about torque is that the larger
the radius, the larger the torque.
Angular Momentum Angular Momentum
A particle of mass

m and velocity v has linear momentum

p = mv . The particle
may also have angular momentum

L with respect to a given point in space. If r
is the vector from the point to the particle, then

r
L =
r
r
r
p
The angular momentum is always a vector perpendicular to the plane defned
by the vectors

r
r and

r
p (or

r
v ). For example, if the particle (or a planet) is in a
circular orbit, its angular momentum with respect to the centre of the circle is
perpendicular to the plane of the orbit and in the direction given by the vector
cross product right-hand rule, as shown below.
Figure10:The angular momentum L of a particle traveling in a circular orbit.
Since in the case of a circular orbit,

r is perpendicular to

p (or

v ), the magnitude
of

L is simply

L = rp = mvr
The signifcance of angular momentum arises from its derivative with respect
to time,

d
r
L
dt
=
d
dt
r
r
r
p
( )
= m
d
dt
r
r
r
v
( )
,
where

r
p has been replaced by

m
r
v and the constant

m has been factored out.
Using the product rule of differential calculus,

d
dt
r
r
r
v
( )
=
d
r
r
dt

r
v +
r
r
d
r
v
dt
In the frst term on the right-hand side,

d
r
r dt is simply the velocity

r
v , leaving

r
v
r
v . Since the cross product of any vector with itself is always zero, that term
drops out, leaving

d
dt
r
r
r
v
( )
=
r
r
d
r
v
dt
Here,

d
r
v dt is the acceleration

r
a of the particle. Thus, if both sides of the above
equation are multiplied by

m, the left-hand side becomes

d
r
L dt and the right-
hand side may be written

r
r m
r
a . Since, according to Newtons second law

m
r
a
,is equal to

r
F , the net force acting on the particle, the result is

d
r
L
dt
=
r
r
r
F
The above equation means that any change in the angular momentum of a particle
must be produced by a force that is not acting along the same direction as

r
r .
One particularly important application is the solar system. Each planet is held in
its orbit by its gravitational attraction to the Sun, a force that acts along the vector
from the Sun to the planet. Thus the force of gravity cannot change the angular
momentum of any planet with respect to the Sun. Therefore, each planet has
constant angular momentum with respect to the Sun. This conclusion is correct
even though the real orbits of the planets are not circles but ellipses.
The quantity

r
r
r
F is called the torque

r
. Torque may be thought of as a kind
of twisting force, the kind needed to tighten a bolt or to set a body into rotation.
Using this defnition, the above equation may be rewritten

r
=
r
r
r
F =
d
r
L
dt
This equation means that if there is no torque acting on a particle, its angular
momentum is constant, or conserved.
Suppose, however, that some agent applies a force Fa to the particle resulting in a
torque equal to

r
r
r
F
a
. According to Newtons third law, the particle must apply
a force

r
F
a
to the agent. Thus there is a torque equal to

r
r
r
F
a
acting on the
agent. The torque on the particle causes its angular momentum to change at a rate
given by

dL dt =
r
r
r
F
a
However, the angular momentum

r
L
a
of the agent
is changing at the rate

dL
a
dt =
r
r
r
F
a
Therefore,

dL
a
dt + dL dt = 0,
meaning that the total angular momentum of particle plus agent is constant, or
conserved.
This principle may be generalized to include all interactions between bodies of
any kind, acting by way of forces of any kind. Total angular momentum is always
conserved. The law of conservation of angular momentum is one of the most
important principles in all of physics.
Example4: MomentofInertiaofaRodofUniformMassDensity,PartI
Consider a thin uniform rod of length and mass . In this problem, we will cal-
culate the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the rod that passes
through the center of mass of the rod. A sketch of the rod, volume element, and
axis is shown in below.
Solution
Choose Cartesian coordinates, with the origin at the center of mass of the rod,
which is midway between the endpoints since the rod is uniform. Choose the

x axis to lie along the length of the rod, with the positive

x -direction to the
right, as in the fgure.
Identify an infnitesimal mass element

dm = dx , located at a displacement

x
from the center of the rod, where the mass per unit length

= m L is a constant,
as we have assumed the rod to be uniform. When the rod rotates about an axis per-
pendicular to the rod that passes through the center of mass of the rod, the element
traces out a circle of radius

r
= x We add together the contributions from each

infnitesimal element as we go from

x = L 2 to

x = L 2. The integral is then

I
cm
= r
( )
body
2
dm = x
2
( )
dx =
x
3
3
L 2
L 2
L 2
L 2
=
m
L
L 2
( )
3
3
m
L
L 2
( )
3
3
=
1
12
mL
2
By using a constant mass per unit length along the rod, we need not consider
variations in the mass density in any direction other than the

x - axis. We also
assume that the width is the rod is negligible. (Technically we should treat the rod
as a rectangle in the

x y plane if the axis is along the

z axis. The calculation
of the moment of inertia under this assumption would be more complicated.)
Solve the following problems
Task 2.1. Uniformly accelerated Engine
An engine requires 5s to go from its idling speed of 600 rev/min.to 1200 rev/min
(a) What is its angular acceleration? (b) How many revolutions does it make in
this period?
Answer:

(a) 12.6rad/s (b) 75.2rev.
Task 2.2. Acceleration of a body rolling down an inclined plane:
The radius of gyration of a body about a particular axis is the distance from that
axis to a point at which the bodys entire mass may be considered to be concen-
trated. Thus the moment of inertia of a body of mass M and radius of gyration
K is

I = Mk
2
(a) The radius of gyration of a hollow sphere of radius R and
mass M is

k = 2R 3 . What is its moment of inertia? (b) Find the radius of
gyration of a solid sphere.
Answer:

(a) I =
2
3
MR
2
(b) k =
2
5
R
of AVU
1. When milk is churned, what force separated the cream from the milk?
2. Two identical balls move down an inclined plane. Ball A slides down without
friction and ball B rolls down. Do the balls reach the bottom together? If not
which is frst? Why?
3. A solid cylinder and a hollow cylinder of the same mass and diameter, both
initially at rest, roll down the same inclined plane without slipping.
a. Which reaches the bottom frst?
b. How do their kinetic energies compare at the bottom?
4. An aluminium cylinder of radius R, and a lead cylinder of radius R and lead
cylinder of radius 2R all roll down the same inclined plane. In what order
will they reach the bottom.
Task 2.4 Thought Experiment
In a science fction story the Earth rotational velocity was changed by launching a
projectile along a tangent to the equator. What should the difference be between
the velocities of light and the projectile in order to stop the Earth rotating around
its axis? The Earths radius is

M
E
= 6370 km, and its mass is

M
E
= 6 10
24
kg
. The earths moment of inertia relative to its rotational axis, with its density no
uniformity properly incorporated, is quite accurately given by the formula

I =
M
E
R
E
2
3

Compare kinetic energies of the projectile and the Earths rotation. The projectile
mass can be taken be

m = 10
6
kg .
Formative Evaluation 2
1) A 45-kg, 5.0-m-long uniform ladder rests against a frictionless wall and makes
an angle of 60with a frictionless foor. Can an 80-kg person stand safely on
the ladder, 2.0 m from the top,without causing the ladder to slip if a second
person exerts a horizontal force of 500 N toward the wall at a point 3.5 m from
the top of the ladder? (Note: All distances are measured along the ladder.)
2) The combination of an applied force and a frictional force produces a constant
torque of 36.0 N m on a wheel rotating about a fxed axis. The applied force
acts for 6.00 s, during which time the angular speed of the wheel increases
from 0 to 10.0 rad/s. The applied force is then removed, and the wheel comes
to rest in 60.0 s. Find (a) the moment of inertia of the wheel, (b) the magnitude
of the frictional torque, and (c) the total number of revolutions of the wheel.
(38.)
3) A 48.0-kg diver stands at the end of a 3.00-m-long diving board. What torque
does the weight of the diver produce about an axis perpendicular to and in
the plane of the diving board through its midpoint?
4) Two children sit on a seesaw such that a 400-N child is 2.00 m from the sup-
port (the fulcrum). Where should a second child of weight 475 N sit in order
to balance the system if the support is at the center of the plank?
5) The 400-N child of Problem 4 decides that she would like to seesaw alone. To
do so, she moves the board such that its weight is no longer directly over the
fulcrum. She fnds that she will be balanced when she is 1.5 m to the left of
the fulcrum and the center of the plank is 0.50 m to the right of the fulcrum.
What is the weight of the plank?
6) A dormitory door 2.50 m high and 1.00 m wide weighs 250 N, and its center
of gravity is at its geometric center. The door is supported by hinges 0.250
m from top and bottom, each hinge carrying half the weight. Determine the
horizontal component of the forces exerted by each hinge on the door.
7) A racing car has a mass of 1600 kg. The distance between the front and rear
axles is 3 m. If the center of gravity of the car is 2 m from the rear axle, what
is the normal force on each tire?
8) An iron trapdoor 1.25 m wide and 2.00 m long weighs 360 N and is hinged
along the short dimension. Its center of gravity is at its geometric center.
What force applied at right angles to the door is required to lift it (a) when
it is horizontal and (b) when it has been opened so that it makes an angle of
30 with the horizontal? (Assume that the force is applied at the edge of the
door opposite the hinges.)
9) A 4.50-kg ball on the end of a chain is whirled in a horizontal circle by an
athlete. If the distance of the ball from the axis of rotation is 2.50 m, fnd
the moment of inertia of the ball, assuming it can be considered as a point
object.
10) What torque must the track star exert on the ball of Problem 9 to give it
angular acceleration of 2.00 rad/s2?
11) (a) Find the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of mass 1.50 kg and radius
30.0 cm about an axis through its center. (b) Repeat for a solid sphere of the
same mass and radius about an axis through its center.
12) The cylinder of Problem 11(a) is rotating at an angular velocity of 2.00 rev/s.
What torque is required to stop it in 15.0 s?
13) An automobile tire, considered as a solid disk, has a radius of 35.0 cm and
a mass of 6.00 kg. Find its rotational kinetic energy when rotating about an
axis through its center at an angular velocity of 2.00 rev/s.
14) An automobile engine part is in the shape of a thin rod of mass 100 g and
length 5.00 cm. When the rod is rotating at an angular velocity of 3.00 rad/s,
fnd its kinetic energy when (a) rotating about an axis through a point 2.50
cm from each end. (b) Repeat when it is rotating about an axis through one
end.
15) If the system of masses shown in the fg below is set into rotation about the x axis
with an angular velocity of 2.5 rad/s, (a) fnd the kinetic energy of the system. (b)
Repeat the calculation for the system in rotation at the same speed about the y axis.
TeachingtheContentinSecondarySchool2
Rotational motion extends the concepts of linear motion to curvilinear motion. It
is not likely that introductory physics students will recognize that the motion of
projectiles is the result of an object having linear motion in two directions at the
same time. The concept of the independence of thes velocities gives students
considerale diffculty. Demonstrations, laboratory exercises, and solutions of
problems will help in teaching this concept.
Circular motion is a concept that frequently causes confusion for nonscientists.
Centripetal motion must be analyzed from nonaccelerated point of view. Only
then can Newtons second law be applied While teaching circular motion, it is
advisable to stress the necessity fo fnding the physical source of the force that
causes thae acceleration toward the center of the circle.
African Virtual University 55
Activity 3: Gravitation
and references.
Use Newtons law of universal gravitation to solve problems
Describe gravitational feld and potential
Distinguish between inertial and gravitational mass
Calculate escape velocity of satellites.
According to Newtons postulated law of universal gravitation, two bodies of
mass
m
1
and
m
2
separated44 by a distance

r . exert equal attractive forces on
each other of magnitude given by

F = Gm
1
m
2
r
2
. ,

G is a universal constant,
applying to all bodies, whatever their constitution. Gravitation is by far the weakest
known force in nature and due to its long reach and universality, however, gravity
shapes the structure and evolution of stars, galaxies, and the entire universe. The
trajectories of bodies in the solar system are determined by the laws of gravity,
while on Earth all bodies have a weight, or downward force of gravity, propor-
tional to their mass, which the Earths mass exerts on them.
The observation of Galileo that all bodies in free-fall accelerate equally implies
that the gravitational force causing acceleration bears a constant relation to the
inertial mass.
In astronomy and space exploration, artifcial satellites are sent in to space. The
velocity that is suffcient for a satellite to escape from a gravitational centre of
attraction without undergoing any further acceleration is referred to as escape
velocity. . Escape velocity decreases with altitude and is equal to the square root
about 1.414 times the velocity necessary to maintain a circular orbit at the same
altitude. At the surface of the
Reading 6: Universal Gravitation
Complete reference: Newtons law of Universal Gravitation
Accessed on the 23
rd
April 2007
Abstract:
In this article, historical account on the discovery of the law, the center of mass
and effects of extended objects are discussed. Determination of G is described
in three ways...
Rationale:
This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem supplement
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important..
Reading 7: Orbital Motion
Complete reference: Orbital motion in an inverse-square law force feld
Accessed on the 23
rd
April 2007
Abstract:
This document has a good summary of the theories developed to account for the
motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar system, Keplers
law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary motion and motion
of satellites are discussed...
Rationale:
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Reading 8: Gravitational Phenomena:
Complete reference: Orbital motion in an inverse-square law force feld
Accessed on the 23
rd
April 2007
Abstract:
This document has a good summary of the theories developed to account for the
motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar system, Keplers
law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary motion and motion
of satellites are discussed...
Rationale:
and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Resource #3;Hyper Physics
URL: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vesc.html
Date Consulted:-April 2007
Description:- This Java applet helps you to do a series of virtual experiments, .
you can determine the escape and orbital velocities by varying different para-
meters of the projectile.
List of Relevant Useful Links (for the Learning Activity)
Useful Link #3 Universal Gravitation from Wikipedia
Title: Universal Gravitation
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_universal_gravitation
Screen Capture:
Description: This is a good collectionn of theory and historical account of the
newtons low of universal gravitation.
Rationale: The site provides a detailed description and solved problems on the
topic.
Date Consulted: - April 2007
Useful Link #4 From The physics Class room
Title: Universal Gravitation and Planetary Motion
URL: http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/circles/u6l3c.html
Screen Capture:
Description: Lecture notes and discussion forum from the physics class room.
Rationale: Reach in discussion topics and interactive problems.
Useful Link #5 Wikipedia
Title: Gravitational Field
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_feld
Screen Capture:
Description: Gravitational feld, its meaning in classical mechanics, and its
meaning in general relativity are described in this section.
Rationale: Useful for the one who needs to compare many references.
Useful Link #6 Geostationary Orbit
Title: Geostationary orbit
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary
Screen Capture:
Description: This link Explains geostationary orbit. The animated graphics
helps visualization.
Rationale: This supplements the theory given in Activity three...
Detailed Description of the Activity (Main Theoretical Ele-
ments)
Introduction
In Newotons day the force of gravity was thought to be a local force that infuence
objects near the earth. Prior to Newton, scientists believed that physics on the
earth diffeered from physics in the heavens. The motions of falling apples, for
example, was never connected to the motion of an orbiting planet. Newtons
realization that gravity is universal had important implications. He recognized
that the laws of motion must also be universal in character. i.e. the same laws of
motion govern both celestial and terrestrial motion.
This was indeed the beginning of understanding nature that paved the way to
present day space exploration and a number of artifcial satellites that orbit the
earth.
The Law of Universal Gravitation
Sir Isaac Newton thought that celestral and terrestrial motions might obey the
same law i.e the centripetal acceleration of the moon in its orbit and the downward
acceleration

g
( )
of a falling apple must have the same origin. His arguments and
calculations are as follows:
Assuming the nooms orbit to be circular and knowing the distance of the
moon from the earth (

R = 3.84 10
8
m) and its period of rev (

T = 27.3d )
Newton calculated

a
as follows

a
=
v
2
R
=
(2R / T )
2
R
=
4
2
R
T
2
= 2.72 10
3
m/ s
2
g = 9.8m/s
2
a
g
=
1
3606
From the knowledge:

radius of earth (R
E
)
radius of moon's orbit (R)
=
1
60
, he observed

a
1
g
=
R
E
R
2
gR
E
2
= a
R
2
The acceleration of a body and hence the force is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the center of the earth
This led Newton to postulate gravitational force obays the inverse square law. He
went a step further and argued

Fg : m
1
m
2
by 2
nd
and 3
nd
law
Any two particles of matter anywhere in the universe attract each other with a
force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them; the direction of the force
being along the line joining them

Note:
i. Gravitational forces between two particles are an acriton- and- reaction
pair
ii. G is universal.
iii. Force of gravitational interaction between two bodies is independent of
the presence of other bodies or the properties of the intervening space.
i.e. no gravity screen
iv. The gravitational force obeys the law of superposition i.e. the force due
to a collection of particles is the vector sum of the foresees exerted by the
particles individually.
v. The gravitation force of a sphere of radius R is

Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy of a mass

m at a distance

r from another
mass

M is defned as the amount of work done in bringing the mass

m from
infnity to a distance

r

dW = Fdr
S = Fdr
=
GmM
r
2
dr = GmM
r 1
r
2
dr
= GmM
1
r
r
=
GmM
r
Thus PE =
GmM
r

Note (i) We can use the above equation to compute the amount of work done
against the gravitational force of mass

M to move the mass

m from position

r
1
to r
2

W = U = GmM
1
r
1
1
r
2
If r
1
< r
2
W will be positive
r
1
> r
2
W will be negative

Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential

V, at point the gravitational feld a mass is defned
as the work done in moving a unit mass from infnity to that point. Thus is

m = 1

V =
GM
r
Example 1: Gravitational feld due to a non-homogenous spherical mass
A non-homogenous spher of radius R has the following density variation:

p =
0
for :r<
R
3
=

0
2
for :
R
3
< r
3R
4
=

0
8
for :
R
3
< r R
What is the gravitational feld due to the sphere at

r =
R
4
,
R
2
,
5R
6
and 2R
Solution

g =
Gm
r
2
=
GpV
r
2
g R 4
( )
=
G
0
4
3
R 4
( )
3
R 4
( )
2
=

3
G
0
R
g
R
2
= G
0
4
3
R 3
( )
3
+
1
2
R 2
( )
3
R 2
( )
3
(R / 2)
2
=
= G
0
4 3
( )
R
1
2
1 3
( )
2
+
1
2
1 2
( )
3
4
= G
0
R
4
3
2 1 27 +1 8
= 0.432G
0
R
g
5R
6
= G
0
4
3
R 3
( )
3
+
1
2
3R 4
( )
3
R 3
( )
3
+
1
8
5R 6
( )
3
3R 4
( )
3
(R / 2)
2
= 0.48G
0
R
Similarly g(2R)=G
0
4 3
( )
R 1 3
( )
3
+
1
2
3 4
( )
3
1 3
( )
3
+
1
8
1 3 4
( )
3
4
= 0.1G
0
R

Example 2: Gravitational Potential
Prove that there is no gravitational feld due to mass of a spherical shell inside .
Solution:
Let p= be any point inside a spherical sheet
= mass per unit area of the shell
Consider two cones, with theis apices at P, intercepting small areas S and S
on the shell as shown draw a plane x-y through , 1 the diareter through p

S = r
2
. S ' = r '
2
.
S cos = r
2
S cos = r '
2
w
mass of S = r
2
/ cos
mass of S = r '
2
/ cos
intensity at p due to S=
r
2
cosr
2
G =
G
cos
and
intensity at P due to S' =
r'
2
cosr '
2
G =
G
cos
These two intensities at P being equal and opposite, their resultant is zero. Similar
is the care for all other, pairs of comes on opposite sides of xy in to which the
shell may be divided so that the resultant intensity or feld at p due to the whole
shell zero.
Example 3: Gravitational torque
For a body of mass M , and pivoted at o as shown, show that the gravitational
torque acts on it as if the entire mass is concentrated at the center of mass.
Solution
Let us consider the body as being made up of a large number of point masses
and one such mass be mi

Thus we fnd that the torque gets as if the entire mass M of the body were conc
at its cm.
Motion of Planets and Satellites
All planets move in elliptical orbits, the sun being at one focus. We may for sim-
plicity consider the orbits to be very nearly circular, with the sun at the centre.
The centripetal force required for the circular attractions. Even though both the
bodies revolve around their common centre of mass, if one is of much greater
mass than the other, the heavier body may be considered to be at rest. This may
be applied also to the case of the earth and the artifcial satellites.
If M is the mass of the heavy body at the centre of the circle of radius r , and
m the mass of the lighter body,

GM
r
2
= m
2
r or
GM
r
2
=
2
r
GM
r
2
=
2
=
4
2
T
2

From this, we may deduce the period of the planet or the satellite.

T
2
=
4
2
GM
r
2

Keplers Law
Johannes Kepler culminated his 30 years of research with the publication of the
last of his three laws of planetary motion. The three laws of planetary motion
can be stated as:
1. The path of a planet is an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one of its foci.
2. The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal intervals of time.
3. The square of the planets period is proportional to the cube of the semi
major axis of its orbit.
Orbital Velocity
If a satellite is to keep moving in a circular orbit round the earth, at a distance
h from the surface of the earth,

GM
(R
E
+ h)
2
=
mv
0
2
(R
E
+ h)
where R
E
is the radius of the earth
v
0
=
GM
(R
E
+ h)
If h < R
E
, v
0
= gR
E
The amount of work required to move a body from the earth to infnity is given
by the formula

G
E
Mm
R
E
This is about

0.6 10
7
joules/kg. If we could provide a projectile more than
this energy at the surface of the earth, it would escape from the earth. The criti-
cal initial speed

v
0
called escape velocity is given by the formula

1
2
mv
0
2
=
GM
E m
R
E
v
0
=
2GM
E
R
E
= 11.2 km/second
Synchronous Satellite (Geostationary Orbit)
Most communication satellites, and many meteorological satellites, circle the
Earth in orbits above the equator. From the surface of the Earth, they appear to
stand still due to the fact that they orbit the Earth once every 23 hours and 56
minutes. That also is the amount of time required for the Earth to complete one
rotation with respect to distant stars.
The amount of time required for one revolution around the Earth, is determined
by the satellites distance from the Earths center. In order to revolve once every
23 hr and 56 minutes, these geostationary satellites must be at the correct dis-
tance from the Earth. One method of calculating this magic distance is to use
Newtons law of gravity and his second law of motion. i.e. putting period to be
24hours and using the equation

T = 2r
(R
E
+ h)
3
GM
= 86400seconds.
h may be calculated. It is about 22,700 miles above the earths surface.
Example 4: Acceleration due to gravity high above the surface of Earth.
Find the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude of 1000km.
Solution
The gravitational force of the earth on an object of mass

m at a distance

r
from the earths center is equal to the objects weight

mg at that distance,

GM
E
m
r
2
= mg g =
GM
E
r
2
At the earth's surface, wher g=g
o
= 9.8m/s
2
and r = r
E
= 6400km
From these fromulas for g and g
o
we find that, at the distance r from
the earth's center, the acceleration of gravity is
g=
r
E
r
2
g
o
using r=r
E
+h=6400km + 1000km =7400km
Thus g=7.3m/s
2

of AVU
1. How would the weight of a body vary while being carried to the centre
of the earth?
2. What is the meaning of weightlessness as applied to objects in space? Is
there any place where weight is zero? If so why?
1) Why do a gram of weight and a quintal of weight, released simultaneously
from the top of a tower reach the ground at the same time?
2) If you jump off a chair, you accelerate towards the earth. Does the earth also
accelerate towards you? Explain.
3) What would happen if the force of gravity were to disappear suddnely?
4) The earth is constantly acted upon by the gravitational attraction of the sun.
Then why does not the earth fall into the earth.?
5) A body is taken from Nairobi (Kenya) (very close to the equator of the earth)
to South Africa. What will be the effect on its weight? On its mass?
6) In uninformed discussions of satellites, one hears questions such as what
keeps the satellite moving in its orbit? and What keeps the satellite up?
How do you answer these questions?
7) Are your answers to the above question applicable to the moon? Explain.
8) A 4 N force acts on a 3 kg object moving at 8 m/s for 10 sec. What is the
objects change in momentum? What impulse acts on the object? What is the
objects fnal speed?
9) A rocket has a mass of

2.0 10
4
kg of which half is fuel. Assume that the
fuel is consumed at a constant rate as the rocket is fred and that there is a
constant thrust of

5.0 10
6
Newtons. Neglecting air resistance and any
possible variation of

g , compute
a) the initial acceleration and
b) the acceleration just as the last fuel is used
10) The mass of the moon is

1
81
and its radius is about a quarter of the earths

radius. What is the accelreation due to gravity on the surface of the moon?
11) Find the accelration the moon towards the earth assuming that the moon is
situated at a distance which is 60 times earths raduius being measured from
the centre of the earth.
12) If

R
1
and

R
2
be the radii of two planets and

1
and

2
their mean densities
show that values of acceleration due to gravity on the two planets will be in
the ratio

R
1
1
: R
2
2
Optional Formative Evaluation 3
Gravitation in schools is introduced to show how Newton used the work of Kepler
and Brahe in combination with his own work (the equation of centripetal accele-
ration) to identify the law governing the gravitational force and its universality.
Physical laws are more meaningful to students if their origins are understood.
Derivation of the law of universal gravitation is simple enough for beginners
to follow. Therefore leading students to students to an understanding of what
quantities can be determined from the application of the law of gravitation to the
motion of planets.
A feld is diffcult concept for school students, but attempts to help students by
introducing analogy with electric and magnetic felds will help.
Activity 4: Relativity of Motion
and references.
Describe the relativity of motion
Use Galilean transformation to solve problems in gravitation
The origin of a coordinate system is needed to describe the velocity of a body just
like its position. Ordinarily this origin is taken to be fxed in some other body,
but this second body may be in motion relative to a third and so on. Thus when
we speak of the the velocity of an object we usually mean its velocity relative
to the earth. But the earth itself is in motion relative to the Sun and the Sun is in
motion relative to some other star, and so on.
For observers moving in two different reference frames, no mechanical force
can distinguish which observer is at rest and which observer is moving Einstein
extended this to all physical phenomena.
The laws of physics are the same in all relatively inertial reference frames; In
particular, Einstein extended the Galilean principle of relativity to electromagne-
tism and optics which describe the theory of light
Galilean transformation also called Newtonian Transformation, is a set of equa-
tions in classical physics that relate the space and time coordinates of two systems
moving at a constant velocity relative to each other. Adequate to describe only
low-speed phenomena, Galilean transformations formally express the ideas that
space and time are absolute; that length, time, and mass are independent of the
relative motion of the observer.
List of Required Readings (for the Learning Activity).
Copyright free readings should also be given in electronic form (to be provided
on a CD with the module)
Reading 9: Velocity and Relative Motion .
Complete reference : From html version of Simple Nature, by Benjamin
Crowell.
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch02/
Abstract :
Rationale:
theories of collision and momentum conservation.
Detailed Description of the Activity (Main Theoretical Ele-
ments)
Introduction
For observers moving in two different reference frames, no mechanical force
can distinguish which observer is at rest and which observer is moving. Einstein
extended this to all physical phenomena.
The laws of physics are the same in all relatively inertialreference frames, In par-
ticular, Einstein extended the Galilean principle ofrelativity to electromagnetism
and optics which describethe theory of light
Relative Velocity
Have you observed out of the window of a fast moving bus or train? The
countryside appears to fash past the window. Although you already know that
the countryside is not moving, it appears to be moving relative to you inside a
moving bus or train.
Consider two cars A and B travelling with a velocity of

v
A
and

v
B
as shown
in fgure 4.1a. Car A overtakes B. The dirver in A sees car B apparently moving
towards west. However, a passanger in the back of car B sees car A is catching
up with her car
Figure 4.1a
The velocity of A relative to B is the velocity which A appears to have to an ob-
server who is moving with B. Thus the velocityh of A relative to B is effectively
the resultant velocity of A when when B is made stationary and the same retarding
force is applied to A.
Suppose a long train of fatcars is moving to the east along a straight level track, and
that the two automobiles are moving on the fat car as shown in fgure 4.1b.
A B
VBF
VFE
Figure 4.1b
In fgure 4.1,

V
FE
represents the velocityof the fatcar relative to the earth E and

V
AF
the velocity of the automobile A relative to the fat car. The Velocity of the
fat car relative to earth is the sum of the velocities of automobile A relative to
the fatcar and that of the fatcar relative to the earth. Thus:
o

r
V
AE
=
r
V
AF
+
r
V
FE
This same equation holds for the relative velocity of automobile B relative to the
fatcar and that of the fatcar relative to the earth
o

r
V
BE
=
r
V
BF
+
r
V
FE
Notice that the speed of automobile A relative to the earth is the sum of the two
velocities where as the speed of automobile B relative to the earth is the difference
of the two velocities.
Example 1: An automobile driver A, travelling relative to the earth at

75km/hr
on a straight level road is ahead of a motor cyclist. B travelling in the same di-
rection at

90 km/hr . What is the velocity of B relative to A.
Solution
We h a v e

r
V
AE
= 75km/hr,
r
V
BE
= 90 km/hr a n d we wi s h t o
find

r
V
BA
. From the above rule of combination of velocities we have:

r
V
BA
=
r
V
BE
+
r
V
EA
But
r
V
EA
=
r
V
AE
r
V
BA
=
r
V
BE

r
V
AE
= 90 km/hr 75km/hr=15 km/hr
o
The cyclist is overtaking the driver at 15km/hr.
Example 2: Verify that the relative posions of the two do not matter when it
come to the relative velocity. I.e.the relative velocity would not be altered if B
were ahead of A.
Solution
The relative positions of the bodies do not matter. The velocity of B relative to
A remains 15km/hr but now pulling ahead of A at 15km/hr.
Example 3: Objects 1 and 2 move with constant speeds in the same direction
taken to be positive where object 2 is in the lead. With

V
r el
= V
1
V
2
, the two
objects will collide if
1.

V
r el
> 0
2.

V
r el
< 0
3.

V
r el
= 0

Solution
For object 1 to overtake object 2 and thus collide,

V
1
must be greater than

V
2
this gives

V
r el
> 0 . Since both

V
1
and

V
2
are positive.
Example 4.4: A passenger on a train traveling 40 mph north. If he walks 5 mph toward
the front of the train, what is your speed relative to the ground? A) <40 mph B) 40 mph
C) >40 mph
Solution: The given situation that both velocities are in the same direction.
Therefore the velocity of the passenger and the velocity of the train add with
respect to the ground. Hence the relative velocity of the passenger relative to the
ground is 45 mph
Galilean Transformation
Relativty concerns the laws of physics as they are formulated by observers in
relative motion. For example, consider two observers: a man standing on the
ground and looking into a passing train and a passanger standing in a train. The
passanger in the train dropped a coin. The man standing outside sees the con
fall along a parabolic trajectory. The passannger sees it drop straight down as
he continues along at constant velocity. The outsider and the passanger observe
different positions and diffenrnet positon and different velocities, but both trajec-
tories hold relative to each individulal reference frame, as predicted by Newtons
law of motion. Even thouth the observers disagree on the actulal trajectory, the
do agree that Newtons laws are applicable.
Experiments show that if Newtonian mechanics is valid in one reference frame,
it is valid in all other reference frames moving at constant velocity relative to the
frst. This is a principle of relativeity. The key requirement here is the absence fo
any signifcant acceleration of the reference system. A convenient interpretation
is no signifcant acceleration (including rotation) with respect to the fxedc stars
or with respect to distant galaxies. These constant velocity reference frames are
called inertial systems because Newtons frst law holds in these systems. In
modern terminology we say that Newtonian mechanics is invariant to the choice
of inertial system.
The invariance of Newtonian mechanics to the choice of inertial reference fram
is called Galilean relativity.
The term invariance means that observers in diffenetn inertial systems agree that
Newtonian mechanics adequately describes the observed motions. Newtonian
mechanics, then, is invariant to the choice of inertial reference frame. However,
observers in different inertial systems disagree on the actual positons and vselo-
cities in the observed trajectories.
Now consider two frames of reference the O-frame (label events according to
t,x,y,z) and the O-frame (label events according to t,x,y,z) moving at a constant
velocity V, with respect to each other at let the origins coincide at t= t = 0. O
and O frames are related as follows:
Here were following Newtons assumption of one universal time. We will refer
to equations relating quantities in primed and unprimed references as the Galilean
Transformations.
of AVU
1. Give an example of an object that is at rest in one reference frame while
in motion in another?
2. The path followed by a moving body may be straigh in one frame of
reference while being parabolic in the other. Give an example.
1) A package is dropped out of an airplane in level fight. If air resistance could
be neglected, how would the motion of the package look to the pilot? To an
observer on the ground?
2) If an artifcial earth satellite has a period of exactly one day, how does its
motion look to an observer on the rotating earth?
3) A passenger on a ship travelling due east with a speed of 18miles observes
that the stream of smoke from the ships funnels makes an angle of

20
o
with
the ships wake. The wind is blowing from south to north. Assume that the
smoke acquires a velocity (with respect to the earth) equal to the velocity of
the wind, as soon as it leaves the funnels. Find the velocity of the wind.
4) A river fows due north with a velocity of 2m/s. A man rows a boat across
the river, his velocity relative to the water being 3m/s due east .
a) What is his velocity relative to the earth?
b) If the rivere is 1000m wide, how far north of his starting point will he
lreach the opposite bank?
c) How long a time is required to cross the river
5)
a) In what diretion should the rowboat in the aboe problem be headed in
order to reach a point on the opposite bank directly east from the start?
b) What will be the velocity of the boat relative to the earth?
c) How long a time is required to cross the river?
This activity introduces the concepts of relativity of motion. Daily life experiances
like apparent motion of road side objects when students are in a moving van may
be cited as the case of relativtiy of motion. Why a bus moving in opposite direction
apeears faster than a bus taking over the vehicle in which we are moving is also
a good point to illustrate the relative velocity concept at school level.
XI. KeyConcepts
(Glossary)
1. Momentum: The momentum of a particle, a vector quantity, is the product
of the particles mass and velocity.

J
ur
= P
ur
2 P
ur
1

In terms of momentum, Newtons second law for a particle may be expressed as

r
F
=
d
r
p
dt
2. Impulse: When a constant force acts for a certain time interval, the impulse
of the force is the product of force and the time interval. The change of
momentum of a body or system equals the impulse of the net force acting on
it.

r
j =
r
F(t
2
t
1
)
=
r
Ft

if the net force varies with time, impulse is

r
J = F
ur
dt
t
1
t
2

The change in momentum of a body in any time interval equals the impulse
of the net force that acts on the body during that interval:
o

r
J =
r
P
2

r
P
1

The momentum of a body equals the impulse that accelerated it from rest
to its present speed.
3. InternalForce: An internal force is a force exerted by one part of a system
on another. An external force is a force exerted on a part of a system by
something outside the system. An isolated system is one with no external
forces.
4. TotalMomentum: The total momentum of a system of particles

A,

B ,

C ,

K is the vector sum of the momenta of the individual particles:
o

r
P =
r
P
A
+
r
P
B
+
r
P
C
+L = m
A
r
v
A
+ m
B
r
v
B
+ m
C
r
v
C
+L
5. Conservation of Momentum: In any system of two or more particles in
which the net force on each particle is due only to interactions with the other
particles of the system, the total momentum (vector sum of the momenta of
the particles) is constant or conserved.
6. ElasticCollision: A collision in which total kinetic energy is conserved is
called an elastic collision. When kinetic energy is not conserved, the collision
is inelastic.
7. CenterofMass: The center of mass of a system is the average position of
the mass of the system. Its motion under given forces are the same as though
all the mass were concentrated at the center of mass.
8. RigidBody: A rigid body is a body with a defnite and unchanging shape and
size.
9. AngularDisplacement( ):-is the measure of change in angular position
of a rotating object.
10.AngularDisplacement( ): is the time rate of change of angular displace-
ment:

=
d
dt
11. AngularAcceleration
( )
: is the time rate of change of angular velocity

=
d
dt
12.MomentofInertia

I
( )
: Is the rotational analog of mass. the greater the mo-
ment of inertia of a body, the greater its resistance to a change in its angular
velocity. Moment of inertia of a body about a particular axis of rotation depends
not only upon the bodys mass but also upon how the mass is distributed about
the axis.
13.Torque
( )
: The torque exerted by a force on a body is a measure of its ef-
fectiveness in turning the body about a certain pivot point. The moment arm
of a force F about a pivot O is the perpendicular distance L between the line
of action of the force and O. The torque
( )
excreted by the force about O
has the magnitude:

= Force
( )
Moment arm
( )
14.KineticEnergyofRotation.: The kinetic energy of a body of moment of
inertia

I and angular velocity (in rad/s) is

KE =
1
2
I
2
15.RotationalWork(W):- The work done by a constant torque
( )
that acts
on a bodyh while it experiences the angular displacement in rad is

W =
16.AngularMomentum: is the equivalent of linear momentum in rotational
motion. The angular momentum

L
( )
of a rotating body has the magnitude

L = moment of inertia
( )
angular velocity
( )
= I
17.Law of UniversalGravitation: States every body in the universe attracts
every other body with a force that is directly proportional to each of their mas-
ses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Graviataional Force = F = G
m
1
m
2
r
2
G = 6.67 10
11
Nm
2
/kg
2
18.GravitationalField: The Newtonian theory of gravity is based on assumed
force acting between all pairs of bodies--i.e., an action at a distance. When a
mass moves, the force acting on other masses has been considered to adjust
instantaneously to the new location of the displaced mass. The feld theory of
electrical and magnetic phenomena, has met empirical success so that most
modern gravitational theories are constructed as feld theories. In a feld theory
the gravitational force between bodies is formed by a two-step process: (1)
One body produces a gravitational feld that permeates all surrounding space
but has weaker strength farther from its source. A second body in that space
is then acted upon by this feld and experiences a force. (2) The Newtonian
force of reaction is then viewed as the response of the frst body to the gravi-
tational feld produced by the second body, there being at all points in space
a superposition of gravitational felds due to all the bodies in it...
19.GravitationalPotentialEnergy: - Potential energy arises in systems with
parts that exert forces on each other of a magnitude dependent on the conf-
guration, or relative position, of the parts. In the case of an Earth-ball system,
the force of gravity between the two depends only on the distance separa-
ting them. The work done in separating them farther, or in raising the ball,
transfers additional energy to the system, where it is stored as gravitational
potential energy. Gravitational potential energy near the Earths surface may
be computed by multiplying the weight of an object by its distance above the
reference point.
20.GravitationalfeldStrength: - is the gravitational force acting on a unit mass
at a given point in space. It is just acceleration due to gravity and is given
by:

g =
GM
Earth
r
2

21.GalileanTransformation: also called Newtonian Transformations, set of
equations in classical physics that relate the space and time coordinates of
two systems moving at a constant velocity relative to each other. Adequate
to describe only low-speed phenomena, Galilean transformations formally
express the ideas that space and time are absolute; that length, time, and mass
are independent of the relative motion of the observer; and that the speed of
light depends upon the relative motion of the observer
XII.CompulsoryReadings
Completereference:ConservationofMomentum
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch03/ch03.
html#Section3.1
Abstract:
Rationale:
theories of collision and momentum conservation. The examples drawn from
nature, like comet, are interesting and educational reading materials.
Reading 2: Momentum Conservation and Transfer.
Completereference:MomentumConservationandTransfer
URL : http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m15.pdf
Abstract:
In this article, momentum is defned for a single and a system of particles.
Using Newtons laws and the defnition of momentum it is shown that the
momentum of an isolated system of particles remain unchanged with time (i.e.
conserved)
Rationale:
This article gives another way of looking at the theories of collision and mo-
mentum conservation. Further the sample tests and exercises given at the end
provide good opportunity to use the theories and principles exercised from
different perspectives.
Reading 3: Angular Acceleration.
Completereference:AngularAccelerationincircularmotion
Abstract:In this article, the two agents of change, angular and linear acce-
leration, producing angular acceleration and constant torque case rotational
kinematics are treated.
Rationale: This article covers the contents of this activity. It gives another way
of looking at the theories of collision and momentum conservation. Further the
sample tests and exercises given at the end provide good opportunity to use the
theories and principles exercised from different perspectives.
Completereference:ConservationofMomentum
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch04/ch04.html
Abstract:This is part of a book by Benjamin Crowell. It is freely available
at www.lightandmatter.com the part given here the relevant section for this
activity.
Rationale:This section has a well illustrated content on angular momentum.
Theories of angular momentum in two dimensions and in three dimensions is
well developed. Further there is a good deal of theory on rigid body rotation.
Reading 5: Torque and Angular Momentum.
Completereference:TorqueandAngularMomentumincircularmotion
Abstract:In this article, the two agents of change, angular and linear acce-
leration, producing angular acceleration and constant torque case rotational
kinematics are treated.
Rationale:This article covers topics on torque and angular momentum, sys-
tem of particles, conservation of angular momentum, nonplanar rigid bodies.
The problem supplement and the model exam at the end makes this site popu-
lar.
Reading 6: Universal Gravitation:.
Completereference:NewtonslawofUniversalGravitation
Accessed on the 23
rd
April 2007
Abstract:In this article, historical account on the discovery of the law, the
center of mass and effects of extended objects are discussed. Determination of
G is described in three ways..
Rationale:This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem
supplement and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important..
Reading 7: Orbital Motion:.
Completereference:Orbitalmotioninaninverse-squarelawforcefeld
Accessed on the 23
rd
April 2007
Abstract:This document has a good summary of the theories developed to
account for the motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar
systerm, Keplers law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of plane-
tary motion and motion of satellites are discussed..
Rationale:This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem
supplement and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Reading 8: Gravitational Phenomena:.
Complete reference : Orbital motion in an inverse-square law force feld
Accessed on the 23
rd
April 2007
Abstract:This document has a good summary of the theories developed to
account for the motion of planets, Copernicus proposal of heliocentric solar
system, Keplers law of planetary motion, Newtons interpretation of planetary
motion and motion of satellites are discussed..
Rationale: This article covers topics in line with this module and the problem
supplement and the model exam at the end makes this reading very important.
Reading 9: Velocity and Relative Motion .
Completereference:FromhtmlversionofSimpleNature,byBenjamin
Crowell.
URL : http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch02/
Abstract:This is part of a book by Benjamin Crowell. It is freely available
at www.lightandmatter.com the part given here the relevant section for this
activity.
Rationale: This section has a well illustrated content on linear momentum.
The motion of center of mass is treated at the end. It provides another way of
looking at the theories of collision and momentum conservation.
XIII. CompulsryResources
Resource #1
Title:MotionofCentreofMass
URL: http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/Dynamics/CM/CMApplet.html
Screen Capture:
Description:Applet shows the motion of the centre of mass of a dumbbell sha-
ped object. The red and blue dots represent two masses and they are connected
by a mass less rod. The dumbbells projection velocity can be varied by using
the velocity and angle sliders. The mass ratio slider allows shifting of centre of
mass. Here m1 is the mass of the blue object and m2 is the mass of red object.
Check boxes for path1 and path2 can be used to display or turn off the paths of
the two masses.
Rationale: This applet depicts the motion of centre of mass of two balls (shown in
red and blue colour). The applets speed and angle of projection can be varied...
Resource #2 Rotating Stool
URL:- http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/rstoo.html#sm
CompleteReference:- Good animation graphics and applet to visualize the
dependence of moment of inertia on distribution of matter on an object..
Rationale: Strengthens what is already discussed in Activity 2.
Resource #3;Hyper Physics
URL: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vesc.html
Date Consulted:-April 2007
Description: This Java applet helps you to do a series of virtual experiments, .
you can determine the escape and orbital velocities by varying different para-
meters of the projectile.
XIV. UsefulLinks
Useful Link #1 Classical Mechanics
Title:ClassicalMechanics
URL: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/lectures/
Screen Capture:
Description: Advanced description of the topics discussed in mechanics I and
II of the AVU Physics module.
Rationale: This site has comprehensive coverage of most of physics, in the
mechanics courses. The learner can consult chapters 7, 8 and 9 of the book.
The PDF version is also available.
Useful Link #2 Tutorial on torque from university of Guelph
Title:Torque
URL: http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/torque/index.html
Screen Capture:
Description: The site gives detailed description of torque
Rationale: Here you will fnd a good collection of tutorial problems on tor-
que...
Useful Link #3 Universal Gravitation from Wikipedia
Title:UniversalGravitation
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_universal_gravitation
Screen Capture:
Description: This is a good collectionn of theory and historical account of the
newtons low of universal gravitation.
Rationale: The site provides a detailed description and solved problems on
the topic. .
Useful Link #4 From The physics Class room
Title:UniversalGravitationandPlanetaryMotion
URL: http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/circles/u6l3c.html
Screen Capture:
Description: Lecture notes and discussion forum from the physics class room.
Rationale: Reach in discussion topics and interactive problems.
Useful Link #5 Wikipedia
Title:GravitationalField
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_feld
Screen Capture:
Description: Gravitational feld, its meaning in classical mechanics, and its
meaning in general relativity are described in this section.
Rationale: Useful for the one who needs to compare many references.
Useful Link #6 Geostationary Orbit
Title:Geostationaryorbit
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary
Screen Capture:
Description: This link Explains geostationary orbit. The animated graphics
helps visualization.
Rationale: This supplements the theory given in Activity three...
XV. SynthesisOftheModule
Mechanics II
In this module (Mechanics II) dynamics of a system of particles, rotational
motion and Gravitation are dealt in detail. The module began with the study of
impulse of a force and its relation with momentum. The impulse force relation
is generalized for a system of particle.
In the second activity is the kinematic and dynamic descriptions of rotational
motion were done using new quantities. . It was shown that the equations of
motion that describe linear motion possess a rotational counterpart.
The third activity is on Gravitation Up to now we have described various forces
from an entirely empirical point of view. To gain a more unifed understanding of
such forces and to achieve greater predictive power, we shall now examine two of
the four fundamental forces which are ultimately responsible for all other forces.
Thus in the third activity we discussed the gravitational force which accounts for
the interaction between all astronomical bodies, the motion of the planets and
the moon, the trajectories of space vehicles, the occurrence of the tides, and the
weights of objects.
The fourth activity has illustrated that motion is a relative concept. Quantities of
motion like position, displacement and velocity are not universal and yet Newtons
laws of motion hold in all inertial reference frames. The quantities of motion in
different frames of reference are related by Galilean Transformation.
XVI. SummativeEvaluation
Short answer questions
1. A moving object strikes a stationary one. After the collision, must they move
in the same direction?
2. A 5-kg rife and a 7-kg rife fre identical bullets with the same muzzle velo-
cities. Compare the recoil memento and recoil velocities of the two rifes.
3. An empty dump truck is coasting with its engine off along a level road when
rain starts to fall
a. Neglecting friction, what (if anything) happens to the velocity of the
truck?
b. The rain stops and the collected water leaks out. What (if anything) hap-
pens to the velocity of the truck now?
4. Can a body move in a curved path without being accelerated?
5. In what ways, if any, do acceleration due to gravity (g) and the universal
gravitational constant (G) change with increasing height above the earths
surface?
6. Two identical balls move down an inclined plane. Ball A slides down without
friction and ball B rolls down. Do the balls reach the bottom together? If not,
which is frst? Why?
7. An aluminium cylinder of radius R, a lead cylinder of radius 2R all roll down
the same inclined plane. In what order will they reach the bottom?
8. A square and a rectangle of the same mass are cut from a sheet of metal.
Which has the greater moment of inertia about a perpendicular axis through
its centre?
9. A solid cylinder and a hollow cylinder of the same mass and diameter, both
initially at rest, roll down the same inclined plane without slipping.
a. Which reaches the bottom frst?
b. How do their kinetic energies at the bottom compare?
10. Strings are wound around a shaft and a sheave of equal mass and a load is
attached to the end of each string (the loads have equalled mass). Which
of the two loads will descend with a greater acceleration and which of the
rotating objects, the shaft or the sheave, has a greater angular acceleration?

Multiple Choice questions
1. The total angular momentum of a system of particles
a. Changes when a net external force acts upon the system
b. Remains constant under all circumstances
c. Changes when a net external torque acts upon the system
d. May or may not change under the infuence of a net external torque, de-
pending upon the direction of the torque
2. Which of the following is not a unit of impulse?
a. N.S
b. lb.s
c. lb.h
d. N.m
3. If the momentum of a body increases by 20%, the percentage increase in its
K.E. is equal to:
a. 44
b. 88
c. 66
d. 20
4. The face of a golf club exerts an average force of 4000 N while it is in contact
with the golf ball. If the impulse is 80 N.S., the time of contact is
a. 2s
b. 0.02 s
c. 0.2 s
d. 0.002 s
5. An irom sphere whose mass is 50 kg has the same diameter as an aluminium
sphere whose mass is 10.5 kg. The spheres are simultaneously dropped from
a cliff. When they are 10 m from the ground, they have identical
a. Acceleration
b. Momenta
c. Potential energies
d. Kinetic energies
6. If a car is to gain momentum it must
a. Lose inertia
b. Accelerate
c. Move rapidly
d. Lose weight
7. If the collision in problem 16 is completely elastic, the speed of the 20 kg
cart after collision will be approximately
a. 3m/s
b. 6m/s
c. 4m/s
d. 2m/s
8. A bomb dropped from an aeroplane explodes in air. Its total
a. Momentum decreases
b. Momentum increases
c. Kinetic energy increases
d. Kinetic energy decreases
9. When an aeroplane loops the loop, the pilot does not fall down because
a. Weight of the pilot provides the necessary centripetal force
b. Weight of the pilot provides the necessary force against gravity
c. Weight of the pilot provides the necessary centrifugal force
d. All the above.
10. A thin circular ring of mass M and radius r is rotating about its axis with a
constant angular velocity . Two objects each of mass m , are attached gently
to the opposite ends of a diameter of the ring. The wheel now rotates with an
angular velocity.
a.

M( M + m)
b.

M( M = 2m)( M + 2m)
c.

M( M + 2m)
d.

( M + 2m) M
11. The co-effcient of restitution is
a. A number which varies from -1 to 1
b. A negative number which varies from 0 to -1
c. A positive number which varies from 0 to 1
d. A positive number
12. If the polar ice caps melts, the length of the day will
a. Increase
b. Decrease
c. Remain the same
d. Insuffcient information to predict
13. In order to cause a moving body to pursue a circular path, it is necessary to
apply
a. Gravitational force
b. Inertial farce
c. Centrifugal force
d. Centripetal force
14. The centripetal acceleration of a particle in circular motion is
a. Equal to its tangential acceleration
b. Less than its tangential acceleration
c. More than its tangential acceleration
d. May be more or less than its tangential acceleration
15. If the frequency is 2 rev/s, the angular speed is
a.

4 rad / s
b.

8 rad / s
c. 2 rad/s
d. 4 rad/s
16. In order to cause something to move in a circular path, we must supply
a. Inertial force
b. Centripetal force
c. Centrifugal force
d. Gravitational force
17. The acceleration of a body undergoing uniform circular motion is constant
in
a. Magnitude only
b. Both magnitude and direction
c. Direction only
d. Neither magnitude nor direction
18. The centripetal acceleration of a 2 kg swinging in a 0.5 m radius with a linear
speed of 4 m/s is
a.

!0m/ s
2
b.

40m/ s
2
c.

4m/ s
2
d.

20m/ s
2
19. In an equilibrium problem, the axis about which torques are computed
a. Must pass through the centre of gravity of the body
b. Must pass through one end of the body
c. Must intersect the line of action of at least one force acting on the body
d. May be located anywhere
20. Which of the following objects has the largest moment of inertia assuming
they all have the same mass and the radius?
a. A solid disk
b. A solid sphere
c. A circular hoop
d. A solid cylinder
21. The linear speed of an object swinging in a circular path of radius 2m with a
frequency of 5 rev/s is
a. 4 m/s
b. 20 m/s
c. 3 m/s
d. 10 m/s
22. A point on the edge of a rotating disc of radius 8 m moves through an angle
of 2 rad. The length of the are described by the point is
a. 0.25 m
b. 4 m
c. 16 m
d. 4 rad
23. A quantity not directly involved in the rotational motion body is
a. Mass
b. Torque
c. Moment of inertia
d. Angular velocity
24. A full circle contains
a. /2 radians
b. /4 radians
c. radians
d. 2 radians
25. Wheel with angular momentum of 10 kg

m
2
/ s has a moment of inertia equal
to 6.5 kg

m
2
. Its angular speed is
a. 5 rad/s
b. 20 rad/s
c. 40 rad/s
d. 0.02 rad/s
26. An object swings the end of a string in uniform circular motion. Which of
the following changes would not case an increased centripetal force?
a. A longer string a
b. A greater linear speed
c. A shorter string
d. A larger mass
27. In a rigid body undergoing uniform circular motion, a particle that is a distance
R from the axis of rotation
a. Has a angular velocity inversely proportional to R
b. Has an angular velocity proportional to R
c. Has a linear speed proportional to R
d. Has a linear speed inversely proportional R
28. The unit for the moment of inertia in the M.K.S. system is
a.

kg m
3
b.

kg m
2
c.

kg /m
2
d.

kg m
29. An object is travelling in a circle with a constant speed. Its acceleration is
constant in
a. Magnitude only
b. Both magnitude and direction
c. Direction only
d. Neither magnitude nor direction
30. Which of the following formulae for the moment of inertia (M.I.) of some
simple cases is not correct?
a. The M.I. of a uniform rod of mnss M and length

l about an axis through
its centre and perpendicular to its length is

I = Ml
2
/ 12
b. The M.I. of a uniform circular disc of Mass M and radius r about per-
pendicular to the plane of the disc is

I = 1/ 2Mr
2
c. The M.I. in case of (b) about the axis through one end and perpendicular
to its length is

I = Ml
2
/ 4
d. The M.I. of a sphere of mass M and radius r about any diameter is

I = 2 / 5Mr
2
31. For a rigid body rotating about an axis, if I ane be its moment of inertia
and the angular speed respectively, its angular momentum L about the given
axis is given by
a.

L = I
b.

L = / I
c.

L = I /
d.

L = I
32. If the mass of a rotating body moves towards the axis of rotation, in moment
of intertia
a. Remains the same
b. Decreases
c. Increases
d. May increases of decreases
33. When milk is churned, the cream separates from it due to
a. Gravitational forces
b. Centrifugal forces
c. Cohesive forces
d. Frictional forces
34. When a ball on a string moves in a vertical circle, the tension on the string is
greatest when
a. String is made longer
b. Speed of the all is increased
c. The ball is at the highest point
d. Speed of the ball is decreased
35. One revolution is equivalent to
a. 57.3 radians
b. 6.28 radians
c. 57.3 degrees
d. 6.28 degrees
36. When a car is travelling at constant speed around a circular track, a quantity
that is constant but not zero is its
a. Acceleration
b. Angular velocity
c. Velocity
d. Angular acceleration
37. When the angular position of the swing is

45
0
, its linear velocity is
a. Negative and increasing
b. Positive and decreasing
c. Positive and increasing
d. Negative and decreasing
38. A solid lead cylinder of radius R, a hollow lead cylinder of radius R/2, and a
solid lead sphere of radius plane at the same time. The one that reaches the
bottom frst is the
a. Solid aluminium cylinder
b. Hollow lead cylinder
c. Solid lead cylinder
d. Solid lead sphere
39. Due to redistribution of a mass of rotating body if its moment of inertia in-
creases then its angular velocity
a. Decreases
b. Remains unchanged
c. Increases
d. None of the above
40. If I and E are the moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy of body
respectively then its angular momentum L is calculated form
a.

2E
2
2I
b.

2E
2
I
c.

2EI
d.

2EI
41. Physical quantity not directly involved in rotatory motion is
a. Moment of inertia
b. Mass
c. Angular velocity
d. Torque
42. Vibration of a body is given by the differential equation

d
2
x
dt
2
+
2
x = 0
The amplitude and time period are
a. 6cm and 10
b. 8cm and 10
c. 10cm and 0.2 sec
d. 14cm and 2 sec.
43. The acceleration of a body rolling down an inclined plane is given by
a.

gsin
1+
k
2
R
2
b.

gsin
1+
R
2
K
2
c.

gsin
R
2
+
k
2
R
2
d.

gsin
K
2
+
k
2
R
2
44. If the earth stopped rotating, the weight of objects at the equator would
a. Be greater
b. Be the same as before
c. Be less
d. Vary with latitude
45. The man in exercise 3 could have reached the same destination if he had
headed in. What is single direction from the start?
a.

45
0
east of north
b.

22
0
east of north
c.

50
0
east of north
d.

63
0
east of north
46. A satellite travels in a circular orbit at a speed of

20,000 km/hr to stay at
a constant altitude. To escape from the earth, the speed would have to be
increased to
a.

28,000 km/hr
b.

21,000km/hr
c.

40,000km/hr
d.

64,000 km/hr
47. The gravitational force with which the earth attracts the moon
a. Is less than the force with which the moon attracts the earth
b. Is the same as the force with which the moon attracts the earth
c. Is more than the force with which the moon attracts the earth
d. Varies with the phase of the moon
48. If the earth stopped rotating, the weight of objects at either pole would
a. Be less
b. Be greater
c. Be the same as before
d. Vary with latitude
49. The gravitational constant is

6.67 10
11
N.m
2
/ kg
2
. What is the gravi-
tational force between two 4 kg balls separated by

0.2m?
a.

1.3310
8
N
b.

2.67 10
8
N
c.

5.34 10
7
N
d.

6.67 10
8
N
50. The value of the universal gravitation constant G in the M.K.S. system is
a.

6.67 10
11
N.m
2
kg
2
b.

2.81 20
11
N.m
2
kg
2
c.

5.68 10
11
N.m
2
kg
2
d.

3.00 10
1
1
N.m
2
kg
2
51. The gravitational force between bodies does not depend upon
a. The product of their n asses
b. Their separation
c. The sum of their masses
d. The constant of gravitation
52. When a space ship is twice of earth radial distant from the center of the earth,
its gravitational acceleration is
a.

9.8m/ sec
2
b.

19.6m/ sec
2
c.

4.0m/ sec
2
d.

2.45m/ sec
2
53. A satellite is orbiting close to the earth. In order to make it move to infnity,
its orbital speed is to be increased by
a.

20%
b.

10%
c.

41.4%
d.

100%
54. A 100kg astronaut releases 1g of gas from a special pistol at a speed of 50m/s.
As a result, he moves in the opposite direction at
a.

50 cm/ s
b.

5 cm/ s
c.

0.5 cm/ s
d.

0.05 cm/ s
55. Kepler modifed the Copernican system by showing that the planetary orbits
are
a. Ellipses
b. Circles
c. Combinations of circles forming looped orbits
d. The same distance apart from one another.
56. If there were no atmosphere, the duration of the day on the earth will:
a. Decrease
b. Remain the same
c. Increase
d. Depend upon the weather.
57. If the earth had another satellite at twice the distance of the moon , its period
would be
a.

28days2
2 / 3
b.

28days 2
2 / 3
c.

(28days)
3/ 2
d.

(240,000)
3/ 2
58. An imaginary planet has twice the mass and twice the radius of the earth. The
acceleration of gravity at its surface is
a.

4.9m/ sec
2
b.

19.5m/ sec
2
c.

9.8m/ sec
2
d.

39.2m/ sec
2
59. If the earth were three times farther from the sun than it is now, the gravita-
tional force exerted it is now, the gravitational force exerted on it by the sun
would be
a. Nine times as large as it is now
b. Three times as large as it is now
c. One third as large as it is now
d. One ninth as large as it is now
60. An artifcial satellite is moving in a circular orbit about the earth. If R is the
radius of the earth and h the height of the satellite above the surface of the
earth, then which of the following formulae is used for the orbital velocity of
the satellite?
a.

v = R
g
(R h)
1/ 2
b.

v = R
g
(R h)
c.

v = R
g
(R h)
2
d.

29.6 m/ s
61. A weight is suspended from the middle of a rope whose ends are at the same
level. In order for the rope to be perfectly horizontal, the forces applied to
the ends of the rope
a. Must be greater than the weight
b. Must be equal to the weight
c. Might be so great as to break the rope
d. Must be infnite
62. A hliow metal sphere is flled with water and is hung by a long thread. It
fows through a small hole in the bottom, how will the period of oscillation
be affected?
a. The period will go on decreasing till the sphere is empty
b. The period will go on increasing till the sphere is empty
c. The period will remain unchanged throughout
d. The period will frst increases, then it will decrease will it is empty and
the period will be fnally same as when the sphere was full of water
63. What must the volume of a bottom be if it is to support total mass of 10000 kg
at a point where the density of air is

1.2kg / m
3
? (The total mass includes that
of the bottom and the helium with which it is flled, as well as the payload)
a.

833 m
3
b.

1200 m
3
c.

85 m
3
d.

29.6 m/ s
64. The minimum velocity of projection to go out from the earths gravitational
feld is known as
a. Projectile velocity
b. Escape velocity
c. Angular velocity
d. Terminal velocity
65. The square of a satellite time of revolution round the earth is
a. Directly proportional to the cube of radius of orbit
b. Inversely proportional to the cube of radius or orbit
c. Directly proportional to radius of orbit
d. Inversely proportional to radius of orbit
66. The earth retains its atmosphere because
a. The earth is sphere
b. The mean speed of molecules
c. The earth has population
d. The escape velocity is more than the mean speed of molecules
67. To fnd time the astronaut in the earth satellite should use:
a. A spendulum clock
b. A watch having spring to keep it going
c. Either of these two
d. None of the above
68. To hit the target, one has to point his rife
a. Higher than the target
b. Lower than the target
c. In the same direction
d. Vertically upwards
69. The ratio of orbital velocity and escape velocity is
a.

1: 2
b.

2 :1
c.

2 :1
d.

4 :1
70. Acceleration due to gravity is not affected by which one of the following?
a. Latitude
b. Altitude
c. Longitude
d. Depth
71. A rocket can go vertically upwards earths atmosphere because
a. Of gravitational pull of the sum
b. It is highter than air
c. It has a fan which displaces more air per unit time than the weight of the
rocket
d. Of the force exerted on the rocket by gases ejected by it
72. The escape velocity for a body projected vertically upwards from the surface
of the earth is 11.2 km/s. If the body is projected in a direction making an
angle of

45
0
with the vertical. The escape velocity will be:
a.

11.2 2km/ s
b.

11.2
1
2
km/ s
c.

11.2 2km/ s
d.

11.2 km/ s
XVII. References
This is a compiled list of the references, like standard reference books for the
discipline, used in the development of the module. (Not for the learner do not
have to be copyright free) Atleast 10 in APA style
Finn, C. B.P (1993). Thermal Physics, Chapman & Hall, London.
Raymond A. Serway (1992). PHYSICS for Scientists & Engineers. Updated
Version.
Kleppner & Kolenkow An introduction to mechanics.
Douglas D. C. Giancoli Physics for scientists and engineers. Vol. 2. Prentice
Hall.
Sears, Zemansky and Young, College Physics, 5th Ed.
Sena L.A. (1988) Collection of Questions and Problems in physics, Mir Publishers
Moscow.
Nelkon & Parker (1995) Advanced Level Physics, 7th Ed, CBS Publishers & Di-
tributer, 11, Daryaganji New Delhi (110002) India. ISBN 81-239-0400-2.
Godman A and Payne E.M.F, (1981) Longman Dictionary of Scientifc Usage.
Second impression, ISBN 0 582 52587 X, Commonwealth Printing press
Ltd, Hong Kong.
Beiser A., (2004) Applied Physics, 4th ed., Tata McGraw-Hill edition, New
Delhi, India
Halliday D., Resnick R., and Walker J. (1997), Fundamentals of Physics, 5th ed.,
John Wiley and Sons
Xviii. MainAuthorOfTheModule
About the author of this module
Dr. Tilahun Tesfaye
Department of physics, Addis Ababa University,
Ethiopia, East Africa.
P.O.Box 80359 (personal), 1176 (Institutional)
E-mail: dttilahun@yahoo.com; ttesfaye@phys.aau.edu.et.
Tel: +251-91-1418364
Fax : +251-11-1223931
Breif Biography
The author is currently the chairperson of the department of physics at Addis Ababa
University. He has authored school text books that are in use all over Ethiopian
schools. His teaching experience spans from junior secondary school physics
to postgraduate courses at the university level. He also worked as a curriculum
development expert and Educational materials development panel head at Addis
Ababa Education Bureau.
You are always welcome to communicate with the author regarding any question,
opinion, suggestions, etc this module.
XIX. FileStructure
Name of the module (WORD) file :
Mechanics II.doc
Name of all other files (WORD, PDF, PPT, etc.) for the module.
Compulsory readings MechanicsII.pdf
Abstract: the eight compulsory readings proposed for this module are compi-
led in one PDF fle. .
Read_me.txt
Abstract: In this fle you will fnd information about the other fles
included in the Readings Directory (Folder).

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Mechanics II

Prepared by Tilahun Tesfaye

.dt is called the impulse of the force

.dt = p Impulse momentum Theorem.

= is the sum of all external forces acting on all particles.

= is the sum of all internal forces acting on all the particles

the total momentum of the system the last equation be-

Alr|car v|rlua| ur|vers|ly 29

= (2 0.02) + (0.01 (2)) = 0.02N sec

= x We add together the contributions from each

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